1
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Koh JS, Baek SM, Kim B, Cho KJ, Kim HY. Comparison of water and terrestrial jumping in natural and robotic insects. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2024; 1537:13-31. [PMID: 38896114 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.15172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Jumping requires high actuation power for achieving high speed in a short time. Especially, organisms and robots at the insect scale jump in order to overcome size limits on the speed of locomotion. As small jumpers suffer from intrinsically small power output, efficient jumpers have devised various ingenuous schemes to amplify their power release. Furthermore, semi-aquatic jumpers have adopted specialized techniques to fully exploit the reaction from water. We review jumping mechanisms of natural and robotic insects that jump on the ground and the surface of water, and compare the performance depending on their scale. We find a general trend that jumping creatures maximize jumping speed by unique mechanisms that manage acceleration, force, and takeoff duration under the constraints mainly associated with their size, shape, and substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Je-Sung Koh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Min Baek
- Soft Robotics Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Advanced Machines and Design, Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Baekgyeom Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu-Jin Cho
- Soft Robotics Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Advanced Machines and Design, Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho-Young Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Advanced Machines and Design, Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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2
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Liu M, Fan X, Liu J, Li P, Zheng Y, Chen Z, Huang J. Mechanical and thermal performances of multistage flexible thermal control device: A case study in cylindrical heat pipe. Heliyon 2024; 10:e32169. [PMID: 38912478 PMCID: PMC11190597 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Multistage flexible heat pipe has been proved to offer advantage of large flexibility as well as low thermal resistance. However, the effects of structural parameters on the comprehensive performances of such multistage thermal control device are still unclear, particularly regarding their mechanical properties. In this paper, effect of structural parameters on the mechanical and thermal performances of bionic multistage heat pipe is investigated. Results show that the stiffness of polymer tubes primarily determines the flexibility of multistage flexible heat pipe. The heat pipe with 4 metal tubes in the adiabatic section can achieve relative large flexibility and maximum bending angle as well as the short start-up time. The bending rigidity of multistage flexible heat pipe increases from 97624.4 N mm2 to 293152.9 N mm2 when its metal ratio raises from 0 % to 80 %. The thermal resistance of multistage flexible heat pipe decreases more than 32.9 % compared to the traditional flexible heat pipe. When the flexible heat pipe remains straight, the heat transfer performance will slightly increase as the shell metal ratio increases. However, its thermal resistance will also have an additional increase when bending. These results can serve as a guide for the design of the multistage flexible thermal control device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Liu
- Affiliation: School of Automation, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China
| | - Xiaoping Fan
- Affiliation: School of Automation, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China
| | - Junguang Liu
- Affiliation: School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Ping Li
- Affiliation: School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yongfeng Zheng
- Affiliation: School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Zhipeng Chen
- Affiliation: School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Jiale Huang
- Affiliation: School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
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3
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Oliveira FGL, Smith AA. A morphofunctional study of the jumping apparatus in globular springtails. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2024; 79:101333. [PMID: 38340520 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2024.101333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Springtails are notable for their jumping apparatus and latch-mediated spring mechanism. The challenge, in the light of the tiny size and rapid movement of these organisms, has been to understand the morphological intricacies of this spring system. This study takes an approach that integrates SEM, MicroCT, cLSM and high-speed video recordings to understand the composition and functionality of the jumping apparatus in Megalothorax minimus (Neelipleona), Dicyrtomina ornata and Dicyrtomina minuta (Symphypleona). We focus on reconstructing, describing, and understanding the functioning of structures such as basal plates, musculature and furca. The dimensions of the jumping apparatus in Dicyrtomina and Megalothorax differ significantly from those in elongated springtails. A hypothesis of functional coherence between taxa, based on muscle connections and basal plates, is postulated. High-speed video recordings provide information on: 1) furca release timing and function during jumping and self-righting; 2) performance properties of manubrium, dens and mucro in interaction with the ground and in take-off; 3) possible pre-release furca moves. The study underscores the need for further research employing a variety of visualization methods in order to explore additional aspects such as retinaculum unlatching and furca flexion/extension muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fábio G L Oliveira
- Institut für Biowissenschaften, Universität Rostock, Allgemeine und Spezielle Zoologie, Universitätsplatz 2, 18055, Rostock, Germany.
| | - Adrian A Smith
- Research and Collections, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC, USA; Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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4
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Richter A, Economo EP. The feeding apparatus of ants: an overview of structure and function. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220556. [PMID: 37839452 PMCID: PMC10577024 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Ants are a dominant family of eusocial terrestrial insects with a diversity of ecologies, lifestyles and morphologies. Ant diet preferences range from strict carnivory through omnivory to almost complete herbivory in species feeding on seeds or exudates of plant-sucking insects. While several studies have investigated ant feeding performance on different substrates, comparatively little is known about the functional morphology of the structures involved in food uptake or their diversification across the ants. To take stock of our current knowledge, we give an overview of how adult ants ingest food, followed by a morphological description of the mouthparts, preoral space and cephalic sucking pump. The mandibles are the most prominent mouthparts and have received considerable attention in the literature, so we focus on the maxillae and labium here. We present current hypotheses for the movement patterns of these parts and discuss morphological differences among ants that may be related to their ecological diversity. Finally, we give short comparisons of the ant condition with some other insects and vertebrates, as well as an outlook summarizing gaps in our knowledge. This sets the stage for future studies elucidating the connections between ant feeding mechanisms and mouthpart evolution. This article is part of the theme issue 'Food processing and nutritional assimilation in animals'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Richter
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1, Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
| | - Evan P Economo
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1, Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
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5
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Klunk CL, Argenta MA, Rosumek FB, Schmelzle S, van de Kamp T, Hammel JU, Pie MR, Heethoff M. Simulated biomechanical performance of morphologically disparate ant mandibles under bite loading. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16833. [PMID: 37803099 PMCID: PMC10558566 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-43944-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Insects evolved various modifications to their mouthparts, allowing for a broad exploration of feeding modes. In ants, workers perform non-reproductive tasks like excavation, food processing, and juvenile care, relying heavily on their mandibles. Given the importance of biting for ant workers and the significant mandible morphological diversity across species, it is essential to understand how mandible shape influences its mechanical responses to bite loading. We employed Finite Element Analysis to simulate biting scenarios on mandible volumetric models from 25 ant species classified in different feeding habits. We hypothesize that mandibles of predatory ants, especially trap-jaw ants, would perform better than mandibles of omnivorous species due to their necessity to subdue living prey. We defined simulations to allow only variation in mandible morphology between specimens. Our results demonstrated interspecific differences in mandible mechanical responses to biting loading. However, we found no evident differences in biting performance between the predatory and the remaining ants, and trap-jaw mandibles did not show lower stress levels than other mandibles under bite loading. These results suggest that ant feeding habit is not a robust predictor of mandible biting performance, a possible consequence of mandibles being employed as versatile tools to perform several tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Klunk
- Graduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Centro Politécnico, Av. Cel. Francisco H. dos Santos, 100 - Jardim das Américas, Curitiba, PR, 81531-980, Brazil.
- Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstr. 3, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - M A Argenta
- Department of Civil Construction, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - F B Rosumek
- Department of Ecology and Zoology, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - S Schmelzle
- Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstr. 3, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - T van de Kamp
- Institute for Photon Science and Synchrotron Radiation (IPS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Laboratory for Applications of Synchrotron Radiation (LAS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - J U Hammel
- Institute of Materials Physics, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht, Germany
| | - M R Pie
- Biology Department, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, UK
| | - M Heethoff
- Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstr. 3, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany.
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6
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Avidan C, Day SW, Holzman R. A power amplification dyad in seahorses. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230520. [PMID: 37040808 PMCID: PMC10089724 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Throughout evolution, organisms repeatedly developed elastic elements to power explosive body motions, overcoming ubiquitous limits on the power capacity of fast-contracting muscles. Seahorses evolved such a latch-mediated spring-actuated (LaMSA) mechanism; however, it is unclear how this mechanism powers the two complementary functions necessary for feeding: rapidly swinging the head towards the prey, and sucking water into the mouth to entrain it. Here, we combine flow visualization and hydrodynamic modelling to estimate the net power required for accelerating the suction feeding flows in 13 fish species. We show that the mass-specific power of suction feeding in seahorses is approximately three times higher than the maximum recorded from any vertebrate muscle, resulting in suction flows that are approximately eight times faster than similar-sized fishes. Using material testing, we reveal that the rapid contraction of the sternohyoideus tendons can release approximately 72% of the power needed to accelerate the water into the mouth. We conclude that the LaMSA system in seahorses is powered by two elastic elements, the sternohyoideus and epaxial tendons. These elements jointly actuate the coordinated acceleration of the head and the fluid in front of the mouth. These findings extend the known function, capacity and design of LaMSA systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corrine Avidan
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- The Inter-University Institute for Marine Sciences, POB 469, Eilat 88103, Israel
| | - Steven W Day
- Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
| | - Roi Holzman
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- The Inter-University Institute for Marine Sciences, POB 469, Eilat 88103, Israel
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7
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Harrison JS, Patek SN. Developing elastic mechanisms: ultrafast motion and cavitation emerge at the millimeter scale in juvenile snapping shrimp. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:287686. [PMID: 36854255 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023]
Abstract
Organisms such as jumping froghopper insects and punching mantis shrimp use spring-based propulsion to achieve fast motion. Studies of elastic mechanisms have primarily focused on fully developed and functional mechanisms in adult organisms. However, the ontogeny and development of these mechanisms can provide important insights into the lower size limits of spring-based propulsion, the ecological or behavioral relevance of ultrafast movement, and the scaling of ultrafast movement. Here, we examined the development of the spring-latch mechanism in the bigclaw snapping shrimp, Alpheus heterochaelis (Alpheidae). Adult snapping shrimp use an enlarged claw to produce high-speed strikes that generate cavitation bubbles. However, until now, it was unclear when the elastic mechanism emerges during development and whether juvenile snapping shrimp can generate cavitation at this size. We reared A. heterochaelis from eggs, through their larval and postlarval stages. Starting 1 month after hatching, the snapping shrimp snapping claw gradually developed a spring-actuated mechanism and began snapping. We used high-speed videography (300,000 frames s-1) to measure juvenile snaps. We discovered that juvenile snapping shrimp generate the highest recorded accelerations (5.8×105±3.3×105 m s-2) for repeated-use, underwater motion and are capable of producing cavitation at the millimeter scale. The angular velocity of snaps did not change as juveniles grew; however, juvenile snapping shrimp with larger claws produced faster linear speeds and generated larger, longer-lasting cavitation bubbles. These findings establish the development of the elastic mechanism and cavitation in snapping shrimp and provide insights into early life-history transitions in spring-actuated mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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8
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Longo SJ, St Pierre R, Bergbreiter S, Cox S, Schelling B, Patek SN. Geometric latches enable tuning of ultrafast, spring-propelled movements. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:286280. [PMID: 36606724 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The smallest, fastest, repeated-use movements are propelled by power-dense elastic mechanisms, yet the key to their energetic control may be found in the latch-like mechanisms that mediate transformation from elastic potential energy to kinetic energy. Here, we tested how geometric latches enable consistent or variable outputs in ultrafast, spring-propelled systems. We constructed a reduced-order mathematical model of a spring-propelled system that uses a torque reversal (over-center) geometric latch. The model was parameterized to match the scales and mechanisms of ultrafast systems, specifically snapping shrimp. We simulated geometric and energetic configurations that enabled or reduced variation of strike durations and dactyl rotations given variation of stored elastic energy and latch mediation. Then, we collected an experimental dataset of the energy storage mechanism and ultrafast snaps of live snapping shrimp (Alpheus heterochaelis) and compared our simulations with their configuration. We discovered that snapping shrimp deform the propodus exoskeleton prior to the strike, which may contribute to elastic energy storage. Regardless of the amount of variation in spring loading duration, strike durations were far less variable than spring loading durations. When we simulated this species' morphological configuration in our mathematical model, we found that the low variability of strike duration is consistent with their torque reversal geometry. Even so, our simulations indicate that torque reversal systems can achieve either variable or invariant outputs through small adjustments to geometry. Our combined experiments and mathematical simulations reveal the capacity of geometric latches to enable, reduce or enhance variation of ultrafast movements in biological and synthetic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Longo
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Ryan St Pierre
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Suzanne Cox
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | | | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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9
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Anderson PSL. Shifts in morphological covariation and evolutionary rates across multiple acquisitions of the trap-jaw mechanism in Strumigenys. Evolution 2022; 76:2076-2088. [PMID: 35848877 PMCID: PMC9545230 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A long-standing question in comparative biology is how the evolution of biomechanical systems influences morphological evolution. The need for functional fidelity implies that the evolution of such systems should be associated with tighter morphological covariation, which may promote or dampen rates of morphological evolution. I examine this question across multiple evolutionary origins of the trap-jaw mechanism in the genus Strumigenys. Trap-jaw ants have latch-mediated, spring-actuated systems that amplify the power output of their mandibles. I use Bayesian estimates of covariation and evolutionary rates to test the hypotheses that the evolution of this high-performance system is associated with tighter morphological covariation in the head and mandibles relative to nontrap-jaw forms and that this leads to shifts in rates of morphological evolution. Contrary to these hypotheses, there is no evidence of a large-scale shift to higher covariation in trap-jaw forms, while different traits show both increased and decreased evolutionary rates between forms. These patterns may be indicative of many-to-one mapping and/or mechanical sensitivity in the trap-jaw LaMSA system. Overall, it appears that the evolution of trap-jaw forms in Strumigenys did not require a correlated increase in morphological covariation, partly explaining the proclivity with which the system has evolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip S. L. Anderson
- Department of EvolutionEcology and Behavior, University of IllinoisUrbana Champaign, 515 Morrill Hall, 505 S Goodwin AveUrbanaIL61801
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10
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Wang Z, Zhan Y, Yang Y, Wu J. Hollow mandibles: Structural adaptation to high-speed and powerful strike in the trap-jaw ant Odontomachus monticola. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 141:104426. [PMID: 35907587 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2022.104426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The trap-jaw ant Odontomachus monticola manipulates its hollow mandibles to generate extremely high speed to impact various objects through a catapult mechanism, making the violent collision occur between the mandible and the impacted objects, which increases the risk of structural failure. However, how the ant balances the trade-off between the powerful clamping and impact resistance by using this hollow structure remains elusive. In this combined experimental and theoretical investigation, we revealed that the hollowness ratio of the mandible plays an essential role in counterbalancing the trade-off. Micro-CT and high-speed images suggested that the hollow mandibles facilitate a high angular acceleration to 108 rad/s2 for an enormous clamping force. However, this hollowness might challenge the structural strength while collision occurs. We found that under the same actuating energy, the von Mises stress of the object collided by the natural mandible striking can reach up to 2.9 times that generated by the entirely solid mandible. We defined the efficiency ratio of the von Mises stress on the impacted object to that on the mandible and found the hollow mandible achieves a more robust balance between powerful clamping and impact resistance compared to the solid mandible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixin Wang
- School of Engineering and Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, PR China
| | - Yuping Zhan
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen 518107, PR China
| | - Yunqiang Yang
- School of Engineering and Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, PR China.
| | - Jianing Wu
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen 518107, PR China.
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11
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Sutton GP, St Pierre R, Kuo CY, Summers AP, Bergbreiter S, Cox S, Patek SN. Dual spring force couples yield multifunctionality and ultrafast, precision rotation in tiny biomechanical systems. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:275995. [PMID: 35863219 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Small organisms use propulsive springs rather than muscles to repeatedly actuate high acceleration movements, even when constrained to tiny displacements and limited by inertial forces. Through integration of a large kinematic dataset, measurements of elastic recoil, energetic math modeling and dynamic math modeling, we tested how trap-jaw ants (Odontomachus brunneus) utilize multiple elastic structures to develop ultrafast and precise mandible rotations at small scales. We found that O. brunneus develops torque on each mandible using an intriguing configuration of two springs: their elastic head capsule recoils to push and the recoiling muscle-apodeme unit tugs on each mandible. Mandibles achieved precise, planar, circular trajectories up to 49,100 rad s-1 (470,000 rpm) when powered by spring propulsion. Once spring propulsion ended, the mandibles moved with unconstrained and oscillatory rotation. We term this mechanism a 'dual spring force couple', meaning that two springs deliver energy at two locations to develop torque. Dynamic modeling revealed that dual spring force couples reduce the need for joint constraints and thereby reduce dissipative joint losses, which is essential to the repeated use of ultrafast, small systems. Dual spring force couples enable multifunctionality: trap-jaw ants use the same mechanical system to produce ultrafast, planar strikes driven by propulsive springs and for generating slow, multi-degrees of freedom mandible manipulations using muscles, rather than springs, to directly actuate the movement. Dual spring force couples are found in other systems and are likely widespread in biology. These principles can be incorporated into microrobotics to improve multifunctionality, precision and longevity of ultrafast systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory P Sutton
- School of Life Sciences , University of Lincoln, Lincoln LN6 7TS, UK
| | - Ryan St Pierre
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Chi-Yun Kuo
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Adam P Summers
- Friday Harbor Laboratories, University of Washington, Friday Harbor, WA 98250, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Suzanne Cox
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
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12
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Larabee FJ, Gibson JC, Rivera MD, Anderson PSL, Suarez AV. Muscle fatigue in the latch-mediated spring actuated mandibles of trap-jaw ants. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:icac091. [PMID: 35689666 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscle fatigue can reduce performance potentially affecting an organism's fitness. However, some aspects of fatigue could be overcome by employing a latch-mediated spring actuated system (LaMSA) where muscle activity is decoupled from movement. We estimated the effects of muscle fatigue on different aspects of mandible performance in six species of ants, two whose mandibles are directly actuated by muscles and four that have LaMSA "trap-jaw" mandibles. We found evidence that the LaMSA system of trap-jaw ants may prevent some aspects of performance from declining with repeated use, including duration, acceleration and peak velocity. However, inter-strike interval increased with repeated strikes suggesting that muscle fatigue still comes into play during the spring loading phase. In contrast, one species with directly actuated mandibles showed a decline in bite force over time. These results have implications for design principles aimed at minimizing the effects of fatigue on performance in spring and motor actuated systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrick J Larabee
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 1000 Constitution Ave., Washington DC
| | - Josh C Gibson
- Department of Entomology
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology. University of Illinois Urbana Champaign. 515 Morrill Hall. 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL. 61801
| | | | - Philip S L Anderson
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology. University of Illinois Urbana Champaign. 515 Morrill Hall. 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL. 61801
| | - Andrew V Suarez
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior
- Department of Entomology
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology. University of Illinois Urbana Champaign. 515 Morrill Hall. 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL. 61801
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13
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Azorsa F, Muscedere ML, Traniello JFA. Socioecology and Evolutionary Neurobiology of Predatory Ants. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.804200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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14
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Bertone MA, Gibson JC, Seago AE, Yoshida T, Smith AA. A novel power-amplified jumping behavior in larval beetles (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae). PLoS One 2022; 17:e0256509. [PMID: 35045081 PMCID: PMC8769368 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Larval insects use many methods for locomotion. Here we describe a previously unknown jumping behavior in a group of beetle larvae (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae). We analyze and describe this behavior in Laemophloeus biguttatus and provide information on similar observations for another laemophloeid species, Placonotus testaceus. Laemophloeus biguttatus larvae precede jumps by arching their body while gripping the substrate with their legs over a period of 0.22 ± 0.17s. This is followed by a rapid ventral curling of the body after the larvae releases its grip that launches them into the air. Larvae reached takeoff velocities of 0.47 ± 0.15 m s-1 and traveled 11.2 ± 2.8 mm (1.98 ± 0.8 body lengths) horizontally and 7.9 ± 4.3 mm (1.5 ± 0.9 body lengths) vertically during their jumps. Conservative estimates of power output revealed that some but not all jumps can be explained by direct muscle power alone, suggesting Laemophloeus biguttatus may use a latch-mediated spring actuation mechanism (LaMSA) in which interaction between the larvae's legs and the substrate serves as the latch. MicroCT scans and SEM imaging of larvae did not reveal any notable modifications that would aid in jumping. Although more in-depth experiments could not be performed to test hypotheses on the function of these jumps, we posit that this behavior is used for rapid locomotion which is energetically more efficient than crawling the same distance to disperse from their ephemeral habitat. We also summarize and discuss jumping behaviors among insect larvae for additional context of this behavior in laemophloeid beetles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A. Bertone
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Joshua C. Gibson
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Ainsley E. Seago
- Section of Invertebrate Zoology, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Takahiro Yoshida
- Systematic Zoology Laboratory, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji City, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Adrian A. Smith
- Research & Collections, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC, United States of America
- Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
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15
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Esteves FA, Fisher BL. Corrieoponenouragues gen. nov., sp. nov., a new Ponerinae from French Guiana (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Zookeys 2022; 1074:83-173. [PMID: 34975267 PMCID: PMC8671710 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.1074.75551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
This study describes the worker and queen castes of the Neotropical ponerine Corrieoponenouraguesgen. nov., sp. nov., an ant from the tropical rainforest in French Guiana. Worker morphology of the taxon is compared with those of other Ponerinae and the similarities between them are discussed, refining the definition of character states for some diagnostic characters at the generic level, providing an identification key to the Neotropical genera, and making some adjustments to the taxonomic framework within the subfamily. Descriptions, diagnosis, character discussion, identification key, and glossary are illustrated with more than 300 images and line drawings. Open science is supported by providing access to measurement data for specimens of the new genus, a matrix of character states for all ponerine taxa evaluated in this study, and specimen data for all examined material. The new or revived combinations presented here are Pachycondylaprocidua Emery, comb. rev., Neoponeracuriosa (Mackay and Mackay), comb. nov., Leptogenysbutteli (Forel), comb. nov., and Bothroponeraescherichi (Forel), comb. nov. In addition, Leptogenysbutteli is synonymized with Leptogenysmyops (Emery), syn. nov.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia A Esteves
- Entomology, California Academy of Sciences, 55 Music Concourse Drive, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA California Academy of Sciences San Francisco United States of America
| | - Brian L Fisher
- Entomology, California Academy of Sciences, 55 Music Concourse Drive, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA California Academy of Sciences San Francisco United States of America
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16
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Mendoza E, Azizi E. Tuned muscle and spring properties increase elastic energy storage. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:jeb243180. [PMID: 34821932 PMCID: PMC10658917 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Elastic recoil drives some of the fastest and most powerful biological movements. For effective use of elastic recoil, the tuning of muscle and spring force capacity is essential. Although studies of invertebrate organisms that use elastic recoil show evidence of increased force capacity in their energy loading muscle, changes in the fundamental properties of such muscles have yet to be documented in vertebrates. Here, we used three species of frogs (Cuban tree frogs, bullfrogs and cane toads) that differ in jumping power to investigate functional shifts in muscle-spring tuning in systems using latch-mediated spring actuation (LaMSA). We hypothesized that variation in jumping performance would result from increased force capacity in muscles and relatively stiffer elastic structures, resulting in greater energy storage. To test this, we characterized the force-length property of the plantaris longus muscle-tendon unit (MTU), and quantified the maximal amount of energy stored in elastic structures for each species. We found that the plantaris longus MTU of Cuban tree frogs produced higher mass-specific energy and mass-specific forces than the other two species. Moreover, we found that the plantaris longus MTU of Cuban tree frogs had higher pennation angles than the other species, suggesting that muscle architecture was modified to increase force capacity through packing of more muscle fibers. Finally, we found that the elastic structures were relatively stiffer in Cuban tree frogs. These results provide a mechanistic link between the tuned properties of LaMSA components, energy storage capacity and whole-system performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Mendoza
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 321 Steinhaus Hall, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92617, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 321 Steinhaus Hall, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92617, USA
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17
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Acharya R, Challita EJ, Ilton M, Saad Bhamla M. The ultrafast snap of a finger is mediated by skin friction. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20210672. [PMID: 34784775 PMCID: PMC8596009 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2021.0672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The snap of a finger has been used as a form of communication and music for millennia across human cultures. However, a systematic analysis of the dynamics of this rapid motion has not yet been performed. Using high-speed imaging and force sensors, we analyse the dynamics of the finger snap. We discover that the finger snap achieves peak angular accelerations of 1.6 × 106° s-2 in 7 ms, making it one of the fastest recorded angular accelerations the human body produces (exceeding professional baseball pitches). Our analysis reveals the central role of skin friction in mediating the snap dynamics by acting as a latch to control the resulting high velocities and accelerations. We evaluate the role of this frictional latch experimentally, by covering the thumb and middle finger with different materials to produce different friction coefficients and varying compressibility. In doing so, we reveal that the compressible, frictional latch of the finger pads likely operates in a regime optimally tuned for both friction and compression. We also develop a soft, compressible friction-based latch-mediated spring actuated model to further elucidate the key role of friction and how it interacts with a compressible latch. Our mathematical model reveals that friction plays a dual role in the finger snap, both aiding in force loading and energy storage while hindering energy release. Our work reveals how friction between surfaces can be harnessed as a tunable latch system and provides design insight towards the frictional complexity in many robotic and ultra-fast energy-release structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raghav Acharya
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30311, USA
| | - Elio J. Challita
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30311, USA,George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech, Atlanta, GA 30311, USA
| | - Mark Ilton
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
| | - M. Saad Bhamla
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30311, USA
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18
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Kallal RJ, Elias DO, Wood HM. Not So Fast: Strike Kinematics of the Araneoid Trap-Jaw Spider Pararchaea alba (Malkaridae: Pararchaeinae). Integr Org Biol 2021; 3:obab027. [PMID: 34661063 PMCID: PMC8514421 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obab027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
To capture prey otherwise unattainable by muscle function alone, some animal lineages have evolved movements that are driven by stored elastic energy, producing movements of remarkable speed and force. One such example that has evolved multiple times is a trap-jaw mechanism, in which the mouthparts of an animal are loaded with energy as they open to a wide gape and then, when triggered to close, produce a terrific force. Within the spiders (Araneae), this type of attack has thus far solely been documented in the palpimanoid family Mecysmaucheniidae but a similar morphology has also been observed in the distantly related araneoid subfamily Pararchaeinae, leading to speculation of a trap-jaw attack in that lineage as well. Here, using high-speed videography, we test whether cheliceral strike power output suggests elastic-driven movements in the pararchaeine Pararchaea alba. The strike speed attained places P. alba as a moderately fast striker exceeding the slowest mecysmaucheniids, but failing to the reach the most extreme high-speed strikers that have elastic-driven mechanisms. Using microcomputed tomography, we compare the morphology of P. alba chelicerae in the resting and open positions, and their related musculature, and based on results propose a mechanism for cheliceral strike function that includes a torque reversal latching mechanism. Similar to the distantly related trap-jaw mecysmaucheniid spiders, the unusual prosoma morphology in P. alba seemingly allows for highly maneuverable chelicerae with a much wider gape than typical spiders, suggesting that increasingly maneuverable joints coupled with a latching mechanism may serve as a precursor to elastic-driven movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Kallal
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Damian O Elias
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Hannah M Wood
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
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19
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Ito F, Kurumaya S, Ono R, Kagaya K, Nakamura T. Instantaneous Force Generation Mechanism Based on the Striking Motion of Mantis Shrimp-Analytical and Experimental Verification of the Increase in Instantaneous Force Using Exoskeleton Spring Mechanism. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2021. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2021.3094740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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20
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Boublil BL, Diebold CA, Moss CF. Mechanosensory Hairs and Hair-like Structures in the Animal Kingdom: Specializations and Shared Functions Serve to Inspire Technology Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:6375. [PMID: 34640694 PMCID: PMC8512044 DOI: 10.3390/s21196375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Biological mechanosensation has been a source of inspiration for advancements in artificial sensory systems. Animals rely on sensory feedback to guide and adapt their behaviors and are equipped with a wide variety of sensors that carry stimulus information from the environment. Hair and hair-like sensors have evolved to support survival behaviors in different ecological niches. Here, we review the diversity of biological hair and hair-like sensors across the animal kingdom and their roles in behaviors, such as locomotion, exploration, navigation, and feeding, which point to shared functional properties of hair and hair-like structures among invertebrates and vertebrates. By reviewing research on the role of biological hair and hair-like sensors in diverse species, we aim to highlight biological sensors that could inspire the engineering community and contribute to the advancement of mechanosensing in artificial systems, such as robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Cynthia F. Moss
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles St., Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (B.L.B.); (C.A.D.)
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21
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Bergman EA, Green EL, Matthews PGD. The cibarial pump of the xylem-feeding froghopper Philaenus spumarius produces negative pressures exceeding 1 MPa. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210731. [PMID: 34256004 PMCID: PMC8277466 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The xylem sap of vascular plants is an unlikely source of nutrition, being both nutrient poor and held under tensions (negative pressures) that can exceed 1 MPa. But some insects feed on xylem sap exclusively, extracting copious quantities using a muscular cibarial pump. However, neither the strength of the insect's suction, nor the direct energetic cost of xylem ingestion, have ever been quantified. Philaenus spumarius froghoppers were used to address these gaps in our knowledge. Micro-CT scans of its cibarium and measurements of cibarial muscle sarcomere length revealed that P. spumarius can generate a maximum tension of 1.3 ± 0.2 MPa within its cibarium. The energetic cost of xylem extraction was quantified using respirometry to measure the metabolic rate (MR) of P. spumarius while they fed on hydroponically grown legumes, while xylem sap excretion rate and cibarial pumping frequency were simultaneously recorded. Increasing the plants' xylem tensions up to 1.1 MPa by exposing their roots to polyethylene glycol did not reduce the insects' rate of xylem excretion, but significantly increased both MR and pumping frequency. We conclude that P. spumarius can gain energy feeding on xylem sap containing previously reported energy densities and at xylem tensions up to their maximum suction capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth A. Bergman
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Emma L. Green
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Philip G. D. Matthews
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
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22
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Richter A, Schoeters E, Billen J. Morphology and closing mechanism of the mandibular gland orifice in ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). J Morphol 2021; 282:1127-1140. [PMID: 33835596 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The mandibular gland of ants releases chemical compounds with functions ranging from nestmate alarm and recognition to antimicrobial defense. While the morphology of this ethologically important gland is well investigated in several species, the mechanism of secretion release in ants was not explicitly addressed so far. To clarify this question, we examined the anatomy of the gland orifice in ant species from 14 different subfamilies employing different techniques. The orifice close to the mandibular base is located on an area called mandalus. Our investigations revealed variation in mandalar shape, with clear trends in different subfamilies. By contrast, the internal organization is remarkably congruent across all investigated species. The thin external mandalar cuticle is always connected to the mandibular gland duct by a cuticular lamella, visible as a characteristic anchor-shaped structure in cross section. The slit-like gland orifice at the distal end of the mandalus is usually crescent-shaped. In some ant species with specialized mandibles such as trap-jaws, the organization of the orifice area is adapted to the mandibular shape, but always retains the general internal organization. No muscles were found in association with the orifice, nor with any other part of the mandibular gland. However, the base of the mandalus is connected to the prepharyngeal sucking pump by a cuticular ligament. Additionally, it is continuous with the conjunctiva connecting the mandible to the head capsule. We propose that retraction of the sucking pump by the muscle M. tentoriobuccalis, potentially in concert with opening of the mandible, stretches out the ligament and thus pulls on the mandalus and mandalar lamella to open the gland orifice and allow for secretion release. This hypothesis is congruent with findings on other aculeate Hymenoptera and expands our knowledge on the function of an important gland of ants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Richter
- Institute for Zoology und Evolutionary Research, University of Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Eric Schoeters
- Zoological Institute, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Johan Billen
- Zoological Institute, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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23
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Smith J, Cleare XL, Given K, Li-Byarlay H. Morphological Changes in the Mandibles Accompany the Defensive Behavior of Indiana Mite Biting Honey Bees Against Varroa Destructor. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.638308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most important managed pollinator to sustainable agriculture and our ecosystem. Yet managed honey bee colonies in the United States experience 30–40% losses annually. Among the many biotic stressors, the parasitic mite Varroa destructor is considered one of the main causes of colony losses. Bees’ mite-biting behavior has been selected as a Varroa-tolerant or Varroa-resistant trait in the state of Indiana for more than a decade. A survey of damaged mites from the bottom of a colony can be used as an extended phenotype to evaluate the mite-biting behavior of a colony. In this study, on average, 37% of mites sampled from the breeding stocks of 59 colonies of mite biters in Indiana were damaged or mutilated, which is significantly higher than the 19% of damaged mites found in commercial colonies in the southern United States. Indiana mite biter colonies had a higher proportion of damaged mites, although among the damaged mites, the number of missing legs was not significantly higher. In addition, the morphology of pollen-forager worker bee mandibles was compared by X-ray microcomputed tomography for six parameters in two populations, and a difference was detected in one parameter. Our results provide scientific evidence that potentially explains the defensive mechanism against Varroa mites: structural changes in the worker bee mandibles.
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24
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Harrison JS, Porter ML, McHenry MJ, Robinson HE, Patek SN. Scaling and development of elastic mechanisms: the tiny strikes of larval mantis shrimp. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:258491. [PMID: 33914038 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.235465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Latch-mediated spring actuation (LaMSA) is used by small organisms to produce high acceleration movements. Mathematical models predict that acceleration increases as LaMSA systems decrease in size. Adult mantis shrimp use a LaMSA mechanism in their raptorial appendages to produce extremely fast strikes. Until now, however, it was unclear whether mantis shrimp at earlier life-history stages also strike using elastic recoil and latch mediation. We tested whether larval mantis shrimp (Gonodactylaceus falcatus) use LaMSA and, because of their smaller size, achieve higher strike accelerations than adults of other mantis shrimp species. Based on microscopy and kinematic analyses, we discovered that larval G. falcatus possess the components of, and actively use, LaMSA during their fourth larval stage, which is the stage of development when larvae begin feeding. Larvae performed strikes at high acceleration and speed (mean: 4.133×105 rad s-2, 292.7 rad s-1; 12 individuals, 25 strikes), which are of the same order of magnitude as for adults - even though adult appendages are up to two orders of magnitude longer. Larval strike speed (mean: 0.385 m s-1) exceeded the maximum swimming speed of similarly sized organisms from other species by several orders of magnitude. These findings establish the developmental timing and scaling of the mantis shrimp LaMSA mechanism and provide insights into the kinematic consequences of scaling limits in tiny elastic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Megan L Porter
- School of Life Sciences, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | - Matthew J McHenry
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - H Eve Robinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA 95521, USA
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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25
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Jorge JF, Bergbreiter S, Patek SN. Pendulum-based measurements reveal impact dynamics at the scale of a trap-jaw ant. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:jeb.232157. [PMID: 33504588 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.232157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Small organisms can produce powerful, sub-millisecond impacts by moving tiny structures at high accelerations. We developed and validated a pendulum device to measure the impact energetics of microgram-sized trap-jaw ant mandibles accelerated against targets at 105 m s-2 Trap-jaw ants (Odontomachus brunneus; 19 individuals, 212 strikes) were suspended on one pendulum and struck swappable targets that were either attached to an opposing pendulum or fixed in place. Mean post-impact kinetic energy (energy from a strike converted to pendulum motion) was higher with a stiff target (21.0-21.5 µJ) than with a compliant target (6.4-6.5 µJ). Target mobility had relatively little influence on energy transfer. Mean contact duration of strikes against stiff targets was shorter (3.9-4.5 ms) than against compliant targets (6.2-7.9 ms). Shorter contact duration was correlated with higher post-impact kinetic energy. These findings contextualize and provide an energetic explanation for the diverse, natural uses of trap-jaw ant strikes such as impaling prey, launching away threats and performing mandible-powered jumps. The strong effect of target material on energetic exchange suggests material interactions as an avenue for tuning performance of small, high acceleration impacts. Our device offers a foundation for novel research into the ecomechanics and evolution of tiny biological impacts and their application in synthetic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin F Jorge
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - S N Patek
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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26
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Booher DB, Gibson JC, Liu C, Longino JT, Fisher BL, Janda M, Narula N, Toulkeridou E, Mikheyev AS, Suarez AV, Economo EP. Functional innovation promotes diversification of form in the evolution of an ultrafast trap-jaw mechanism in ants. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3001031. [PMID: 33651798 PMCID: PMC7924744 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Evolutionary innovations underlie the rise of diversity and complexity-the 2 long-term trends in the history of life. How does natural selection redesign multiple interacting parts to achieve a new emergent function? We investigated the evolution of a biomechanical innovation, the latch-spring mechanism of trap-jaw ants, to address 2 outstanding evolutionary problems: how form and function change in a system during the evolution of new complex traits, and whether such innovations and the diversity they beget are repeatable in time and space. Using a new phylogenetic reconstruction of 470 species, and X-ray microtomography and high-speed videography of representative taxa, we found the trap-jaw mechanism evolved independently 7 to 10 times in a single ant genus (Strumigenys), resulting in the repeated evolution of diverse forms on different continents. The trap mechanism facilitates a 6 to 7 order of magnitude greater mandible acceleration relative to simpler ancestors, currently the fastest recorded acceleration of a resettable animal movement. We found that most morphological diversification occurred after evolution of latch-spring mechanisms, which evolved via minor realignments of mouthpart structures. This finding, whereby incremental changes in form lead to a change of function, followed by large morphological reorganization around the new function, provides a model for understanding the evolution of complex biomechanical traits, as well as insights into why such innovations often happen repeatedly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas B. Booher
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Japan
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Georgia Museum of Natural History, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Entomology, and Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Joshua C. Gibson
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Entomology, and Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Cong Liu
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Japan
| | - John T. Longino
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Brian L. Fisher
- Department of Entomology, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Milan Janda
- National Laboratory for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis (LANASE), ENES, UNAM, Morelia, Mexico
- Biology Centre of Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Nitish Narula
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Japan
| | - Evropi Toulkeridou
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Japan
| | - Alexander S. Mikheyev
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Japan
- Evolutionary Genomics Research group, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Andrew V. Suarez
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Entomology, and Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Evan P. Economo
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Japan
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27
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Nonlinear elasticity and damping govern ultrafast dynamics in click beetles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2014569118. [PMID: 33468629 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2014569118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many small animals use springs and latches to overcome the mechanical power output limitations of their muscles. Click beetles use springs and latches to bend their bodies at the thoracic hinge and then unbend extremely quickly, resulting in a clicking motion. When unconstrained, this quick clicking motion results in a jump. While the jumping motion has been studied in depth, the physical mechanisms enabling fast unbending have not. Here, we first identify and quantify the phases of the clicking motion: latching, loading, and energy release. We detail the motion kinematics and investigate the governing dynamics (forces) of the energy release. We use high-speed synchrotron X-ray imaging to observe and analyze the motion of the hinge's internal structures of four Elater abruptus specimens. We show evidence that soft cuticle in the hinge contributes to the spring mechanism through rapid recoil. Using spectral analysis and nonlinear system identification, we determine the equation of motion and model the beetle as a nonlinear single-degree-of-freedom oscillator. Quadratic damping and snap-through buckling are identified to be the dominant damping and elastic forces, respectively, driving the angular position during the energy release phase. The methods used in this study provide experimental and analytical guidelines for the analysis of extreme motion, starting from motion observation to identifying the forces causing the movement. The tools demonstrated here can be applied to other organisms to enhance our understanding of the energy storage and release strategies small animals use to achieve extreme accelerations repeatedly.
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Büsse S, Koehnsen A, Rajabi H, Gorb SN. A controllable dual-catapult system inspired by the biomechanics of the dragonfly larvae's predatory strike. Sci Robot 2021; 6:6/50/eabc8170. [PMID: 34043578 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abc8170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The biomechanics underlying the predatory strike of dragonfly larvae is not yet understood. Dragonfly larvae are aquatic ambush predators, capturing their prey with a strongly modified extensible mouthpart. The current theory of hydraulic pressure being the driving force of the predatory strike can be refuted by our manipulation experiments and reinterpretation of former studies. Here, we report evidence for an independently loaded synchronized dual-catapult system. To power the ballistic movement of a single specialized mouthpart, two independently loaded springs simultaneously release and actuate two separate joints in a kinematic chain. Energy for the movement is stored by straining an elastic structure at each joint and, possibly, the surrounding cuticle, which is preloaded by muscle contraction. As a proof of concept, we developed a bioinspired robotic model resembling the morphology and functional principle of the extensible mouthpart. Understanding the biomechanics of the independently loaded synchronized dual-catapult system found in dragonfly larvae can be used to control the extension direction and, thereby, thrust vector of a power-modulated robotic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Büsse
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany.
| | - Alexander Koehnsen
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Hamed Rajabi
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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Koehnsen A, Kambach J, Büsse S. Step by step and frame by frame – Workflow for efficient motion tracking of high-speed movements in animals. ZOOLOGY 2020; 141:125800. [DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2020.125800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Divi S, Ma X, Ilton M, St Pierre R, Eslami B, Patek SN, Bergbreiter S. Latch-based control of energy output in spring actuated systems. J R Soc Interface 2020; 17:20200070. [PMID: 32693743 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The inherent force-velocity trade-off of muscles and motors can be overcome by instead loading and releasing energy in springs to power extreme movements. A key component of this paradigm is the latch that mediates the release of spring energy to power the motion. Latches have traditionally been considered as switches; they maintain spring compression in one state and allow the spring to release energy without constraint in the other. Using a mathematical model of a simplified contact latch, we reproduce this instantaneous release behaviour and also demonstrate that changing latch parameters (latch release velocity and radius) can reduce and delay the energy released by the spring. We identify a critical threshold between instantaneous and delayed release that depends on the latch, spring, and mass of the system. Systems with stiff springs and small mass can attain a wide range of output performance, including instantaneous behaviour, by changing latch release velocity. We validate this model in both a physical experiment as well as with data from the Dracula ant, Mystrium camillae, and propose that latch release velocity can be used in both engineering and biological systems to control energy output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathvik Divi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Xiaotian Ma
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Mark Ilton
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
| | - Ryan St Pierre
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Babak Eslami
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Widener University, Chester, PA 19013, USA
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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Ruan Y, Konstantinov AS, Shi G, Tao Y, Li Y, Johnson AJ, Luo X, Zhang X, Zhang M, Wu J, Li W, Ge S, Yang X. The jumping mechanism of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Alticini), its application to bionics and preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg. Zookeys 2020; 915:87-105. [PMID: 32148424 PMCID: PMC7052025 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.915.38348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Galerucinae, Alticini) are a hyperdiverse group of organisms with approximately 9900 species worldwide. In addition to walking as most insects do, nearly all the species of flea beetles have an ability to jump and this ability is commonly understood as one of the key adaptations responsible for its diversity. Our investigation of flea beetle jumping is based on high-speed filming, micro-CT scans and 3D reconstructions, and provides a mechanical description of the jump. We reveal that the flea beetle jumping mechanism is a catapult in nature and is enabled by a small structure in the hind femur called an 'elastic plate' which powers the explosive jump and protects other structures from potential injury. The explosive catapult jump of flea beetles involves a unique 'high-efficiency mechanism' and 'positive feedback mechanism'. As this catapult mechanism could inspire the design of bionic jumping limbs, we provide a preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg, which could be a resource for the bionics industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongying Ruan
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- School of Applied Chemistry and Biological Technology, Shenzhen Polytechnic, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Alexander S. Konstantinov
- Systematic Entomology Laboratory, USDA, ARS, c/o Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Washington DC, USA
| | - Guanya Shi
- Department of Automotive Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Tao
- Key Lab of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Centre for Computational Biology and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - You Li
- School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Andrew J. Johnson
- School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Xiaozhu Luo
- Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xinying Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Mengna Zhang
- School of Applied Chemistry and Biological Technology, Shenzhen Polytechnic, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Jianing Wu
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Wenzhu Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Siqin Ge
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xingke Yang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Ilton M, Cox SM, Egelmeers T, Sutton GP, Patek SN, Crosby AJ. The effect of size-scale on the kinematics of elastic energy release. SOFT MATTER 2019; 15:9579-9586. [PMID: 31724691 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm00870e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Elastically-driven motion has been used as a strategy to achieve high speeds in small organisms and engineered micro-robotic devices. We examine the size-scaling relations determining the limit of elastic energy release from elastomer bands that efficiently cycle mechanical energy with minimal loss. The maximum center-of-mass velocity of the elastomer bands was found to be size-scale independent, while smaller bands demonstrated larger accelerations and shorter durations of elastic energy release. Scaling relationships determined from these measurements are consistent with the performance of small organisms and engineered devices which utilize elastic elements to power motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Ilton
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
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Frankino WA, Bakota E, Dworkin I, Wilkinson GS, Wolf JB, Shingleton AW. Individual Cryptic Scaling Relationships and the Evolution of Animal Form. Integr Comp Biol 2019; 59:1411-1428. [PMID: 31364716 PMCID: PMC6863759 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Artificial selection offers a powerful tool for the exploration of how selection and development shape the evolution of morphological scaling relationships. An emerging approach models the expression and evolution of morphological scaling relationships as a function of variation among individuals in the developmental mechanisms that regulate trait growth. These models posit the existence of genotype-specific morphological scaling relationships that are unseen or "cryptic." Within-population allelic variation at growth-regulating loci determines how these individual cryptic scaling relationships are distributed, and exposure to environmental factors that affect growth determines the size phenotype expressed by each individual on their cryptic, genotype-specific scaling relationship. These models reveal that evolution of the intercept and slope of the population-level static allometry is determined, often in counterintuitive ways, largely by the shape of the distribution of these underlying individual-level scaling relationships. Here we review this modeling framework and present the wing-body size individual cryptic scaling relationships from a population of Drosophila melanogaster. To determine how these models might inform interpretation of published work on scaling relationship evolution, we review studies where artificial selection was applied to alter the parameters of population-level static allometries. Finally, motivated by our review, we outline areas in need of empirical work and describe a research program to address these topics; the approach includes describing the distribution of individual cryptic scaling relationships across populations and environments, empirical testing of the model's predictions, and determining the effects of environmental heterogeneity on realized trait distributions and how this affects allometry evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Anthony Frankino
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204-5001, USA
| | - Eric Bakota
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204-5001, USA
| | - Ian Dworkin
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L9H 6X9
| | - Gerald S Wilkinson
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Jason B Wolf
- Milner Centre for Evolution and Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Alexander W Shingleton
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
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Silva TSR, Feitosa RM. Using controlled vocabularies in anatomical terminology: A case study with Strumigenys (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2019; 52:100877. [PMID: 31357032 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2019.100877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Morphological studies of insects can help us to understand the concomitant or sequential functionality of complex structures and may be used to hypothetize distinct levels of phylogenetic relationship among groups. Traditional morphological works, generally, have encompassed a set of elements, including descriptions of structures and their respective conditions, literature references and images, all combined in a single document. Fast forward to the digital era, it is now possible to release this information simultaneously but also independently as data sets linked to the original publication in an external environment. In order to link data from various fields of knowledge, disseminating morphological information in an open environment, it is important to use tools that enhance interoperability. For example, semantic annotations facilitate the dissemination and retrieval of phenotypic data in digital environments. The integration of semantic (i.e. web-based) components with anatomic treatments can be used to generate a traditional description in natural language along with a set of semantic annotations. The ant genus Strumigenys currently comprises about 840 described species distributed worldwide. In the Neotropical region, almost 200 species are currently known, but it is possible that much of the species' diversity there remains unexplored and undescribed. The morphological diversity in the genus is high, reflecting an extreme generic reclassification that occurred in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Here we define the anatomical concepts in this highly diverse group of ants using semantic annotations to enrich the anatomical ontologies available online, focussing on the definition of terms through subjacent conceptualization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago S R Silva
- Department of Zoology, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Francisco Heráclito dos Santos Ave., Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
| | - Rodrigo M Feitosa
- Department of Zoology, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Francisco Heráclito dos Santos Ave., Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
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Longo SJ, Cox SM, Azizi E, Ilton M, Olberding JP, St Pierre R, Patek SN. Beyond power amplification: latch-mediated spring actuation is an emerging framework for the study of diverse elastic systems. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:222/15/jeb197889. [PMID: 31399509 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.197889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Rapid biological movements, such as the extraordinary strikes of mantis shrimp and accelerations of jumping insects, have captivated generations of scientists and engineers. These organisms store energy in elastic structures (e.g. springs) and then rapidly release it using latches, such that movement is driven by the rapid conversion of stored elastic to kinetic energy using springs, with the dynamics of this conversion mediated by latches. Initially drawn to these systems by an interest in the muscle power limits of small jumping insects, biologists established the idea of power amplification, which refers both to a measurement technique and to a conceptual framework defined by the mechanical power output of a system exceeding muscle limits. However, the field of fast elastically driven movements has expanded to encompass diverse biological and synthetic systems that do not have muscles - such as the surface tension catapults of fungal spores and launches of plant seeds. Furthermore, while latches have been recognized as an essential part of many elastic systems, their role in mediating the storage and release of elastic energy from the spring is only now being elucidated. Here, we critically examine the metrics and concepts of power amplification and encourage a framework centered on latch-mediated spring actuation (LaMSA). We emphasize approaches and metrics of LaMSA systems that will forge a pathway toward a principled, interdisciplinary field.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Longo
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - S M Cox
- Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - E Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - M Ilton
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
| | - J P Olberding
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - R St Pierre
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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Bolmin O, Wei L, Hazel AM, Dunn AC, Wissa A, Alleyne M. Latching of the click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae) thoracic hinge enabled by the morphology and mechanics of conformal structures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.196683. [PMID: 31113839 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.196683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Elaterid beetles have evolved to 'click' their bodies in a unique maneuver. When this maneuver is initiated from a stationary position on a solid substrate, it results in a jump not carried out by the traditional means of jointed appendages (i.e. legs). Elaterid beetles belong to a group of organisms that amplify muscle power through morphology to produce extremely fast movements. Elaterids achieve power amplifications through a hinge situated in the thoracic region. The actuating components of the hinge are a peg and mesosternal lip, two conformal parts that latch to keep the body in a brace position until their release, the 'click', that is the fast launch maneuver. Although prior studies have identified this mechanism, they were focused on the ballistics of the launched body or limited to a single species. In this work, we identify specific morphological details of the hinges of four click beetle species - Alaus oculatus, Parallelostethus attenuatus, Lacon discoideus and Melanotus spp. - which vary in overall length from 11.3 to 38.8 mm. Measurements from environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) and computerized tomography (CT) were combined to provide comparative structural information on both exterior and interior features of the peg and mesosternal lip. Specifically, ESEM and CT reveal the morphology of the peg, which is modeled as an Euler-Bernoulli beam. In the model, the externally applied force is estimated using a micromechanical experiment. The equivalent stiffness, defined as the ratio between the applied force and the peg tip deflection, is estimated for all four species. The estimated peg tip deformation indicates that, under the applied forces, the peg is able to maintain the braced position of the hinge. This work comprehensively describes the critical function of the hinge anatomy through an integration of specific anatomical architecture and engineering mechanics for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ophelia Bolmin
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Lihua Wei
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | | | - Alison C Dunn
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Aimy Wissa
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Marianne Alleyne
- Department of Entomology, School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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Richter A, Keller RA, Rosumek FB, Economo EP, Hita Garcia F, Beutel RG. The cephalic anatomy of workers of the ant species Wasmannia affinis (Formicidae, Hymenoptera, Insecta) and its evolutionary implications. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2019; 49:26-49. [PMID: 30738181 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2019.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Despite the ecological significance of ants and the intensive research attention they have received, thorough treatments of the anatomy and functional morphology are still scarce. In this study we document the head morphology of workers of the myrmicine Wasmannia affinis with optical microscopy, μ-computed tomography, scanning electron microscopy, and 3D reconstruction, providing the first complete anatomical treatment of an ant head with a broad array of modern techniques. We discuss the potential of the applied methods to generate detailed and well-documented morphological data sets with increased efficiency. We also address homology problems, particularly in the context of the cephalic digestive tract. According to our analyses the "pharynx" of previous ant studies is homologous to the prepharynx of other insects. We also discuss the phylogenetic potential and functional significance of the observed characters, with internal features such as tentorium and musculature discussed for the first time. Our investigation underlines that detailed anatomical data for Formicidae are still very fragmentary, which in turn limits our understanding of the major design elements underlying the ant bauplan. We attempt to provide a template for further anatomical studies, which will help to understand the evolution of this fascinating group on the phenotypic level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Richter
- Institut für Zoologie und Evolutionsforschung, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, 07743 Jena, Germany.
| | - Roberto A Keller
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna-son, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan; MUHNAC/cE3c -Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Félix Baumgarten Rosumek
- Ecological Networks, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany; Department of Ecology and Zoology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Evan P Economo
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna-son, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan
| | - Francisco Hita Garcia
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna-son, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan
| | - Rolf G Beutel
- Institut für Zoologie und Evolutionsforschung, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, 07743 Jena, Germany
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Larabee FJ, Smith AA, Suarez AV. Snap-jaw morphology is specialized for high-speed power amplification in the Dracula ant, Mystrium camillae. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:181447. [PMID: 30662749 PMCID: PMC6304126 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.181447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
What is the limit of animal speed and what mechanisms produce the fastest movements? More than natural history trivia, the answer provides key insight into the form-function relationship of musculoskeletal movement and can determine the outcome of predator-prey interactions. The fastest known animal movements belong to arthropods, including trap-jaw ants, mantis shrimp and froghoppers, that have incorporated latches and springs into their appendage systems to overcome the limits of muscle power. In contrast to these examples of power amplification, where separate structures act as latch and spring to accelerate an appendage, some animals use a 'snap-jaw' mechanism that incorporates the latch and spring on the accelerating appendage itself. We examined the kinematics and functional morphology of the Dracula ant, Mystrium camillae, who use a snap-jaw mechanism to quickly slide their mandibles across each other similar to a finger snap. Kinematic analysis of high-speed video revealed that snap-jaw ant mandibles complete their strike in as little as 23 µsec and reach peak velocities of 90 m s-1, making them the fastest known animal appendage. Finite-element analysis demonstrated that snap-jaw mandibles were less stiff than biting non-power-amplified mandibles, consistent with their use as a flexible spring. These results extend our understanding of animal speed and demonstrate how small changes in morphology can result in dramatic differences in performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrick J. Larabee
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Adrian A. Smith
- Research and Collections, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Andrew V. Suarez
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Beckman Institute for Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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Khalife A, Keller RA, Billen J, Hita Garcia F, Economo EP, Peeters C. Skeletomuscular adaptations of head and legs of Melissotarsus ants for tunnelling through living wood. Front Zool 2018; 15:30. [PMID: 30127838 PMCID: PMC6092875 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-018-0277-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background While thousands of ant species are arboreal, very few are able to chew and tunnel through living wood. Ants of the genus Melissotarsus (subfamily Myrmicinae) inhabit tunnel systems excavated under the bark of living trees, where they keep large numbers of symbiotic armoured scale insects (family Diaspididae). Construction of these tunnels by chewing through healthy wood requires tremendous power, but the adaptations that give Melissotarsus these abilities are unclear. Here, we investigate the morphology of the musculoskeletal system of Melissotarsus using histology, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray spectrometry, X-ray microcomputed tomography (micro-CT), and 3D modelling. Results Both the head and legs of Melissotarsus workers contain novel skeletomuscular adaptations to increase their ability to tunnel through living wood. The head is greatly enlarged dorsoventrally, with large mandibular closer muscles occupying most of the dorsal half of the head cavity, while ventrally-located opener muscles are also exceptionally large. This differs from the strong closing: opening asymmetry typical of most mandibulated animals, where closing the mandibles requires more force than opening. Furthermore, the mandibles are short and cone-shaped with a wide articulatory base that concentrates the force generated by the muscles towards the tips. The increased distance between the axis of mandibular rotation and the points of muscle insertion provides a mechanical advantage that amplifies the force from the closer and opener muscles. We suggest that the uncommonly strong opening action is required to move away crushed plant tissues during tunnelling and allow a steady forward motion. X-ray spectrometry showed that the tip of the mandibles is reinforced with zinc. Workers in this genus have aberrant legs, including mid- and hindlegs with hypertrophied coxae and stout basitarsi equipped with peg-like setae, and midleg femura pointed upward and close to the body. This unusual design famously prevents them from standing and walking on a normal two-dimensional surface. We reinterpret these unique traits as modifications to brace the body during tunnelling rather than locomotion per se. Conclusions Melissotarsus represents an extraordinary case study of how the adaptation to – and indeed engineering of – a novel ecological niche can lead to the evolutionary redesign of core biomechanical systems. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12983-018-0277-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Khalife
- 1Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Institut d'Écologie et des Sciences de l'Environnement, 75005 Paris, France.,2Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Roberto A Keller
- 3MUHNAC/cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Johan Billen
- 4Laboratory of Socioecology and Social Evolution, Zoological Institute, K.U. Leuven, Belgium
| | - Francisco Hita Garcia
- 2Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Evan P Economo
- 2Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Christian Peeters
- 1Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Institut d'Écologie et des Sciences de l'Environnement, 75005 Paris, France
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Gibson JC, Larabee FJ, Touchard A, Orivel J, Suarez AV. Mandible strike kinematics of the trap‐jaw ant genus
Anochetus
Mayr (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). J Zool (1987) 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J. C. Gibson
- Department of Entomology University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL USA
| | - F. J. Larabee
- Department of Entomology University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL USA
- Department of Entomology National Museum of Natural History Smithsonian Institution Washington DC USA
| | - A. Touchard
- EA7417‐BTSB Université Fédérale Toulouse Midi‐Pyrénées INU Champollion Albi France
| | - J. Orivel
- CNRS UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane (EcoFoG) AgroParisTech CIRAD INRA Université de Guyane Université des Antilles Kourou Cedex France
| | - A. V. Suarez
- Department of Entomology University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL USA
- Department of Animal Biology University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL USA
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