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Liu JY, Sayes CM. Modeling mixtures interactions in environmental toxicology. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 106:104380. [PMID: 38309542 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2024.104380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024]
Abstract
In the environment, organisms are exposed to mixtures of different toxicants, which may interact in ways that are difficult to predict when only considering each component individually. Adapting and expanding tools from pharmacology, the toxicology field uses analytical, graphical, and computational methods to identify and quantify interactions in multi-component mixtures. The two general frameworks are concentration addition, where components have similar modes of action and their effects sum together, or independent action, where components have dissimilar modes of action and do not interact. Other interaction behaviors include synergism and antagonism, where the combined effects are more or less than the additive sum of individual effects. This review covers foundational theory, methods, an in-depth survey of original research from the past 20 years, current trends, and future directions. As humans and ecosystems are exposed to increasingly complex mixtures of environmental contaminants, analyzing mixtures interactions will continue to become a more critical aspect of toxicological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Y Liu
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA
| | - Christie M Sayes
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA.
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Bridgeman L, Juan C, Juan-García A, Berrada H. Individual and combined effect of acrylamide, fumitremorgin C and penitrem A on human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 182:114114. [PMID: 37879530 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.114114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
Acrylamide (AA) is a chemical compound that can be formed in certain foods during high-temperature cooking processes such as frying, baking, and roasting. Exposure to AA has been linked to several neurological effects, including peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, and impaired cognitive function. Penitrem A (PEN A) and Fumitremorgin C (FTC) are toxic mycotoxins produced by certain species of fungi, such as Penicillium Crustosum, Aspergillus Fumigatus and Neosartorya Fischeri. Both mycotoxins are commonly found in contaminated foods and animal feeds and have been linked to several adverse health effects in humans and animals, including the ability to disrupt normal functioning of the nervous system, tremors, seizures, muscle spasms, and convulsions. AA, PEN A, and FTC are all chemical contaminants. Understanding their toxicity and how they may affect human cells can help food safety authorities to establish safe exposure levels for these compounds through food and develop strategies to reduce their presence. The aim of this study was to explore the combined in vitro toxicological effects of AA, PEN A and FTC in SH-SY5Y cells. For this purpose, cells were treated with AA, FTC, and PEN A as an individual and combined treatment. The types of interactions were assessed by the isobologram analysis. The cell cycle was performed by flow cytometry. Additive effect in binary and tertiary combinations was the major effect according to isobologram graphics. Our results demonstrate that PEN A possessed the highest potential in disturbing cell cycle progression by disrupting cell density in G0/G1 phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luna Bridgeman
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain.
| | - Houda Berrada
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain
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Su D, Lu J, Nie C, Guo Z, Li C, Yu Q, Xie J, Chen Y. Combined Effects of Acrylamide and Ochratoxin A on the Intestinal Barrier in Caco-2 Cells. Foods 2023; 12:foods12061318. [PMID: 36981244 PMCID: PMC10048136 DOI: 10.3390/foods12061318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Acrylamide (AA) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are contaminants that co-exist in the same foods, and may create a serious threat to human health. However, the combined effects of AA and OTA on intestinal epithelial cells remain unclear. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of AA and OTA individually and collectively on Caco-2 cells. The results showed that AA and OTA significantly inhibited Caco-2 cell viability in a concentration- and time-dependent manner, decreased transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) values, and increased the lucifer yellow (LY) permeabilization, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. In addition, the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α increased, while the levels of IL-10 decreased after AA and OTA treatment. Western blot analysis revealed that AA and OTA damaged the intestinal barrier by reducing the expression of the tight junction (TJ) protein. The collective effects of AA and OTA exhibited enhanced toxicity compared to either single compound and, for most of the intestinal barrier function indicators, AA and OTA combined exposure tended to produce synergistic toxicity to Caco-2 cells. Overall, this research suggests the possibility of toxic reactions arising from the interaction of toxic substances present in foodstuffs with those produced during processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Jiawen Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Chunchao Nie
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Ziyan Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Chang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Qiang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Jianhua Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Yi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
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Metabolomic Analysis Reveals the Mechanisms of Hepatotoxicity Induced by Aflatoxin M1 and Ochratoxin A. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14020141. [PMID: 35202168 PMCID: PMC8880135 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is the only toxin with the maximum residue limit in milk, and ochratoxin A (OTA) represents a common toxin in cereals foods. It is common to find the co-occurrence of these two toxins in the environment. However, the interactive effect of these toxins on hepatoxicity and underlying mechanisms is still unclear. The liver and serum metabolomics in mice exposed to individual AFM1 at 3.5 mg/kg b.w., OTA at 3.5 mg/kg b.w., and their combination for 35 days were conducted based on the UPLC-MS method in the present study. Subsequent metabolome on human hepatocellular liver carcinoma (Hep G2) cells was conducted to narrow down the key metabolites. The phenotypic results on liver weight and serum indicators, such as total bilirubin and glutamyltransferase, showed that the combined toxins had more serious adverse effects than an individual one, indicating that the combined AFM1 and OTA displayed synergistic effects on liver damage. Through the metabolic analysis in liver and serum, we found that (i) a synergistic effect was exerted in the combined toxins, because the number of differentially expressed metabolites on combination treatment was higher than the individual toxins, (ii) OTA played a dominant role in the hepatoxicity induced by the combination of AFM1, and OTA and (iii) lysophosphatidylcholines (LysoPCs), more especially, LysoPC (16:1), were identified as the metabolites most affected by AFM1 and OTA. These findings provided a new insight for identifying the potential biomarkers for the hepatoxicity of AFM1 and OTA.
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Uthra C, Reshi MS, Jaswal A, Yadav D, Shrivastava S, Sinha N, Shukla S. Protective efficacy of rutin against acrylamide-induced oxidative stress, biochemical alterations and histopathological lesions in rats. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2022; 11:215-225. [PMID: 35237426 PMCID: PMC8882811 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfab125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Acrylamide is a well-known neurotoxicant and carcinogen. Apart from industrial exposure, acrylamide is also found in different food products. The present study deals with in vivo experiment to test the protective effect of rutin against acrylamide induced toxicity in rats. The study was carried out on female rats with exposure of acrylamide at the dose of 38.27 mg/kg body weight, orally for 10 days followed by the therapy of rutin (05, 10, 20 and 40 mg/kg orally), for three consecutive days. All animals were sacrificed after 24 h of last treatment and various biochemical parameters in blood and tissue were investigated. Histopathology of liver, kidney and brain was also done. On administration of acrylamide for 10 days, neurotoxicity was observed in terms of decreased acetylcholinesterase activity and oxidative stress was observed in terms of increased lipid peroxidation, declined level of reduced glutathione, antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase and catalase) in liver, kidney and brain. Acrylamide exposure increased the activities of serum transaminases, lipid profile, bilirubin, urea, uric acid and creatinine in serum indicating damage. Our experimental results conclude that rutin showed remarkable protection against oxidative DNA damage induced by acrylamide, which may be due to its antioxidant potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhavi Uthra
- Correspondence address. Reproductive Biology and Toxicology Laboratory, UNESCO-Trace Element Satellite Centre, School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, 474011, India. Tel: 9755952336 (M); E-mail:
| | - Mohd Salim Reshi
- Toxicology and Pharmacology Lab, Department of Zoology, School of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University, Rajouri, Jammu & Kashmir, 185234, India
| | - Amita Jaswal
- Reproductive Biology and Toxicology Laboratory, UNESCO-Trace Element Satellite Centre, School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, 474011, India
| | - Deepa Yadav
- Reproductive Biology and Toxicology Laboratory, UNESCO-Trace Element Satellite Centre, School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, 474011, India
| | - Sadhana Shrivastava
- Reproductive Biology and Toxicology Laboratory, UNESCO-Trace Element Satellite Centre, School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, 474011, India
| | - Neelu Sinha
- Reproductive Biology and Toxicology Laboratory, UNESCO-Trace Element Satellite Centre, School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, 474011, India
| | - Sangeeta Shukla
- Reproductive Biology and Toxicology Laboratory, UNESCO-Trace Element Satellite Centre, School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, 474011, India
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Yuan J, Che S, Zhang L, Li X, Yang J, Sun X, Ruan Z. Assessing the combinatorial cytotoxicity of the exogenous contamination with BDE-209, bisphenol A, and acrylamide via high-content analysis. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 284:131346. [PMID: 34217936 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Food is often exposed to multiple types of contaminants, and the coexistence of contaminants may have antagonistic, additive or synergistic effects. This study investigated the combinatorial toxicity of the three most widespread exogenous contaminants, decabrominated diphenyl ether (BDE-209), bisphenol A (BPA), and acrylamide (ACR) to HepG2 cells. A mathematical model (Chou-Talalay) and high-content analysis (HCA) were used to probe the nature of the contaminants' interactions and their cytotoxicity mechanisms, respectively. The results highlighted that for the individual pollutants, the cytotoxicity order was BDE-209> BPA > ACR, and varying combinations of contaminants exhibited additive/synergistic effects. In general, combining multiple contaminants significantly increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), Ca2+ flux, DNA damage and Caspase-3, and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and nucleus roundness, indicating that the additive or synergistic mechanism of the combined contaminations was disturbance to multiple organelles. This study emphasizes the complexity of human exposure to food contaminants and provides a scientific basis for formulating strict regulatory standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinwen Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Nutrition and School of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.
| | - Siyan Che
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Nutrition and School of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.
| | - Li Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Nutrition and School of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.
| | - Xiaomin Li
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China.
| | - Junhua Yang
- Institute for Agri-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China.
| | - Xiaoming Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Nutrition and School of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.
| | - Zheng Ruan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Nutrition and School of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.
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Cuciureanu M, Tuchiluș C, Vartolomei A, Tamba BI, Filip L. An Immunoenzymatic Method for the Determination of Ochratoxin A in Biological Liquids (Colostrum and Cow's Milk). Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13100673. [PMID: 34678966 PMCID: PMC8538136 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13100673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxins are mycotoxins that have been extensively studied lately due to the multiple toxic effects such as nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and carcinogenicity. These toxins contaminate plant and animal foods and after ingestion they reach into body fluids. The method of competitive direct enzyme immunoassay, in the solid phase, was validated through the determination of specific parameters (performance, linearity, recovery percentage, limit of detection, limit of quantification). The validated method was used to determine ochratoxin A in colostrum and cow’s milk. The method applied for the determination of ochratoxin A was linear for the concentration range of 0.0–0.5 ng/mL, the value for the regression coefficient (r) was 0.9838. Ochratoxin A was present in 91.67% of the colostrum and in 93.33% of cow’s milk samples. The linearity of the method, demonstrated for very low concentrations of analyte, the detection limit as well as the limit of quantification recommend the method for the determinations of micro-pollutants from foods, including biological fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Cuciureanu
- Departament of Pharmacology, “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Iasi, Romania
- Correspondence:
| | - Cristina Tuchiluș
- Departament of Microbiology, “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Iasi, Romania;
| | - Anca Vartolomei
- Department of Environmental and Food Chemistry, “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Iasi, Romania;
| | - Bogdan Ionel Tamba
- Center for Advanced Research and Development in Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Iasi, Romania;
| | - Lorena Filip
- Departament of Bromatology, Hygiene, Nutrition, “Iuliu Hatieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj Napoca, Romania;
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The Reduction of the Combined Effects of Aflatoxin and Ochratoxin A in Piglet Livers and Kidneys by Dietary Antioxidants. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13090648. [PMID: 34564652 PMCID: PMC8472784 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the combined effects of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A on protein expression and catalytic activities of CYP1A2, CYP2E1, CYP3A29 and GSTA1 and the preventive effect of dietary byproduct antioxidants administration against these mycotoxin damage. Three experimental groups (E1, E2, E3) and one control group (C) of piglets after weaning (TOPIGS-40 hybrid) were fed with experimental diets for 30 days. A basal diet containing normal compound feed for starter piglets was used as a control treatment and free of mycotoxin. The experimental groups were fed as follows: E1—basal diet plus a mixture (1:1) of two byproducts (grapeseed and sea buckthorn meal), E2—the basal diet experimentally contaminated with mycotoxins (479 ppb OTA and 62ppb AFB1) and E3—basal diet containing 5% of the mixture (1:1) of grapeseed and sea buckthorn meal and contaminated with the mix of OTA and AFB1. After 4 weeks, the animals were slaughtered, and tissue samples were taken from liver and kidney in order to perform microsomal fraction isolation, followed by protein expression and enzymatic analyses. The protein expressions of CYP2E1 and CYP3A29 were up-regulated in an insignificant manner in liver, whereas in kidney, those of CYP1A2, CYP2E1 and CYP3A29 were down-regulated. The enzymatic activities of CYP1A2, CYP2E1 and CYP3A29 decreased in liver, in a significant manner, whereas in kidney, these increased significantly. The co-presence of the two mycotoxins and the mixture of grape seed and sea buckthorn meal generated a tendency to return to the control values, which suggest that grapeseed and sea buckthorn meal waste represent a promising source in counteracting the harmful effect of ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B.
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Popescu RG, Bulgaru C, Untea A, Vlassa M, Filip M, Hermenean A, Marin D, Țăranu I, Georgescu SE, Dinischiotu A. The Effectiveness of Dietary Byproduct Antioxidants on Induced CYP Genes Expression and Histological Alteration in Piglets Liver and Kidney Fed with Aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:148. [PMID: 33671978 PMCID: PMC7919288 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential of a byproduct mixture derived from grapeseed and sea buckthorn oil industry to mitigate the harmful damage produced by ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B1 at hepatic and renal level in piglets after weaning. Forty cross-bred TOPIGS-40 hybrid piglets after weaning were assigned to three experimental groups (E1, E2, E3) and one control group (C), and fed with experimental diets for 30 days. The basal diet was served as a control and contained normal compound feed for starter piglets without mycotoxins. The experimental groups were fed as follows: E1-basal diet plus a mixture (1:1) of two byproducts (grapeseed and sea buckthorn meal); E2-the basal diet experimentally contaminated with mycotoxins (479 ppb OTA and 62ppb AFB1); and E3-basal diet containing 5% of the mixture (1:1) of grapeseed and sea buckthorn meal and contaminated with the mix of OTA and AFB1. After 4 weeks, the animals were slaughtered, and tissue samples were taken from liver and kidney in order to perform gene expression and histological analysis. The gene expression analysis showed that when weaned piglets were fed with contaminated diet, the expression of most analyzed genes was downregulated. Among the CYP450 family, CYP1A2 was the gene with the highest downregulation. According to these results, in liver, we found that mycotoxins induced histomorphological alterations in liver and kidney and had an effect on the expression level of CYP1A2, CYP2A19, CYP2E1, and CYP3A29, but we did not detect important changes in the expression level of CY4A24, MRP2 and GSTA1 genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roua Gabriela Popescu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei No. 91–95, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (R.G.P.); (A.D.)
| | - Cristina Bulgaru
- Laboratory of Animal Biology, National Institute for Research and Development for Biology and Animal Nutrition, Calea Bucuresti No. 1, Balotesti, 077015 Ilfov, Romania; (C.B.); (A.U.); (D.M.)
| | - Arabela Untea
- Laboratory of Animal Biology, National Institute for Research and Development for Biology and Animal Nutrition, Calea Bucuresti No. 1, Balotesti, 077015 Ilfov, Romania; (C.B.); (A.U.); (D.M.)
| | - Mihaela Vlassa
- Raluca Ripan Institute for Research in Chemistry, Babeş Bolyai University, 30 Fântânele Street, 400294 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (M.V.); (M.F.)
| | - Miuta Filip
- Raluca Ripan Institute for Research in Chemistry, Babeş Bolyai University, 30 Fântânele Street, 400294 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (M.V.); (M.F.)
| | - Anca Hermenean
- “Aurel Ardelean” Institute of Life Sciences, Vasile Godis Western University of Arad, Rebreanu 86, 310414 Arad, Romania;
| | - Daniela Marin
- Laboratory of Animal Biology, National Institute for Research and Development for Biology and Animal Nutrition, Calea Bucuresti No. 1, Balotesti, 077015 Ilfov, Romania; (C.B.); (A.U.); (D.M.)
| | - Ionelia Țăranu
- Laboratory of Animal Biology, National Institute for Research and Development for Biology and Animal Nutrition, Calea Bucuresti No. 1, Balotesti, 077015 Ilfov, Romania; (C.B.); (A.U.); (D.M.)
| | - Sergiu Emil Georgescu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei No. 91–95, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (R.G.P.); (A.D.)
| | - Anca Dinischiotu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei No. 91–95, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (R.G.P.); (A.D.)
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