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Cinca-Morros S, Garcia-Rey S, Álvarez-Herms J, Basabe-Desmonts L, Benito-Lopez F. A physiological perspective of the relevance of sweat biomarkers and their detection by wearable microfluidic technology: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2024; 1327:342988. [PMID: 39266058 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2024.342988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 07/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 09/14/2024]
Abstract
The great majority of published microfluidic wearable platforms for sweat sensing focus on the development of the technology to fabricate the device, the integration of sensing materials and actuators and the fluidics of sweat within the device. However, very few papers have discussed the physiological relevance of the metabolites measured using these novel approaches. In fact, some of the analytes present in sweat, which serve as biomarkers in blood, do not show a correlation with blood levels. This discrepancy can be attributed to factors such as contamination during measurements, the metabolism of sweat glands, or challenges in obtaining significant samples. The objective of this review is to present a critical and meaningful insight into the real applicability and potential use of wearable technology for improving health and sport performance. It also discusses the current limitations and future challenges of microfluidics, aiming to provide accurate information about the actual needs in this field. This work is expected to contribute to the future development of more suitable wearable microfluidic technology for health and sports science monitoring, using sweat as the biofluid for analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergi Cinca-Morros
- Microfluidics Cluster UPV/EHU, Analytical Microsystems & Materials for Lab-on-a-Chip (AMMa-LOAC) Group, Analytical Chemistry Department, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Spain; Microfluidics Cluster UPV/EHU, BIOMICs Microfluidics Group, Lascaray Research Center, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.
| | - Sandra Garcia-Rey
- Microfluidics Cluster UPV/EHU, Analytical Microsystems & Materials for Lab-on-a-Chip (AMMa-LOAC) Group, Analytical Chemistry Department, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Spain; Microfluidics Cluster UPV/EHU, BIOMICs Microfluidics Group, Lascaray Research Center, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - Jesús Álvarez-Herms
- Research Group in Sports Genomics, Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain; PHYMOlab Research & Exercise Performance, Segovia, Spain
| | - Lourdes Basabe-Desmonts
- Microfluidics Cluster UPV/EHU, BIOMICs Microfluidics Group, Lascaray Research Center, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain; Basque Foundation of Science, IKERBASQUE, María Díaz Haroko Kalea, 3, 48013 Bilbao, Spain.
| | - Fernando Benito-Lopez
- Microfluidics Cluster UPV/EHU, Analytical Microsystems & Materials for Lab-on-a-Chip (AMMa-LOAC) Group, Analytical Chemistry Department, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Spain.
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Ehtesabi H, Kalji SO. Carbon nanomaterials for sweat-based sensors: a review. Mikrochim Acta 2024; 191:77. [PMID: 38177621 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-023-06162-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
Sweat is easily accessible from the human skin's surface. It is secreted by the eccrine glands and contains a wealth of physiological information, including metabolites and electrolytes like glucose and Na ions. Sweat is a particularly useful biofluid because of its easy and non-invasive access, unlike other biofluids, like blood. On the other hand, nanomaterials have started to show promise operation as a competitive substitute for biosensors and molecular sensors throughout the last 10 years. Among the most synthetic nanomaterials that are studied, applied, and discussed, carbon nanomaterials are special. They are desirable candidates for sensor applications because of their many intrinsic electrical, magnetic, and optical characteristics; their chemical diversity and simplicity of manipulation; their biocompatibility; and their effectiveness as a chemically resistant platform. Carbon nanofibers (CNFs), carbon dots (CDs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and graphene have been intensively investigated as molecular sensors or as components that can be integrated into devices. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the use of carbon nanomaterials as sweat sensors and consider how they can be utilized to detect a diverse range of analytes in sweat, such as glucose, ions, lactate, cortisol, uric acid, and pH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamide Ehtesabi
- Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Seyed-Omid Kalji
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
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Yeung KK, Li J, Huang T, Hosseini II, Al Mahdi R, Alam MM, Sun H, Mahshid S, Yang J, Ye TT, Gao Z. Utilizing Gradient Porous Graphene Substrate as the Solid-Contact Layer To Enhance Wearable Electrochemical Sweat Sensor Sensitivity. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:6647-6654. [PMID: 35943807 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c01969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Wearable sweat monitoring represents an attractive opportunity for personalized healthcare and for evaluating sports performance. One of the limitations with such monitoring, however, is water layer formation upon cycling of ion-selective sensors, leading to degraded sensitivity and long-term instability. Our report is the first to use chemical vapor deposition-grown, three-dimensional, graphene-based, gradient porous electrodes to minimize such water layer formation. The proposed design reduces the ion diffusion path within the polymeric ion-selective membrane and enhances the electroactive surface for highly sensitive, real-time detection of Na+ ions in human sweat with high selectivity. We obtained a 7-fold enhancement in electroactive surface against 2D electrodes (e.g., carbon, gold), yielding a sensitivity of 65.1 ± 0.25 mV decade-1 (n = 3, RSD = 0.39%), the highest to date for wearable Na+ sweat sensors. The on-body sweat sensing performance is comparable to that of ICP-MS, suggesting its feasibility for health evaluation through sweat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kan Kan Yeung
- Biomedical Engineering Department, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong 999077, China
- Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Jingwei Li
- Biomedical Engineering Department, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong 999077, China
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Ting Huang
- Biomedical Engineering Department, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Imman I Hosseini
- Department of Bioengineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0E9, Canada
| | - Rakib Al Mahdi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Md Masruck Alam
- Biomedical Engineering Department, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Honglin Sun
- Biomedical Engineering Department, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Sara Mahshid
- Department of Bioengineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0E9, Canada
| | - Jian Yang
- Faculty of Intelligent Manufacturing, Wuyi University, Jiangmen 529020, China
| | - Terry Tao Ye
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Zhaoli Gao
- Biomedical Engineering Department, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong 999077, China
- Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518057, China
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Zhong B, Jiang K, Wang L, Shen G. Wearable Sweat Loss Measuring Devices: From the Role of Sweat Loss to Advanced Mechanisms and Designs. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2103257. [PMID: 34713981 PMCID: PMC8728835 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202103257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Wearable sweat sensors have received significant research interest and have become popular as sweat contains considerable health information about physiological and psychological states. However, measured biomarker concentrations vary with sweat rates, which has a significant effect on the accuracy and reliability of sweat biosensors. Wearable sweat loss measuring devices (SLMDs) have recently been proposed to overcome the limitations of biomarker tracking and reduce inter- and intraindividual variability. In addition, they offer substantial potential for monitoring human body homeostasis, because sweat loss plays an indispensable role in thermoregulation and skin hydration. Previous studies have not carried out a comprehensive and systematic review of the principles, importance, and development of wearable SLMDs. This paper reviews wearable SLMDs with a new health perspective from the role of sweat loss to advanced mechanisms and designs. Two types of sweat and their measurement significance for practical applications are highlighted. Then, a comprehensive review of advances in different wearable SLMDs based on hygrometers, absorbent materials, and microfluidics is presented by describing their respective device architectures, present situations, and future directions. Finally, concluding remarks on opportunities for future application fields and challenges for future sweat sensing are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bowen Zhong
- State Key Laboratory for Superlattices and Microstructures, Institution of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100083, China
- Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronic Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Kai Jiang
- Faculty of Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Surgery, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Institute of Hepatobiliary Surgery of Chinese PLA, Key Laboratory of Digital Hepatobiliary Surgery, Chinese PLA, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Lili Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Superlattices and Microstructures, Institution of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100083, China
- Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronic Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Guozhen Shen
- State Key Laboratory for Superlattices and Microstructures, Institution of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100083, China
- Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronic Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100029, China
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Physiological mechanisms determining eccrine sweat composition. Eur J Appl Physiol 2020; 120:719-752. [PMID: 32124007 PMCID: PMC7125257 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04323-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to review the physiological mechanisms determining eccrine sweat composition to assess the utility of sweat as a proxy for blood or as a potential biomarker of human health or nutritional/physiological status. Methods This narrative review includes the major sweat electrolytes (sodium, chloride, and potassium), other micronutrients (e.g., calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, zinc, vitamins), metabolites (e.g., glucose, lactate, ammonia, urea, bicarbonate, amino acids, ethanol), and other compounds (e.g., cytokines and cortisol). Results Ion membrane transport mechanisms for sodium and chloride are well established, but the mechanisms of secretion and/or reabsorption for most other sweat solutes are still equivocal. Correlations between sweat and blood have not been established for most constituents, with perhaps the exception of ethanol. With respect to sweat diagnostics, it is well accepted that elevated sweat sodium and chloride is a useful screening tool for cystic fibrosis. However, sweat electrolyte concentrations are not predictive of hydration status or sweating rate. Sweat metabolite concentrations are not a reliable biomarker for exercise intensity or other physiological stressors. To date, glucose, cytokine, and cortisol research is too limited to suggest that sweat is a useful surrogate for blood. Conclusion Final sweat composition is not only influenced by extracellular solute concentrations, but also mechanisms of secretion and/or reabsorption, sweat flow rate, byproducts of sweat gland metabolism, skin surface contamination, and sebum secretions, among other factors related to methodology. Future research that accounts for these confounding factors is needed to address the existing gaps in the literature. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00421-020-04323-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Seal AD, Anastasiou CA, Skenderi KP, Echegaray M, Yiannakouris N, Tsekouras YE, Matalas AL, Yannakoulia M, Pechlivani F, Kavouras SA. Incidence of Hyponatremia During a Continuous 246-km Ultramarathon Running Race. Front Nutr 2019; 6:161. [PMID: 31681787 PMCID: PMC6798088 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose: The purpose of this observational study was to examine the incidence of exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH) in a 246-km continuous ultra-marathon. Methods: Over 2 years, 63 male finishers of the annual Spartathlon ultra-marathon foot race from Athens to Sparta, Greece were included in the data analysis. A blood sample was drawn from an antecubital vein the day before the race as well as within 15 min post-race and analyzed for sodium concentration. During the second year of data collection, blood was also drawn at the 93-km checkpoint (n = 29). Height and weight were measured pre and post-race. Results: Mean race time of all subjects was 33 ± 3 h with a range of 23.5 and 36.0 h. Of the 63 finishers recruited, nine began the race with values indicative of mild hyponatremia. Seven runners were classified as hyponatremic at the 93-km checkpoint, three of whom had sodium levels of severe hyponatremia. After the race, 41 total finishers (65%) developed either mild (n = 27, 43%) or severe hyponatremia (n = 14, 22%). Mean change in bodyweight percentage and serum sodium from pre-race to post-race was −3.6 ± 2.7% (−2.5 ± 1.9 kg) and −6.6 ± 5.6 mmol·L−1, respectively. Pre-race serum sodium level was not a significant predictor of post-race serum sodium levels (β = 0.08, R2 = 0.07, P = 0.698), however, there was a significant negative association between change in bodyweight percentage and post-race serum sodium concentration (β = −0.79, R2 = 0.29, P = 0.011). Conclusion: The incidence of EAH of 52 and 65%, when excluding or including these individuals with pre-race hyponatremia, was the highest reported in current literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Seal
- Hydration Science Lab, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | | | | | - Marcos Echegaray
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico at Cayey, Cayey, Puerto Rico
| | - Nikos Yiannakouris
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Harokopio University, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Antonia L Matalas
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Harokopio University, Athens, Greece
| | - Mary Yannakoulia
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Harokopio University, Athens, Greece
| | - Fani Pechlivani
- Technological Educational Institution of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Stavros A Kavouras
- Hydration Science Lab, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, United States
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Baker LB. Physiology of sweat gland function: The roles of sweating and sweat composition in human health. Temperature (Austin) 2019; 6:211-259. [PMID: 31608304 PMCID: PMC6773238 DOI: 10.1080/23328940.2019.1632145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this comprehensive review is to: 1) review the physiology of sweat gland function and mechanisms determining the amount and composition of sweat excreted onto the skin surface; 2) provide an overview of the well-established thermoregulatory functions and adaptive responses of the sweat gland; and 3) discuss the state of evidence for potential non-thermoregulatory roles of sweat in the maintenance and/or perturbation of human health. The role of sweating to eliminate waste products and toxicants seems to be minor compared with other avenues of excretion via the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract; as eccrine glands do not adapt to increase excretion rates either via concentrating sweat or increasing overall sweating rate. Studies suggesting a larger role of sweat glands in clearing waste products or toxicants from the body may be an artifact of methodological issues rather than evidence for selective transport. Furthermore, unlike the renal system, it seems that sweat glands do not conserve water loss or concentrate sweat fluid through vasopressin-mediated water reabsorption. Individuals with high NaCl concentrations in sweat (e.g. cystic fibrosis) have an increased risk of NaCl imbalances during prolonged periods of heavy sweating; however, sweat-induced deficiencies appear to be of minimal risk for trace minerals and vitamins. Additional research is needed to elucidate the potential role of eccrine sweating in skin hydration and microbial defense. Finally, the utility of sweat composition as a biomarker for human physiology is currently limited; as more research is needed to determine potential relations between sweat and blood solute concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay B. Baker
- Gatorade Sports Science Institute, PepsiCo R&D Physiology and Life Sciences, Barrington, IL, USA
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Sweating Rate and Sweat Sodium Concentration in Athletes: A Review of Methodology and Intra/Interindividual Variability. Sports Med 2018; 47:111-128. [PMID: 28332116 PMCID: PMC5371639 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0691-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Athletes lose water and electrolytes as a consequence of thermoregulatory sweating during exercise and it is well known that the rate and composition of sweat loss can vary considerably within and among individuals. Many scientists and practitioners conduct sweat tests to determine sweat water and electrolyte losses of athletes during practice and competition. The information gleaned from sweat testing is often used to guide personalized fluid and electrolyte replacement recommendations for athletes; however, unstandardized methodological practices and challenging field conditions can produce inconsistent/inaccurate results. The primary objective of this paper is to provide a review of the literature regarding the effect of laboratory and field sweat-testing methodological variations on sweating rate (SR) and sweat composition (primarily sodium concentration [Na+]). The simplest and most accurate method to assess whole-body SR is via changes in body mass during exercise; however, potential confounding factors to consider are non-sweat sources of mass change and trapped sweat in clothing. In addition, variability in sweat [Na+] can result from differences in the type of collection system used (whole body or localized), the timing/duration of sweat collection, skin cleaning procedure, sample storage/handling, and analytical technique. Another aim of this paper is to briefly review factors that may impact intra/interindividual variability in SR and sweat [Na+] during exercise, including exercise intensity, environmental conditions, heat acclimation, aerobic capacity, body size/composition, wearing of protective equipment, sex, maturation, aging, diet, and/or hydration status. In summary, sweat testing can be a useful tool to estimate athletes’ SR and sweat Na+ loss to help guide fluid/electrolyte replacement strategies, provided that data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted appropriately.
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Ranchordas MK, Tiller NB, Ramchandani G, Jutley R, Blow A, Tye J, Drury B. Normative data on regional sweat-sodium concentrations of professional male team-sport athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2017; 14:40. [PMID: 29093646 PMCID: PMC5661918 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-017-0197-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 10/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose of this paper was to report normative data on regional sweat sweat-sodium concentrations of various professional male team-sport athletes, and to compare sweat-sodium concentrations among sports. Data to this effect would inform our understanding of athlete sodium requirements, thus allowing for the individualisation of sodium replacement strategies. Accordingly, data from 696 athletes (Soccer, n = 270; Rugby, n = 181; Baseball, n = 133; American Football, n = 60; Basketball, n = 52) were compiled for a retrospective analysis. Regional sweat-sodium concentrations were collected using the pilocarpine iontophoresis method, and compared to self-reported measures collected via questionnaire. RESULTS Sweat-sodium concentrations were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in American football (50.4 ± 15.3 mmol·L-1), baseball (54.0 ± 14.0 mmol·L-1), and basketball (48.3 ± 14.0 mmol·L-1) than either soccer (43.2 ± 12.0 mmol·L-1) or rugby (44.0 ± 12.1 mmol·L-1), but with no differences among the N.American or British sports. There were strong positive correlations between sweat-sodium concentrations and self-reported sodium losses in American football (rs = 0.962, p < 0.001), basketball (rs = 0.953, p < 0.001), rugby (rs = 0.813, p < 0.001), and soccer (rs = 0.748, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS The normative data provided on sweat-sodium concentrations might assist sports science/medicine practitioners in generating bespoke hydration and electrolyte-replacement strategies to meet the sodium demands of professional team-sport athletes. Moreover, these novel data suggest that self-reported measures of sodium loss might serve as an effective surrogate in the absence of direct measures; i.e., those which are more expensive or non-readily available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayur K. Ranchordas
- Academy of Sport and Physical Acitivty, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, S10 2BP UK
| | - Nicholas B. Tiller
- Academy of Sport and Physical Acitivty, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, S10 2BP UK
| | - Girish Ramchandani
- Sport Industry Research Centre, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, S10 2BP UK
| | - Raj Jutley
- Precision Hydration, 43 Saffron Drive, Christchurch, BH23 4LR UK
| | - Andrew Blow
- Precision Hydration, 43 Saffron Drive, Christchurch, BH23 4LR UK
| | - Jonny Tye
- Precision Hydration, 43 Saffron Drive, Christchurch, BH23 4LR UK
| | - Ben Drury
- Hartpury University Centre, Hartpury, Gloucester, GL19 3BE UK
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Amano T, Hirose M, Konishi K, Gerrett N, Ueda H, Kondo N, Inoue Y. Maximum rate of sweat ions reabsorption during exercise with regional differences, sex, and exercise training. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 117:1317-1327. [PMID: 28447185 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3619-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE It is recently reported that determining sweat rate (SR) threshold for increasing galvanic skin conductance (GSC) would represent a maximum rate of sweat ion reabsorption in sweat glands. We evaluate the maximum rate of sweat ion reabsorption over skin regions, sex, and long-term exercise training by using the threshold analysis in the present study. METHODS Ten males (2 untrained, 4 sprinters, and 4 distance runners) and 12 females (5 untrained, 4 sprinters, and 3 distance runners) conducted graded cycling exercise for 45 min at low, middle, and high exercise intensities (heart rate 100-110, 120-130, and 140-150 beats/min, respectively) for 10, 15, and 20 min, respectively, at 30 °C and 50% relative humidity. Comparisons were made between males and females and among untrained individuals, distance runners, and sprinters on the back and forearm. RESULTS SR threshold for increasing GSC on back was significantly higher than that of forearm (P < 0.05) without any sex differences (back 0.70 ± 0.08 and 0.61 ± 0.04, forearm 0.40 ± 0.05 and 0.45 ± 0.06 mg/cm2/min for males and females, respectively). Distance runners and sprinters showed higher SR threshold for increasing GSC than that of untrained subjects on back (P < 0.05) but not on forearm (back 0.45 ± 0.06, 0.83 ± 0.06, and 0.70 ± 0.04, forearm 0.33 ± 0.04, 0.49 ± 0.02, and 0.39 ± 0.07 mg/cm2/min for untrained subjects, distance runners, and sprinters, respectively). CONCLUSION These results suggest that the maximum sweat ion reabsorption rate on the back is higher than that of forearm without sex differences. Furthermore, exercise training in distance runners and sprinters improves the maximum sweat ion reabsorption rate on the back.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuro Amano
- Laboratory for Applied Human Physiology, Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan.,Faculty of Education, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Megumi Hirose
- Laboratory for Human Performance Research, Osaka International University, 6-21-57 Tohda-cho, Moriguchi, Osaka, 570-8555, Japan
| | - Kana Konishi
- Laboratory for Human Performance Research, Osaka International University, 6-21-57 Tohda-cho, Moriguchi, Osaka, 570-8555, Japan
| | - Nicola Gerrett
- Laboratory for Applied Human Physiology, Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
| | | | - Narihiko Kondo
- Laboratory for Applied Human Physiology, Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
| | - Yoshimitsu Inoue
- Laboratory for Human Performance Research, Osaka International University, 6-21-57 Tohda-cho, Moriguchi, Osaka, 570-8555, Japan.
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Del Coso J, Lara B, Salinero JJ, Areces F, Ruiz-Vicente D, Gallo-Salazar C, Abián-Vicén J, Cacabelos R. CFTR genotype-related body water and electrolyte balance during a marathon. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2015; 26:1036-44. [PMID: 26282188 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this investigation was to determine the influence of CFTR genotype on body water and electrolyte balance during a marathon. Fifty-one experienced runners completed a marathon race. Before and after the race, body mass and a sample of venous blood were obtained. During the race, sweat samples were collected using sweat patches, and fluid and electrolyte intake were obtained using self-reported questionnaires. Thirty-eight participants (74.5% of the total) were 7T/7T homozygotes, 11 (21.6%) were 7T/9T heterozygotes, and one participant presented the rare genotype 5T/7T. Another participant with 9T/9T presented the mutation p.L206W. Participants with 7T/7T showed higher sweat sodium concentrations (42.2 ± 21.6 mmol/L) than 7T/9T (29.0 ± 24.7 mmol/L; P = 0.04). The runner with the 5T/7T genotype (10.2 mmol/L) and the participant with the p.L206W mutation (20.5 mmol/L) exhibited low-range sweat sodium concentrations. However, post-race serum sodium concentration was similar in 7T/7T and 7T/9T (142.1 ± 1.3 and 142.4 ± 1.6 mmol/L, respectively; P = 0.27) and did not show abnormalities in participants with the 5T/7T genotype (140.0 mmol/L) and the p.L206W mutation (143.0 mmol/L). Runners with the CFTR-7T/7T genotype exhibited increased sweat sodium concentrations during a marathon. However, this phenotype was not related with increased likelihood of suffering body water and electrolyte imbalances during real competitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Del Coso
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain
| | - B Lara
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain
| | - J J Salinero
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain
| | - F Areces
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain
| | - D Ruiz-Vicente
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain
| | - C Gallo-Salazar
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain
| | - J Abián-Vicén
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain
| | - R Cacabelos
- Chair of Genomic Medicine, Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain
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Abstract
The objective of this article is to provide a review of the fundamental aspects of body fluid balance and the physiological consequences of water imbalances, as well as discuss considerations for the optimal composition of a fluid replacement beverage across a broad range of applications. Early pioneering research involving fluid replacement in persons suffering from diarrheal disease and in military, occupational, and athlete populations incurring exercise- and/or heat-induced sweat losses has provided much of the insight regarding basic principles on beverage palatability, voluntary fluid intake, fluid absorption, and fluid retention. We review this work and also discuss more recent advances in the understanding of fluid replacement as it applies to various populations (military, athletes, occupational, men, women, children, and older adults) and situations (pathophysiological factors, spaceflight, bed rest, long plane flights, heat stress, altitude/cold exposure, and recreational exercise). We discuss how beverage carbohydrate and electrolytes impact fluid replacement. We also discuss nutrients and compounds that are often included in fluid-replacement beverages to augment physiological functions unrelated to hydration, such as the provision of energy. The optimal composition of a fluid-replacement beverage depends upon the source of the fluid loss, whether from sweat, urine, respiration, or diarrhea/vomiting. It is also apparent that the optimal fluid-replacement beverage is one that is customized according to specific physiological needs, environmental conditions, desired benefits, and individual characteristics and taste preferences.
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13
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Lewis DP, Hoffman MD, Stuempfle KJ, Owen BE, Rogers IR, Verbalis JG, Hew-Butler TD. The need for salt: does a relationship exist between cystic fibrosis and exercise-associated hyponatremia? J Strength Cond Res 2014; 28:807-13. [PMID: 23897018 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e3182a35dbd] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Salt replacement is often recommended to prevent exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH) despite a lack of evidence to support such practice. Exercise-associated hyponatremia is known to be a complex process resulting from the interplay of hydration, arginine vasopressin, and sodium balance. Although evidence suggests overhydration is the dominant pathophysiologic factor in most cases, the contributions of sweat sodium losses remain unclear. A theoretical genetic mechanism producing exuberant sweat sodium loss in athletes is the presence of cystic fibrosis (CF) gene. Individuals with CF develop hypovolemic hyponatremia by sodium loss via sweat through a defective chloride ion transport channel, the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). Elevated sweat sodium concentrations in CF single heterozygotes suggest that athletes developing EAH may be CFTR carriers. We targeted the 2010 and 2011 Western States Endurance Run ultramarathon, an event where athletes with EAH regularly present in a hypovolemic state, for a cohort maximizing the potential to document such a relationship. A total of 798 runners started the 2010 (n = 423) and 2011 (n = 375) races. Of the 638 finishers, 373 were screened for EAH by blood draw, 60 (16%) were found to have EAH, and 31 (alpha = 0.05 for n = 9) reported their CF result from a saliva-based genetic testing kit. Neither the 31 EAH-positive athletes nor the 25 EAH-negative comparison cohort athletes tested positive for a CF mutation. This null relationship suggests that CFTR mutations are not associated with the development of EAH and that salt supplementation is unnecessary for such a reason.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas P Lewis
- 1Department of Family and Maternal/Child, Via Christi Family Medicine Residency, Via Christi Health System, Wichita, Kansas; 2Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, VA Northern California Health Care System and University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, California; 3Department of Health Sciences, Gettysburg College, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania; 4Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, Australia; 5Department of Emergency Medicine, St John of God Murdoch Hospital and University of Notre Dame, Murdoch, Western Australia; 6Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia; and 7School of Health Science, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan
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14
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Bandodkar AJ, Molinnus D, Mirza O, Guinovart T, Windmiller JR, Valdés-Ramírez G, Andrade FJ, Schöning MJ, Wang J. Epidermal tattoo potentiometric sodium sensors with wireless signal transduction for continuous non-invasive sweat monitoring. Biosens Bioelectron 2013; 54:603-9. [PMID: 24333582 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.11.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2013] [Revised: 11/10/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This article describes the fabrication, characterization and application of an epidermal temporary-transfer tattoo-based potentiometric sensor, coupled with a miniaturized wearable wireless transceiver, for real-time monitoring of sodium in the human perspiration. Sodium excreted during perspiration is an excellent marker for electrolyte imbalance and provides valuable information regarding an individual's physical and mental wellbeing. The realization of the new skin-worn non-invasive tattoo-like sensing device has been realized by amalgamating several state-of-the-art thick film, laser printing, solid-state potentiometry, fluidics and wireless technologies. The resulting tattoo-based potentiometric sodium sensor displays a rapid near-Nernstian response with negligible carryover effects, and good resiliency against various mechanical deformations experienced by the human epidermis. On-body testing of the tattoo sensor coupled to a wireless transceiver during exercise activity demonstrated its ability to continuously monitor sweat sodium dynamics. The real-time sweat sodium concentration was transmitted wirelessly via a body-worn transceiver from the sodium tattoo sensor to a notebook while the subjects perspired on a stationary cycle. The favorable analytical performance along with the wearable nature of the wireless transceiver makes the new epidermal potentiometric sensing system attractive for continuous monitoring the sodium dynamics in human perspiration during diverse activities relevant to the healthcare, fitness, military, healthcare and skin-care domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amay J Bandodkar
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Denise Molinnus
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, D-52428 Jülich, Germany
| | - Omar Mirza
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Tomás Guinovart
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Departamento de Química Analítica, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Joshua R Windmiller
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Electrozyme LLC, Executive Square (Suite 485), San Diego, CA 92037, USA
| | | | - Francisco J Andrade
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Michael J Schöning
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, D-52428 Jülich, Germany
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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15
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Brown MB, Haack KKV, Pollack BP, Millard-Stafford M, McCarty NA. Low abundance of sweat duct Cl- channel CFTR in both healthy and cystic fibrosis athletes with exceptionally salty sweat during exercise. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2011; 300:R605-15. [PMID: 21228336 PMCID: PMC3064278 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00660.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2010] [Accepted: 01/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To understand potential mechanisms explaining interindividual variability observed in human sweat sodium concentration ([Na(+)]), we investigated the relationship among [Na(+)] of thermoregulatory sweat, plasma membrane expression of Na(+) and Cl(-) transport proteins in biopsied human eccrine sweat ducts, and basal levels of vasopressin (AVP) and aldosterone. Lower ductal luminal membrane expression of the Cl(-) channel cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) was observed in immunofluorescent staining of sweat glands from healthy young adults identified as exceptionally "salty sweaters" (SS) (n = 6, P < 0.05) and from patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) (n = 6, P < 0.005) compared with ducts from healthy young adults with "typical" sweat [Na(+)] (control, n = 6). Genetic testing of healthy subjects did not reveal any heterozygotes ("carriers") for any of the 39 most common disease-causing CFTR mutations in the United States. SS had higher baseline plasma [AVP] compared with control (P = 0.029). Immunostaining to investigate a potential relationship between higher plasma [AVP] (and sweat [Na(+)]) and ductal membrane aquaporin-5 revealed for all groups a relatively sparse and location-dependent ductal expression of the water channel with localization primarily to the secretory coil. Availability of CFTR for NaCl transport across the ductal membrane appears related to the significant physiological variability observed in sweat salt concentration in apparently healthy humans. At present, a heritable link between healthy salty sweaters and the most prevalent disease-causing CFTR mutations cannot be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Beth Brown
- School of Applied Physiology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA.
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