P38 MAP Kinase Mediates Apoptosis After Genipin Treatment in Non^|^ndash;Small-Cell Lung Cancer H1299 Cells via a Mitochondrial Apoptotic Cascade

Genipin's potential as an anti-cancer agent: from phytochemical origins to clinical prospects

This comprehensive review delves into the multifaceted aspects of genipin, a bioactive compound derived from medicinal plants, focusing on its anti-cancer potential. The review begins by detailing the sources and phytochemical properties of genipin, underscoring its significance in traditional medicine and its transition into contemporary cancer research. It then explores the intricate relationship between genipin's chemical structure and its observed anti-cancer activity, highlighting the molecular underpinnings contributing to its therapeutic potential. This is complemented by a thorough analysis of preclinical studies, which investigates genipin's efficacy against various cancer cell lines and its mechanisms of action at the cellular level. A crucial component of the review is the examination of genipin's bioavailability and pharmacokinetics, providing insights into how the compound is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted in the body. Then, this review offers a general and updated overview of the anti-cancer studies of genipin and its derivatives based on its basic molecular mechanisms, induction of apoptosis, inhibition of cell proliferation, and disruption of cancer cell signaling pathways. We include information that complements the genipin study, such as toxicity data, and we differentiate this review by including commercial status, disposition, and regulation. Also, this review of genipin stands out for incorporating information on proposals for a technological approach through its load in nanotechnology to improve its bioavailability. The culmination of this information positions genipin as a promising candidate for developing novel anti-cancer drugs capable of supplementing or enhancing current cancer therapies.

Genipin inhibits proliferation of gastric cancer cells by inducing ferroptosis: an integrated study of network pharmacology and bioinformatics study

Ferroptosis has been demonstrated to suppress cancer development and is targeted for cancer therapy. Genipin, an iridoid constituent in Gardeniae Fructus, has been reported to exert anti-cancer abilities. However, whether genipin could induce ferroptosis remains unclear. The purpose of this study is to explore the anti-gastric cancer (GC) effects of genipin by inducing ferroptosis and to identify the potential targets. CCK-8 and colony formation assays were performed to evaluate the anti-GC effects of genipin. Flowcytometry and western blot were used to indicate ferroptosis-inducing ability of genipin. The potential targets of genipin were analyzed by network pharmacology, screened using UALCAN and KM-plotter database and evaluated by molecular docking. The results showed that genipin inhibited cell viability and proliferation of GC cells. Genipin treatment decreased levels of GPX4 and SLC7A11, induced accumulation of lipid peroxidation intracellularly and led to ferroptosis in GC cells. Network pharmacology analysis identified that lipid- and ROS-related pathways involved in ferroptosis ranked high among genipin-GC common targets. Data from UALCAN and KM-plotter database demonstrated that expression levels of ferroptosis-related targets, including AURKA, BCAT2, DHODH, and GPI, increased in GC tissues and the higher levels of the above four targets were related to tumor stage, tumor grade, and poor prognosis. Among these four targets, AURKA, BCAT2, and DHODH were confirmed by molecular docking with binding energies less than - 5. Taken together, our study demonstrates that genipin could exert anti-GC ability by inducing ferroptosis and provides evidence for the potential application of genipin in GC treatment.

Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) fruit: a critical review of its functional nutrients, processing methods, health-promoting effects, comprehensive application and future tendencies

Gardenia fruit (GF) is the mature fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, boasting a rich array of nutrients and phytochemicals. Over time, GF has been extensively utilized in both food and medicinal contexts. In recent years, numerous studies have delved into the chemical constituents of GF and their associated pharmacological activities, encompassing its phytochemical composition and health-promoting properties. This review aims to provide a critical and comprehensive summary of GF research, covering nutrient content, extraction technologies, and potential health benefits, offering new avenues for future investigations and highlighting its potential as an innovative food resource. Additionally, the review proposes novel industrial applications for GF, such as utilizing gardenia yellow/red/blue pigments in the food industry and incorporating it with other herbs in traditional Chinese medicine. By addressing current challenges in developing GF-related products, this work provides insights for potential applications in the cosmetics, food, and health products industries. Notably, there is a need for the development of more efficient extraction methods to harness the nutritional components of GF fully. Further research is needed to understand the specific molecular mechanisms underlying its bioactivities. Exploring advanced processing techniques to create innovative GF-derived products will show great promise for the future.

Genipin, an Inhibitor of UCP2 as a Promising New Anticancer Agent: A Review of the Literature

Genipin is a protein cross-linking agent extracted from Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) fruits. This fruit has conventionally been used as a Chinese herbal medicine for the treatment of inflammation and jaundice and as an edible colorant in oriental countries. Uncoupling protein (UCP)-2 is a member of the family of uncoupling proteins, which are anion transporters positioned in the mitochondrial inner membrane. Genipin has been shown to have hepatoprotective activity, acting as an effective antioxidant and inhibitor of mitochondrial UCP2, and is also reported to exert significant anticancer effects. In this review, the author presents the latest progress of genipin as an anticancer agent and concisely describes its various mechanisms of action. In brief, genipin inhibits UCP2 to attenuate generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to ROS/c-Jun N-terminal kinase-dependent apoptosis of cancer cells. Genipin also increases the tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteases (MMP)-2, a kind of tumor promoter in a variety of cancers, as well as induces caspase-dependent apoptosis in in vitro and in vivo models. These findings suggest that genipin can serve as a promising novel antitumor agent that could be applicable for chemotherapy and/or chemoprevention for cancers.

A Review on Mechanistic Insight of Plant Derived Anticancer Bioactive Phytocompounds and Their Structure Activity Relationship

Cancer is a disorder that rigorously affects the human population worldwide. There is a steady demand for new remedies to both treat and prevent this life-threatening sickness due to toxicities, drug resistance and therapeutic failures in current conventional therapies. Researchers around the world are drawing their attention towards compounds of natural origin. For decades, human beings have been using the flora of the world as a source of cancer chemotherapeutic agents. Currently, clinically approved anticancer compounds are vincristine, vinblastine, taxanes, and podophyllotoxin, all of which come from natural sources. With the triumph of these compounds that have been developed into staple drug products for most cancer therapies, new technologies are now appearing to search for novel biomolecules with anticancer activities. Ellipticine, camptothecin, combretastatin, curcumin, homoharringtonine and others are plant derived bioactive phytocompounds with potential anticancer properties. Researchers have improved the field further through the use of advanced analytical chemistry and computational tools of analysis. The investigation of new strategies for administration such as nanotechnology may enable the development of the phytocompounds as drug products. These technologies have enhanced the anticancer potential of plant-derived drugs with the aim of site-directed drug delivery, enhanced bioavailability, and reduced toxicity. This review discusses mechanistic insights into anticancer compounds of natural origins and their structural activity relationships that make them targets for anticancer treatments.

Cancer Chemotherapy via Natural Bioactive Compounds

BACKGROUND

Cancer-induced mortality is increasingly prevalent globally which skyrocketed the necessity to discover new/novel safe and effective anticancer drugs. Cancer is characterized by the continuous multiplication of cells in the human which is unable to control. Scientific research is drawing its attention towards naturally-derived bioactive compounds as they have fewer side effects compared to the current synthetic drugs used for chemotherapy.

OBJECTIVE

Drugs isolated from natural sources and their role in the manipulation of epigenetic markers in cancer are discussed briefly in this review article.

METHODS

With advancing medicinal plant biotechnology and microbiology in the past century, several anticancer phytomedicines were developed. Modern pharmacopeia contains at least 25% herbal-based remedy including clinically used anticancer drugs. These drugs mainly include the podophyllotoxin derivatives vinca alkaloids, curcumin, mistletoe plant extracts, taxanes, camptothecin, combretastatin, and others including colchicine, artesunate, homoharringtonine, ellipticine, roscovitine, maytanasin, tapsigargin,andbruceantin.

RESULTS

Compounds (psammaplin, didemnin, dolastin, ecteinascidin,and halichondrin) isolated from marine sources and animals such as microalgae, cyanobacteria, heterotrophic bacteria, invertebrates. They have been evaluated for their anticancer activity on cells and experimental animal models and used chemotherapy.Drug induced manipulation of epigenetic markers plays an important role in the treatment of cancer.

CONCLUSION

The development of a new drug from isolated bioactive compounds of plant sources has been a feasible way to lower the toxicity and increase their effectiveness against cancer. Potential anticancer therapeutic leads obtained from various ethnomedicinal plants, foods, marine, and microorganisms are showing effective yet realistically safe pharmacological activity. This review will highlight important plant-based bioactive compounds like curcumin, stilbenes, terpenes, other polyphenolic phyto-compounds, and structurally related families that are used to prevent/ ameliorate cancer. However, a contribution from all possible fields of science is still a prerequisite for discovering safe and effective anticancer drugs.

Synthetic and Naturally Occurring Heterocyclic Anticancer Compounds with Multiple Biological Targets

Cancer is a complex group of diseases initiated by abnormal cell division with the potential of spreading to other parts of the body. The advancement in the discoveries of omics and bio- and cheminformatics has led to the identification of drugs inhibiting putative targets including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family receptors, fibroblast growth factors (FGF), platelet derived growth factors (PDGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), thymidine phosphorylase (TP), and neuropeptide Y4 (NY4), amongst others. Drug resistance, systemic toxicity, and drug ineffectiveness for various cancer chemo-treatments are widespread. Due to this, efficient therapeutic agents targeting two or more of the putative targets in different cancer cells are proposed as cutting edge treatments. Heterocyclic compounds, both synthetic and natural products, have, however, contributed immensely to chemotherapeutics for treatments of various diseases, but little is known about such compounds and their multimodal anticancer properties. A compendium of heterocyclic synthetic and natural product multitarget anticancer compounds, their IC50, and biological targets of inhibition are therefore presented in this review.

In vitro bioactivity approach of unripe genipap (Genipa americana L., Rubiaceae) fruit extract and its solid lipid microparticle

Growing awareness in favor of innovative and healthier alternatives is creating a noticeable shift from synthetic colorants to natural additives. And, such a swing in the consumer market is growing slowly but noticeably. In this context, genipap (Genipa americana L.) fruit represents an emerging source of blue colorants in Latin America with extensive application possibilities. This is despite the fact that there are few studies concerning its toxicity predictive factors. In this early-stage study we propose to investigate safety issues around genipap extract (IBBP); we also attempt to identify fingerprint profiling of both IBBP extract and solid lipid microparticles containing IBBP extract (SLM-IBBP) using in vitro assays. The main compounds identified were genipin, and genipin 1-β-gentiobioside. Results indicated that IBBP extract, at 25 µg/mL, was able to promote DNA damage in CHO-K1 cells, suggesting a genotoxic effect. On the other hand, the SLM-IBBP inhibited almost all cancer cell lines with GI₅₀ ranging from 0.25 μg/mL to 43.5 μg/mL. Also, IBBP-SLM seems to exert a desirable apoptosis induction (at 25 µg/mL dosage). The next steps for our work, therefore, will focus on other nanoparticle formulation approaches, in particular with the use of natural Brazilian starch. An evaluation of the metabolism and distribution of microparticles, and their safety for food and pharmaceutical purposes, are also required.

Genipin induces mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis via downregulation of Stat3/mcl-1 pathway in gastric cancer

BACKGROUND

Genipin is a compound derived from gardenia fruit extract. Although Genipin has anti-tumor effects in various cancers, its effect and mechanism in gastric cancer remain unclear. Here, we investigated the relationship between the anticancer effect of Genipin and signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat3)/myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1) in human gastric cancers.

METHODS

MTT assays were performed to determine the cell viability of gastric cancer and gastric epithelial cell lines (AGS, MKN45, SNU638, MKN74, HFE-145). A TUNEL assay and Western blotting were carried out to investigate apoptosis. Stat3 activity was measured by proteome profiler phospho kinase array, immunofluorescence and immunoblotting. Mitochondria function was monitored with an XF24 analyzer and by flow cytometry, confocal microscopy using fluorescent probes for general mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP).

RESULTS

Genipin induced apoptosis in gastric cancer cells, including AGS and MKN45 cells. Genipin also reduced Mcl-1 mRNA and protein levels. Furthermore, we found that phosphorylation of Stat3 is regulated by Genipin. Additionally, the protein level of phospho Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) was decreased by Genipin treatment, indicating that the Stat3/JAK2/Mcl-1 pathway is suppressed by Genipin treatment in gastric cancer cells. Mcl-1 is closely related to mitochondrial function. These findings suggest that Genipin contributes to the collapse of mitochondrial functions like MMP.

CONCLUSIONS

Genipin induced apoptosis by suppressing the Stat3/Mcl-1 pathway and led to mitochondrial dysfunction. Our results reveal a novel mechanism for the anti-cancer effect of Genipin in gastric cancer.

Genipin induces cell death via intrinsic apoptosis pathways in human glioblastoma cells

Genipin, a compound derived from Gardenis jasminoides Ellis fruits, was demonstrated to be the specific uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) inhibitor. UCP2 is a mitochondrial carrier protein that creates proton leaks across the inner mitochondrial membrane, thus uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis. Several studies revealed that UCP2 is broadly over-expressed in leukemia, colorectal, lung, ovarian, prostate, testicular, and bladder cancers. However, the effect of genipin still needs to be elucidated in neurological malignancies. In this study, we investigated the anticancer effect of genipin in U87MG and A172 cell lines. The anticancer effect of genipin on these cell lines was measured by microculture tetrazoliumtest (MTT), Trypan blue exclusion, and colony formation assays, in the presence of various concentrations of genipin at different time intervals. We assessed apoptosis and measure intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) by flow cytometry. Expression of UCP2 and some of the genes involved in apoptosis was analyzed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results of the MTT assay showed that genipin moderately reduced metabolic activity of both cell lines in dose- and time-dependent manner. Result of Trypan blue exclusion test indicated that the viable cell count decreased in the treated group in a concentration-dependent manner. Genipin also significantly decreased colony formation ability of these cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Result of morphological changes showed that there were significant differences in cell number and morphology in treated groups as compared with the untreated groups. Flow cytometric analysis of U87MG and A172 cells with annexin V/propidium iodide staining, 48 hours after treatment with genipin, displays 22.4% and 26.1% apoptotic population, respectively, in treated cells, in comparison to 7.42% and 9.31% apoptotic cells of untreated cells. After treatment, UCP2 and B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL ₂ ) genes are downregulated, and BCL ₂ associated X protein, BCL ₂ antagonist/killer, BCL ₂ interacting killer, and Cytochrome c genes are upregulated. Genipin treatment increased mitochondrial ROS levels and also induced apoptosis through caspase-3 upregulation. In conclusion, the antiproliferative effects of genipin on the growth of both glioblastoma cell lines have been shown in all of these assays, and genipin profoundly induced apoptosis in both cell lines via the UCP2-related mitochondrial pathway through the induction of intracellular ROS.

Anticancer Activity of Natural Compounds from Plant and Marine Environment

This paper describes the substances of plant and marine origin that have anticancer properties. The chemical structure of the molecules of these substances, their properties, mechanisms of action, their structure⁻activity relationships, along with their anticancer properties and their potential as chemotherapeutic drugs are discussed in this paper. This paper presents natural substances from plants, animals, and their aquatic environments. These substances include the vinca alkaloids, mistletoe plant extracts, podophyllotoxin derivatives, taxanes, camptothecin, combretastatin, and others including geniposide, colchicine, artesunate, homoharringtonine, salvicine, ellipticine, roscovitine, maytanasin, tapsigargin, and bruceantin. Compounds (psammaplin, didemnin, dolastin, ecteinascidin, and halichondrin) isolated from the marine plants and animals such as microalgae, cyanobacteria, heterotrophic bacteria, invertebrates (e.g., sponges, tunicates, and soft corals) as well as certain other substances that have been tested on cells and experimental animals and used in human chemotherapy.

Potential role of genipin in cancer therapy

Genipin, an aglycone derived from the iridoid glycoside, geniposide, is isolated and characterized from the extract of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit (family Rubiaceae). It has long been used in traditional oriental medicine for the prevention and treatment of several inflammation driven diseases, including cancer. Genipin has been shown to have hepatoprotective activity acting as a potent antioxidant and inhibitor of mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2), and also reported to exert significant anticancer effects. It is an excellent crosslinking agent that helps to make novel sustained or delayed release nanoparticle formulations. In this review, we present the latest developments of genipin as an anticancer agent and briefly describe its diverse mechanism(s) of action. Several lines of evidence suggest that genipin is a potent inhibitor of UCP2, which functions as a tumor promoter in a variety of cancers, attenuates generation of reactive oxygen species and the expression of matrix metalloproteinase 2, as well as induces caspase-dependent apoptosis in vitro and in in vivo models. These finding suggests that genipin can serve as both a prominent anticancer agent as well as a potent crosslinking drug that may find useful application in several novel pharmaceutical formulations.

Plant-Derived Anticancer Agents: Lessons from the Pharmacology of Geniposide and Its Aglycone, Genipin

For centuries, plants have been exploited by mankind as sources of numerous cancer chemotherapeutic agents. Good examples of anticancer compounds of clinical significance today include the taxanes (e.g., taxol), vincristine, vinblastine, and the podophyllotoxin analogues that all trace their origin to higher plants. While all these drugs, along with the various other available therapeutic options, brought some relief in cancer management, a real breakthrough or cure has not yet been achieved. This critical review is a reflection on the lessons learnt from decades of research on the iridoid glycoside geniposide and its aglycone, genipin, which are currently used as gold standard reference compounds in cancer studies. Their effects on tumour development (carcinogenesis), cancer cell survival, and death, with particular emphasis on their mechanisms of actions, are discussed. Particular attention is also given to mechanisms related to the dual pro-oxidant and antioxidant effects of these compounds, the mitochondrial mechanism of cancer cell killing through reactive oxygen species (ROS), including that generated through the uncoupling protein-2 (UCP-2), the inflammatory mechanism, and cell cycle regulation. The implications of various studies for the evaluation of glycosidic and aglycone forms of natural products in vitro and in vivo through pharmacokinetic scrutiny are also addressed.

Genipin inhibits the growth of human bladder cancer cells via inactivation of PI3K/Akt signaling

Genipin, a natural compound derived from the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides, possesses numerous biological properties. The aim of the present study was to investigate the anticancer effects of genipin in human bladder cancer. T24 and 5637 bladder cancer cells were treated with different concentrations of genipin (0-200 µM) and tested for cell viability, colony formation, cell cycle progression and apoptosis. A xenograft model of bladder cancer was established to determine the anticancer effect of genipin in vivo. The involvement of the phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway in the action of genipin was examined. Genipin treatment significantly inhibited the viability and clonogenic growth of bladder cancer cells and inhibited the growth of T24 xenograft tumors, compared with vehicle controls (P<0.05). Genipin-treated cells exhibited a cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1-phase, which was accompanied by a deregulation of numerous cell cycle regulators. Genipin-treated cells demonstrated a significant increase in the percentage of apoptotic cells, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, Bax translocation to the mitochondria and the release of cytochrome c to the cytosol. Additionally, genipin treatment significantly (P<0.05) reduced the phosphorylation levels of PI3K and Akt in bladder cancer cells. Importantly, genipin-mediated anticancer effects were reversed by the overexpression of constitutively active Akt. In conclusion, to the best of our knowledge, the present study demonstrates for the first time the growth inhibitory effects of genipin in bladder cancer cells, and indicates its potential as a natural anticancer agent for bladder cancer.

P38 MAP kinase is involved in oleuropein-induced apoptosis in A549 cells by a mitochondrial apoptotic cascade

Lung cancer is one of malignant tumors that cause great threats to human health, which causes the fastest growing morbidity and mortality. Oleuropein as natural production exerts anticancer effects in several cancer cells. In the study, we investigated apoptotic effect of oleuropein on A549 cells and the underlying mechanisms. Oleuropein markedly decreased cell viability in A549 cells by resulting in G₂/M phase arrest, but failed to decreased cell viability in BEAS-2B cells significantly. Apoptosis by oleuropein was confirmed by apoptotic morphology, accumulation in a sub-G₁ peak, nucleus fragmentation and cleavage of PARP. Dose-dependent elevation in p-p38MAPK and p-ATF-2 was observed whereas apparent changes could not be observed in p-JNK and p-c-Jun, showing activation of p38MAPK but not JNK. Interestingly, ERK1/2 appeared to be constant while p-ERK1/2 was reduced dose-dependently. Oleuropein caused decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, increase in Bax/Bcl- 2 ratio, release of mitochondrial cytochrome c and activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3, implying that mitochondrial apoptotic pathway was activated. Additionally, oleuropein-induced apoptosis was dramatically attenuated by Z-VAD-FMK (caspase inhibitor). The p38MAPK inhibitor prevented production of apoptotic bodies and reduced expressions of cleaved-PARP, p-P38, p-ATF-2 and release of cytochrome c. Taken together, these results demonstrated p38MAPK signaling pathway mediated oleuropein-induced apoptosis via mitochondrial apoptotic cascade in A549 cells. Oleuropein has the potential to be a therapeutic drug for lung cancer treatment.

The Hydroxyl at Position C1 of Genipin Is the Active Inhibitory Group that Affects Mitochondrial Uncoupling Protein 2 in Panc-1 Cells

Genipin (GNP) effectively inhibits uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2), which regulates the leakage of protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. UCP2 inhibition may induce pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell death by increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. In this study, the hydroxyls at positions C10 (10-OH) and C1 (1-OH) of GNP were hypothesized to be the active groups that cause these inhibitory effects. Four GNP derivatives in which the hydroxyl at position C10 or C1 was replaced with other chemical groups were synthesized and isolated. Differences in the inhibitory effects of GNP and its four derivatives on pancreatic carcinoma cell (Panc-1) proliferation were assessed. The effects of GNP and its derivatives on apoptosis, UCP2 inhibition and ROS production were also studied to explore the relationship between GNP’s activity and its structure. The derivatives with 1-OH substitutions, geniposide (1-GNP1) and 1-ethyl-genipin (1-GNP2) lacked cytotoxic effects, while the other derivatives that retained 1-OH, 10-piv-genipin (10-GNP1) and 10-acetic acid-genipin (10-GNP2) exerted biological effects similar to those of GNP, even in the absence of 10-OH. Thus, 1-OH is the key functional group in the structure of GNP that is responsible for GNP’s apoptotic effects. These cytotoxic effects involve the induction of Panc-1 cell apoptosis through UCP2 inhibition and subsequent ROS production.

A Mechanism for the Temporal Potentiation of Genipin to the Cytotoxicity of Cisplatin in Colon Cancer Cells

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the potentiation effect of Genipin to Cisplatin induced cell senescence in HCT-116 colon cancer cells in vitro.

METHODS

Cell viability was estimated by Propidium iodide and Hoechst 3342, reactive oxygen species (ROS) with DHE, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) with JC-1 MMP assay Kit and electron current production with microbial fuel cells (MFC).

RESULTS

Genipin inhibited the UCP2 mediated anti-oxidative proton leak significantly promoted the Cisplatin induced ROS and subsequent cell death, which was similar to that of UCP2-siRNA. Cells treated with Cisplatin alone or combined with Genipin, ROS negatively, while MMP positively correlated with cell viability. Cisplatin induced ROS was significantly decreased by detouring electrons to MFC, or increased by Genipin combined treatment. Compensatory effects of UCP2 up-regulation with time against Genipin treatment were suggested. Shorter the Genipin treatment before Cisplatin better promoted the Cisplatin induced ROS and subsequent cell death.

CONCLUSION

The interaction of leaked electron with Cisplatin was important during ROS generation. Inhibition of UCP2-mediated proton leak with Genipin potentiated the cytotoxicity of Cisplatin. Owing to the compensatory effects against Genipin, shorter Genipin treatment before Cisplatin was recommended in order to achieve better potentiation effect.

Natural Products for Chemoprevention of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is the primary cause of cancer death in women. Although current therapies have shown some promise against breast cancer, there is still no effective cure for the majority of patients in the advanced stages of breast cancer. Development of effective agents to slow, reduce, or reverse the incidence of breast cancer in high-risk women is necessary. Chemoprevention of breast cancer by natural products is advantageous, as these compounds have few side effects and low toxicity compared to synthetic compounds. In the present review, we summarize natural products which exert chemopreventive activities against breast cancer, such as curcumin, sauchinone, lycopene, denbinobin, genipin, capsaicin, and ursolic acid. This review examines the current knowledge about natural compounds and their mechanisms that underlie breast cancer chemopreventive activity both in vitro and in vivo. The present review may provide information on the use of these compounds for the prevention of breast cancer.

Induction of apoptosis by genipin inhibits cell proliferation in AGS human gastric cancer cells via Egr1/p21 signaling pathway

Natural compounds are becoming important candidates in cancer therapy due to their cytotoxic effects on cancer cells by inducing various types of programmed cell deaths. In this study, we investigated whether genipin induces programmed cell deaths and mediates in Egr1/p21 signaling pathways in gastric cancer cells. Effects of genipin in AGS cancer cell lines were observed via evaluation of cell viability, ROS generation, cell cycle arrest, and protein and RNA levels of p21, Egr1, as well as apoptotic marker genes. The cell viability of AGS cells reduced by genipin treatment via induction of the caspase 3-dependent apoptosis. Cell cycle arrest was observed at the G2/M phase along with induction of p21 and p21-dependent cyclins. As an upstream mediator of p21, the transcription factor early growth response-1 (Egr1) upregulated p21 through nuclear translocation and binding to the p21 promoter site. Silencing Egr1 expression inhibited the expression of p21 and downstream molecules involved in apoptosis. We demonstrated that genipin treatment in AGS human gastric cancer cell line induces apoptosis via p53-independent Egr1/p21 signaling pathway in a dose-dependent manner.

p38MAPK activation mediates tumor necrosis factor-α-induced apoptosis in glioma cells

Gliomas are a type of heterogeneous primary central nervous system tumor, which arise from the glial cells; these types of tumor generally respond poorly to surgery, radiation and conventional chemotherapy. Tumor necrosis factor‑α (TNF‑α) has been suggested to produce an antitumor effect by binding to specific receptors on the tumor cell membrane to induce apoptosis. TNF‑α is known to activate a number of signaling pathways, including extracellular signal‑regulated protein kinase, c‑Jun N‑terminal kinase (JNK), p38 mitogen‑activated protein kinase (p38MAPK), nuclear factor‑κB and caspase cascades, depending on the cell type. However, the involvement of p38MAPK signaling in TNF‑α‑induced apoptosis in glioma cells remains unclear. In the current study, the role of p38MAPK in TNF‑α‑induced apoptosis in rat glioma C6 cells was investigated. TNF‑α was observed to induce cell apoptosis and the phosphorylation of p38MAPK in C6 cells. In addition, the inhibition of p38MAPK markedly reduced TNF‑α‑induced apoptosis, while JNK inhibition did not affect apoptosis. Furthermore, p38MAPK transfection altered the cell cycle of glioma cells and increased the rate of apoptosis. It also led to an increase in the level of soluble TNF‑α in the culture supernatant and membrane TNF receptor I levels in tumor cells. In conclusion, the results of the current study demonstrated that the activation of p38MAPK mediates TNF‑α‑induced apoptosis in glioma C6 cells, suggesting p38MAPK as a potential target for glioma therapy.

Text mining and network analysis of molecular interaction in non-small cell lung cancer by using natural language processing

Lung cancer including non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and small cell lung cancer is one of the most aggressive tumors with high incidence and low survival rate. The typical NSCLC patients account for 80-85 % of the total lung cancer patients. To systemically explore the molecular mechanisms of NSCLC, we performed a molecular network analysis between human and mouse to identify key genes (pathways) involved in the occurrence of NSCLC. We automatically extracted the human-to-mouse orthologous interactions using the GeneWays system by natural language processing and further constructed molecular (gene and its products) networks by mapping the human-to-mouse interactions to NSCLC-related mammalian phenotypes, followed by module analysis using ClusterONE of Cytoscape and pathway enrichment analysis using the database for annotation, visualization and integrated discovery (DAVID) successively. A total of 70 genes were proven to be related to the mammalian phenotypes of NSCLC, and seven genes (ATAD5, BECN1, CDKN2A, FNTB, E2F1, KRAS and PTEN) were found to have a bearing on more than one mammalian phenotype (MP) each. Four network clusters centered by four genes thyroglobulin (TG), neurofibromatosis type-1 (NF1 ), neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2 ) and E2F transcription factor 1 (E2F1) were generated. Genes in the four network modules were enriched in eight KEGG pathways (p value < 0.05), including pathways in cancer, small cell lung cancer, cell cycle and p53 signaling pathway. Genes p53 and E2F1 may play important roles in NSCLC occurrence, and thus can be considered as therapeutic targets for NSCLC.

Metformin inhibits the proliferation of A549/CDDP cells by activating p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase

Metformin (Met) has been widely used in hypoglycemic therapy, and it is also able to reduce the incidence of tumors and tumor-related mortality. The present study investigated whether Met could inhibit the proliferation of lung cancer cells and enhance the sensitivity of a cisplatin-resistant lung cancer A549/CDDP cell line to cisplatin. It was found that Met treatment inhibited the proliferation of different lung cancer cells. Met inhibited the cell cycle of the A549/CDDP cells and induced apoptosis. Upon Met treatment, the A549/CDDP cells were arrested at the G₁ phase. The apoptosis of the A549/CDDP cells was confirmed by the appearance of apoptotic bodies in cells stained with Hoechst 33258, and by the cleavage of BH3 interacting-domain death agonist and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. Furthermore, results showed that the phosphorylation level of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) was increased after Met treatment. The p38 MAPK inhibitor, SB203580, significantly blocked Met-induced apoptosis in the A549/CDDP cells. It was further demonstrated that Met could enhance the sensitivity of the A549/CDDP cells to cisplatin. In summary, the present study identified Met as a drug sensitizer that could improve the treatment effect of cisplatin in cisplatin-resistant lung cancers.

Fuzheng Qingjie recipe induces apoptosis in HepG2 cells via P38 MAPK activation and the mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathway

Fuzheng Qingjie (FZQJ) recipe is a polyherbal Chinese medicine capable of suppressing tumor growth and is used as an adjuvant therapy for various types of cancer. However, its anticancer mechanisms are yet to be fully elucidated. In the present study, we explored whether p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) was involved in FZQJ-mediated mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assays were used to measure the viability of HepG2 cells. 4,6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) and Annexin-V fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) were used to analyze the apoptosis of HepG2 cells. The mitochondrial membrane potential (∆ψ) and phosphorylated P38 MAPK protein were examined by a flow cytometer following 5,5',6,6'-tetrachloro‑1,1',3,3'-tetraethylbenzimidazolcarbocyanine iodide (JC-1) and Alexa Fluor® 647 mouse anti-phosphorylated P38 MAPK antibody staining, respectively. The activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3 were measured using colorimetric assays. Additionally, Bcl-2 and Bax expression were examined using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blot analysis. The results demonstrated that water extract of FZQJ was able to induce apoptosis of HepG2 cells in vitro. FZQJ-induced apoptosis was accompanied by the loss of ∆ψ, downregulation of Bcl-2 and upregulation of Bax expression, and the activation of caspase-3, -9 and P38 MAPK. These results indicated that FZQJ induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells at least via P38 MAPK activation and the mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathway.

Desensitization by different strategies of epidermal growth factor receptor and ErbB4

Four transmembrane tyrosine kinases constitute the ErbB protein family: epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) or ErbB1, ErbB2, ErbB3, and ErbB4. In general, the structure and mechanism of the activation of these members are similar. However, significant differences in homologous desensitization are known between EGFR and ErbB4. Desensitization of ligand-occupied EGFR occurs by endocytosis, while that of ErbB4 occurs by selective cleavage at the cell surface. Because ErbB4 is abundantly expressed in neurons from fetal to adult brains, elucidation of the desensitization mechanism is important to understand neuronal development and synaptic functions. Recently, it has become clear that heterologous desensitization of EGFR and ErbB4 are induced by endocytosis and cleavage, respectively, similar to homologous desensitization. It has been reported that heterologous desensitization of EGFR is induced by serine phosphorylation of EGFR via the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAP kinase) pathway in various cell lines, including alveolar epithelial cells. In contrast, the protein kinase C pathway is involved in ErbB4 cleavage. In this review, we will describe recent advances in the desensitization mechanisms of EGFR and ErbB4, mainly in alveolar epithelial cells and hypothalamic neurons, respectively.

WITHDRAWN: Varying levels and function of several biological macromolecules in myocardium

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