New insights into the immunomodulatory properties of poxvirus cytokine decoy receptors at the cell surface

Monkeypox Virus Immune Evasion and Eye Manifestation: Beyond Eyelid Implications

Monkeypox virus (MPXV), belonging to the Poxviridae family and Orthopoxvirus genus, is closely related to the smallpox virus. Initial prodromal symptoms typically include headache, fever, and lymphadenopathy. This review aims to detail various ocular manifestations and immune evasion associated with the monkeypox viral infection and its complications, making it appropriate as a narrative review. Common external ocular manifestations of MPXV typically involve a generalized pustular rash, keratitis, discharges, and dried secretions related to conjunctival pustules, photophobia, and lacrimation. Orthopoxviruses can evade host immune responses by secreting proteins that antagonize the functions of host IFNγ, CC and CXC chemokines, IL-1β, and the complement system. One of the most important transcription factors downstream of pattern recognition receptors binding is IRF3, which controls the expression of the crucial antiviral molecules IFNα and IFNβ. We strongly recommend that ophthalmologists include MPXV as part of their differential diagnosis when they encounter similar cases presenting with ophthalmic manifestations such as conjunctivitis, blepharitis, or corneal lesions. Furthermore, because non-vaccinated individuals are more likely to exhibit these symptoms, it is recommended that healthcare administrators prioritize smallpox vaccination for at-risk groups, including very young children, pregnant women, older adults, and immunocompromised individuals, especially those in close contact with MPXV cases.

Current Status of Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Therapeutics, and Vaccines for the Re-Emerging Human Monkeypox Virus

Monkeypox (Mpox) virus, a member of the Poxviridae family, causes a severe illness similar to smallpox, which is characterized by symptoms such as high fever, rash, and pustules. Human-to-human transmission cases have been reported but remained low since the first recorded case of human infection occurred in the Congo in 1970. Recently, Mpox has re-emerged, leading to an alarming surge in infections worldwide since 2022, originating in the United Kingdom. Consequently, the World Health Organization (WHO) officially declared the '2022-23 Mpox outbreak'. Currently, no specific therapy or vaccine is available for Mpox. Therefore, patients infected with Mpox are treated using conventional therapies developed for smallpox. However, the vaccines developed for smallpox have demonstrated only partial efficacy against Mpox, allowing viral transmission among humans. In this review, we discuss the current epidemiology of the ongoing Mpox outbreak and provide an update on the progress made in diagnosis, treatment, and development of vaccines for Mpox.

Detection of Chemokine Binding Proteins Association to Cell Surface Glycosaminoglycans by Flow Cell Cytometry and Indirect Immunofluorescence

Viruses encode secreted proteins that bind chemokines to modulate their activity. Viral proteins may simultaneously interact with glycosaminoglycans allowing these proteins to be anchored at the cell surface to increase their anti-chemokine activity in the proximity of infection. Here we describe methodology to evaluate the interaction of viral secreted proteins with cell-surface glycosaminoglycans by immunofluorescence and detection by flow cytometry or microscopy. These methods could be equally applied to other chemokine binding proteins that do not have viral origin.

Group 1 innate lymphoid-cell-derived interferon-γ maintains anti-viral vigilance in the mucosal epithelium

The oropharyngeal mucosa serves as a perpetual pathogen entry point and a critical site for viral replication and spread. Here, we demonstrate that type 1 innate lymphoid cells (ILC1s) were the major immune force providing early protection during acute oral mucosal viral infection. Using intravital microscopy, we show that ILC1s populated and patrolled the uninfected labial mucosa. ILC1s produced interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in the absence of infection, leading to the upregulation of key antiviral genes, which were downregulated in uninfected animals upon genetic ablation of ILC1s or antibody-based neutralization of IFN-γ. Thus, tonic IFN-γ production generates increased oral mucosal viral resistance even before infection. Our results demonstrate barrier-tissue protection through tissue surveillance in the absence of rearranged-antigen receptors and the induction of an antiviral state during homeostasis. This aspect of ILC1 biology raises the possibility that these cells do not share true functional redundancy with other tissue-resident lymphocytes.

Virus-encoded cytokine and chemokine decoy receptors

Poxviruses and herpesviruses encode secreted versions of cytokine receptors as a unique strategy to evade the host immune response. Recent advances in the field have shown the great impact of some of these proteins in immune modulation and viral pathogenesis, and have uncovered unique properties of these viral proteins not found in the cellular counterparts. These modifications inspired by viruses lead to improved immune modulatory activity of the soluble cytokine receptors, information that has been used to develop more efficient therapeutics to treat inflammatory conditions.

Intracellular Pathogens: Host Immunity and Microbial Persistence Strategies

Infectious diseases caused by pathogens including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites are ranked as the second leading cause of death worldwide by the World Health Organization. Despite tremendous improvements in global public health since 1950, a number of challenges remain to either prevent or eradicate infectious diseases. Many pathogens can cause acute infections that are effectively cleared by the host immunity, but a subcategory of these pathogens called "intracellular pathogens" can establish persistent and sometimes lifelong infections. Several of these intracellular pathogens manage to evade the host immune monitoring and cause disease by replicating inside the host cells. These pathogens have evolved diverse immune escape strategies and overcome immune responses by residing and multiplying inside host immune cells, primarily macrophages. While these intracellular pathogens that cause persistent infections are phylogenetically diverse and engage in diverse immune evasion and persistence strategies, they share common pathogen type-specific mechanisms during host-pathogen interaction inside host cells. Likewise, the host immune system is also equipped with a diverse range of effector functions to fight against the establishment of pathogen persistence and subsequent host damage. This article provides an overview of the immune effector functions used by the host to counter pathogens and various persistence strategies used by intracellular pathogens to counter host immunity, which enables their extended period of colonization in the host. The improved understanding of persistent intracellular pathogen-derived infections will contribute to develop improved disease diagnostics, therapeutics, and prophylactics.

A virus-encoded type I interferon decoy receptor enables evasion of host immunity through cell-surface binding

Soluble cytokine decoy receptors are potent immune modulatory reagents with therapeutic applications. Some virus-encoded secreted cytokine receptors interact with glycosaminoglycans expressed at the cell surface, but the biological significance of this activity in vivo is poorly understood. Here, we show the type I interferon binding protein (IFNα/βBP) encoded by vaccinia and ectromelia viruses requires of this cell binding activity to confer full virulence to these viruses and to retain immunomodulatory activity. Expression of a variant form of the IFNα/βBP that inhibits IFN activity, but does not interact with cell surface glycosaminoglycans, results in highly attenuated viruses with a virulence similar to that of the IFNα/βBP deletion mutant viruses. Transcriptomics analysis and infection of IFN receptor-deficient mice confirmed that the control of IFN activity is the main function of the IFNα/βBP in vivo. We propose that retention of secreted cytokine receptors at the cell surface may largely enhance their immunomodulatory activity.

A System Based-Approach to Examine Cytokine Response in Poxvirus-Infected Macrophages

The poxviruses are large, linear, double-stranded DNA viruses about 130 to 230 kbp, that have an animal origin and evolved to infect a wide host range. Variola virus (VARV), the causative agent of smallpox, is a poxvirus that infects only humans, but other poxviruses such as monkey poxvirus and cowpox virus (CPXV) have crossed over from animals to infect humans. Therefore understanding the biology of poxviruses can devise antiviral strategies to prevent these human infections. In this study we used a system-based approach to examine the host responses to three orthopoxviruses, CPXV, vaccinia virus (VACV), and ectromelia virus (ECTV) in the murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cell line. Overall, we observed a significant down-regulation of gene expressions for pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and related receptors. There were also common and virus-specific changes in the immune-regulated gene expressions for each poxvirus-infected RAW cells. Collectively our results showed that the murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cell line is a suitable cell-based model system to study poxvirus host response.