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Thangavel H, Dhanyalayam D, Kim M, Lizardo K, Sidrat T, Lopez JG, Wang X, Bansal S, Nagajyothi JF. Adipocyte-released adipomes in Chagas cardiomyopathy: Impact on cardiac metabolic and immune regulation. iScience 2024; 27:109672. [PMID: 38660407 PMCID: PMC11039351 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infection leads to Chagas cardiomyopathy (CCM), with varying manifestations such as inflammatory hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, arrhythmias, and dilated cardiomyopathy. The factors responsible for the increasing risk of progression to CCM are not fully understood. Previous studies link adipocyte loss to CCM progression, but the mechanism triggering CCM pathogenesis remains unexplored. Our study uncovers that T. cruzi infection triggers adipocyte apoptosis, leading to the release of extracellular vesicles named "adipomes". We developed an innovative method to isolate intact adipomes from infected mice's adipose tissue and plasma, showing they carry unique lipid cargoes. Large and Small adipomes, particularly plasma-derived infection-associated L-adipomes (P-ILA), regulate immunometabolic signaling and induce cardiomyopathy. P-ILA treatment induces hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in wild-type mice and worsens cardiomyopathy severity in post-acute-infected mice by regulating adipogenic/lipogenic and mitochondrial functions. These findings highlight adipomes' pivotal role in promoting inflammation and impairing myocardial function during cardiac remodeling in CD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hariprasad Thangavel
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ 07110, USA
| | - Dhanya Dhanyalayam
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ 07110, USA
| | - Michelle Kim
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ 07110, USA
| | - Kezia Lizardo
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ 07110, USA
| | - Tabinda Sidrat
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ 07110, USA
| | | | - Xiang Wang
- Rutgers University Molecular Imaging Core (RUMIC), Rutgers Translational Sciences, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Shivani Bansal
- Departnment of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20057, USA
| | - Jyothi F. Nagajyothi
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ 07110, USA
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Glockzin K, Kostomiris D, Minnow YVT, Suthagar K, Clinch K, Gai S, Buckler JN, Schramm VL, Tyler PC, Meek TD, Katzfuss A. Kinetic Characterization and Inhibition of Trypanosoma cruzi Hypoxanthine–Guanine Phosphoribosyltransferases. Biochemistry 2022; 61:2088-2105. [PMID: 36193631 PMCID: PMC9536471 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.2c00312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
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Chagas disease, caused by the parasitic protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, affects over 8 million people
worldwide. Current antiparasitic treatments for Chagas disease are
ineffective in treating advanced, chronic stages of the disease, and
are noted for their toxicity. Like most parasitic protozoa, T. cruzi is unable to synthesize purines de novo, and relies on the salvage of preformed purines
from the host. Hypoxanthine–guanine phosphoribosyltransferases
(HGPRTs) are enzymes that are critical for the salvage of preformed
purines, catalyzing the formation of inosine monophosphate (IMP) and
guanosine monophosphate (GMP) from the nucleobases hypoxanthine and
guanine, respectively. Due to the central role of HGPRTs in purine
salvage, these enzymes are promising targets for the development of
new treatment methods for Chagas disease. In this study, we characterized
two gene products in the T. cruzi CL
Brener strain that encodes enzymes with functionally identical HGPRT
activities in vitro: TcA (TcCLB.509693.70) and TcC
(TcCLB.506457.30). The TcC isozyme was kinetically characterized to
reveal mechanistic details on catalysis, including identification
of the rate-limiting step(s) of catalysis. Furthermore, we identified
and characterized inhibitors of T. cruzi HGPRTs originally developed as transition-state analogue inhibitors
(TSAIs) of Plasmodium falciparum hypoxanthine–guanine–xanthine
phosphoribosyltransferase (PfHGXPRT), where the most
potent compound bound to T. cruzi HGPRT
with low nanomolar affinity. Our results validated the repurposing
of TSAIs to serve as selective inhibitors for orthologous molecular
targets, where primary and secondary structures as well as putatively
common chemical mechanisms are conserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla Glockzin
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, 300 Olsen Boulevard, College Station, Texas 77843-2128, United States
| | - Demetrios Kostomiris
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, 300 Olsen Boulevard, College Station, Texas 77843-2128, United States
| | - Yacoba V. T. Minnow
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461-1602, United States
| | - Kajitha Suthagar
- Ferrier Research Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, Gracefield Research Centre, 69 Gracefield Road, Gracefield, Lower Hutt 5010, New Zealand
| | - Keith Clinch
- Ferrier Research Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, Gracefield Research Centre, 69 Gracefield Road, Gracefield, Lower Hutt 5010, New Zealand
| | - Sinan Gai
- Ferrier Research Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, Gracefield Research Centre, 69 Gracefield Road, Gracefield, Lower Hutt 5010, New Zealand
| | - Joshua N. Buckler
- Ferrier Research Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, Gracefield Research Centre, 69 Gracefield Road, Gracefield, Lower Hutt 5010, New Zealand
| | - Vern L. Schramm
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461-1602, United States
| | - Peter C. Tyler
- Ferrier Research Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, Gracefield Research Centre, 69 Gracefield Road, Gracefield, Lower Hutt 5010, New Zealand
| | - Thomas D. Meek
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, 300 Olsen Boulevard, College Station, Texas 77843-2128, United States
| | - Ardala Katzfuss
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, 300 Olsen Boulevard, College Station, Texas 77843-2128, United States
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Torres RM, Correia D, Nunes MDCP, Dutra WO, Talvani A, Sousa AS, Mendes FDSNS, Scanavacca MI, Pisani C, Moreira MDCV, de Souza DDSM, de W, Martins SM, Dias JCP. Prognosis of chronic Chagas heart disease and other pending clinical challenges. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2022; 117:e210172. [PMID: 35674528 PMCID: PMC9172891 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760210172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
In this chapter, the main prognostic markers of Chagas heart disease are addressed, with an emphasis on the most recent findings and questions, establishing the basis for a broad discussion of recommendations and new approaches to managing Chagas cardiopathy. The main biological and genetic markers and the contribution of the electrocardiogram, echocardiogram and cardiac magnetic resonance are presented. We also discuss the most recent therapeutic proposals for heart failure, thromboembolism and arrhythmias, as well as current experience in heart transplantation in patients suffering from severe Chagas cardiomyopathy. The clinical and epidemiological challenges introduced by acute Chagas disease due to oral contamination are discussed. In addition, we highlight the importance of ageing and comorbidities in influencing the outcome of chronic Chagas heart disease. Finally, we discuss the importance of public policies, the vital role of funding agencies, universities, the scientific community and health professionals, and the application of new technologies in finding solutions for better management of Chagas heart disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dalmo Correia
- Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG, Brasil
| | | | - Walderez O Dutra
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - André Talvani
- Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG, Brasil
| | - Andréa Silvestre Sousa
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | | | | | - Cristiano Pisani
- Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | | | | | - Wilson de
- Universidade de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brasil
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Dhanyalayam D, Thangavel H, Lizardo K, Oswal N, Dolgov E, Perlin DS, Nagajyothi JF. Sex Differences in Cardiac Pathology of SARS-CoV2 Infected and Trypanosoma cruzi Co-infected Mice. Front Cardiovasc Med 2022; 9:783974. [PMID: 35369283 PMCID: PMC8965705 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2022.783974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2; CoV2) is a deadly contagious infectious disease. For those who survive COVID-19, post-COVID cardiac damage greatly increases the risk of cardiomyopathy and heart failure. Currently, the number of COVID-related cases are increasing in Latin America, where a major COVID comorbidity is Chagas' heart disease, which is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. However, the interplay between indeterminate Chagas disease and COVID-19 is unknown. We investigated the effect of CoV2 infection on heart pathology in T. cruzi infected mice (coinfected with CoV2 during the indeterminate stage of T. cruzi infection). We used transgenic human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (huACE2/hACE2) mice infected with CoV2, T. cruzi, or coinfected with both in this study. We found that the viral load in the hearts of coinfected mice is lower compared to the hearts of mice infected with CoV2 alone. We demonstrated that CoV2 infection significantly alters cardiac immune and energy signaling via adiponectin (C-ApN) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling. Our studies also showed that increased β-adrenergic receptor (b-AR) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) play a major role in shifting the energy balance in the hearts of coinfected female mice from glycolysis to mitochondrial β-oxidation. Our findings suggest that cardiac metabolic signaling may differently regulate the pathogenesis of Chagas cardiomyopathy (CCM) in coinfected mice. We conclude that the C-ApN/AMPK and b-AR/PPAR downstream signaling may play major roles in determining the progression, severity, and phenotype of CCM and heart failure in the context of COVID.
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Lizardo K, Ayyappan JP, Oswal N, Weiss LM, Scherer PE, Nagajyothi JF. Fat tissue regulates the pathogenesis and severity of cardiomyopathy in murine chagas disease. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0008964. [PMID: 33826636 PMCID: PMC8055007 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy (CCC) caused by a parasite Trypanosoma cruzi is a life-threatening disease in Latin America, for which there is no effective drug or vaccine. The pathogenesis of CCC is complex and multifactorial. Previously, we demonstrated T. cruzi infected mice lose a significant amount of fat tissue which correlates with progression of CCC. Based on this an investigation was undertaken during both acute and chronic T. cruzi infection utilizing the FAT-ATTAC murine model (that allows modulation of fat mass) to understand the consequences of the loss of adipocytes in the regulation of cardiac parasite load, parasite persistence, inflammation, mitochondrial stress, ER stress, survival, CCC progression and CCC severity. Mice were infected intraperitoneally with 5x104 and 103 trypomastigotes to generate acute and chronic Chagas models, respectively. Ablation of adipocytes was carried out in uninfected and infected mice by treatment with AP21087 for 10 days starting at 15DPI (acute infection) and at 65DPI (indeterminate infection). During acute infection, cardiac ultrasound imaging, histological, and biochemical analyses demonstrated that fat ablation increased cardiac parasite load, cardiac pathology and right ventricular dilation and decreased survival. During chronic indeterminate infection ablation of fat cells increased cardiac pathology and caused bi-ventricular dilation. These data demonstrate that dysfunctional adipose tissue not only affects cardiac metabolism but also the inflammatory status, morphology and physiology of the myocardium and increases the risk of progression and severity of CCC in murine Chagas disease. An estimated eight million individuals worldwide are chronically infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease (CD). Of these infected individuals, 30% will develop chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy (CCC), a major cause of morbidity and mortality in CD endemic regions for which there is currently no effective drug or vaccine. The molecular mechanisms underlying CCC pathogenesis, progression and severity are complex, multi-factorial and not completely understood. Earlier, it was demonstrated that T. cruzi persists in adipose tissue, alters adipocyte physiology, and causes loss of body fat mass in T. cruzi infected mice with CCC. In this study, the authors examined the role of visceral fat pad (adipose tissue) in regulating the pathogenic signalling in the development and progression of CCC using a fat mass modulatable transgenic mouse CD model. Loss of fat cells increased cardiac lipid load and deregulated cardiac lipid metabolism leading to mitochondrial oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress and severe CCC. In addition, loss of fat cells increased cardiac parasite load during acute infection and altered immune signalling in the hearts of infected mice during chronic infection. These discoveries underscore the importance of adipose tissue in the development of CCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kezia Lizardo
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack University Medical Center, Nutley, New Jersey, United States of America
| | | | - Neelam Oswal
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack University Medical Center, Nutley, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Louis M. Weiss
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of medicine, Bronx, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Philipp E. Scherer
- The Touchstone Diabetes Center, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | - Jyothi F. Nagajyothi
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack University Medical Center, Nutley, New Jersey, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Rodeles LM, Castro M, Zamora MAG, Savarino R, Peverengo LM, Prochetto ES, Marcipar I, Arias P, Vicco MH. Increased epicardial adipose tissue thickness associated with increased metabolic risk and the presence of heart failure in patients with Chronic Chagas disease. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2021; 115:1054-1060. [PMID: 33503657 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/traa189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has been described that Trypanosoma cruzi is capable of promoting metabolic disturbances currently considered as cardiovascular risk factors. Moreover, it has been observed that the protozoa can remain in adipose tissue and alter its immune endocrine functions. The aim of this study was to characterize the thickness of epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) in patients with chronic Chagas disease (CCD) concerning their cardiovascular metabolic risk profile compared with those without CCD. METHODS A cross-sectional study was performed including T. cruzi seropositive individuals categorized according to a standard CCD classification and a matched seronegative control group. Complete clinical examination, metabolic laboratory tests and transthoracic echocardiography to assess cardiac function and to quantify EAT were performed. RESULTS Fifty-five individuals aged 46.7±11.9 y, 34 with CCD and 21 in the control group, were included. The CCD group presented higher EAT thickness in relation to controls (4.54±1.28 vs 3.22±0.99 mm; p=0.001), which was significantly associated with the presence of insulin resistance (OR=3, 95% CI 1.58 to 5.73; p<0.001). This group presented lower levels of plasmatic adiponectin than controls, especially in those patients with EAT ≥4.5 mm (p=0.005) who also presented with heart failure more frequently (p=0.01). CONCLUSION In patients with CCD, a higher EAT thickness is observed and is associated with an increased metabolic risk profile indicated mainly by insulin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luz María Rodeles
- Centro de Estudios en Salud Global, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Ciudad Universitaria, Paraje El Pozo, Ruta Nacional 168, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Maximiliano Castro
- Hospital J. B. Iturraspe, Provincia de Santa Fe, Av Blas Parera 8301, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - María Ayelen Gaitán Zamora
- Centro de Estudios en Salud Global, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Ciudad Universitaria, Paraje El Pozo, Ruta Nacional 168, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Roberto Savarino
- Hospital J. B. Iturraspe, Provincia de Santa Fe, Av Blas Parera 8301, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Luz María Peverengo
- Laboratorio de Tecnología Inmunológica, Facultad de Bioquímicas y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Ciudad Universitaria, Paraje El Pozo, Ruta Nacional 168, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Estefanía Soledad Prochetto
- Laboratorio de Tecnología Inmunológica, Facultad de Bioquímicas y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Ciudad Universitaria, Paraje El Pozo, Ruta Nacional 168, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Iván Marcipar
- Centro de Estudios en Salud Global, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Ciudad Universitaria, Paraje El Pozo, Ruta Nacional 168, Santa Fe, Argentina.,Laboratorio de Tecnología Inmunológica, Facultad de Bioquímicas y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Ciudad Universitaria, Paraje El Pozo, Ruta Nacional 168, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Pablo Arias
- Cátedra de Fisiología Humana, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Santa Fe 3100, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Miguel Hernán Vicco
- Centro de Estudios en Salud Global, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Ciudad Universitaria, Paraje El Pozo, Ruta Nacional 168, Santa Fe, Argentina
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Santamaría MH, Ríos LD, Corral RS. Trypanosoma cruzi down-regulates adiponectin expression in mouse adipocytes via the NFAT signaling pathway. Microbes Infect 2020; 23:104757. [PMID: 32956869 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2020.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Upon infection by Trypanosoma cruzi, adipocytes adopt a clearly defined inflammatory phenotype with concomitant down-regulation of adiponectin expression, which influences the pathogenesis of Chagas heart disease. Herein, we examined how T. cruzi interferes with transcriptional regulation of adiponectin production in mouse adipocytes. The invading pathogen activates the Ca2+/calcineurin/NFATc4 signaling pathway in 3T3-L1 cells. Parasite-induced early activation of NFATc4 is involved in repressing adiponectin expression through recognition of the specific response element located at (-363 to -344) of the gene promoter. Nuclear import of dephosphorylated NFATc4 and decreased adiponectin levels were further demonstrated in white adipose tissue from acutely infected mice. Our current findings point to better clarify the complex role of adipose tissue in the modulation of inflammatory mechanisms operative during T. cruzi infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel H Santamaría
- Laboratorio de Biología Experimental, Centro de Estudios Metabólicos, Santander, Cantabria, Spain
| | - Luisa Delgado Ríos
- Laboratorio de Biología Experimental, Centro de Estudios Metabólicos, Santander, Cantabria, Spain
| | - Ricardo S Corral
- Instituto Multidisciplinario de Investigaciones en Patologías Pediátricas (IMIPP, CONICET-GCBA), Servicio de Parasitología-Chagas, Hospital de Niños "Dr. Ricardo Gutiérrez", Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Pesce Viglietti AI, Giambartolomei GH, Quarleri J, Delpino MV. Brucella abortus Infection Modulates 3T3-L1 Adipocyte Inflammatory Response and Inhibits Adipogenesis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11:585923. [PMID: 33071987 PMCID: PMC7531218 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.585923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Brucellosis is a prevalent global zoonotic infection but has far more impact in developing countries. The adipocytes are the most abundant cell type of adipose tissue and their secreted factors play an important role in several aspects of the innate and adaptive immune response. Here, we demonstrated the ability of Brucella abortus to infect and replicate in both adipocytes and its precursor cells (pre-adipocytes) derived from 3T3-L1 cell line. Additionally, infection of pre-adipocytes also inhibited adipogenesis in a mechanism independent of bacterial viability and dependent on lipidated outer membrane protein (L-Omp19). B. abortus infection was able to modulate the secretion of IL-6 and the matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) -2 and-9 in pre-adipocytes and adipocytes, and also modulated de transcription of adiponectin, leptin, and resistin in differentiated adipocytes. B. abortus-infected macrophages also modulate adipocyte differentiation involving a TNF-α dependent mechanism, thus suggesting a plausible interplay between B. abortus, adipocytes, and macrophages. In conclusion, B. abortus is able to alter adipogenesis process in adipocytes and its precursors directly after their infection, or merely their exposure to the B. abortus lipoproteins, and indirectly through soluble factors released by B. abortus-infected macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayelén Ivana Pesce Viglietti
- Instituto de Inmunología, Genética y Metabolismo (INIGEM), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Guillermo Hernán Giambartolomei
- Instituto de Inmunología, Genética y Metabolismo (INIGEM), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jorge Quarleri
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida (INBIRS), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- *Correspondence: María Victoria Delpino, ; Jorge Quarleri,
| | - María Victoria Delpino
- Instituto de Inmunología, Genética y Metabolismo (INIGEM), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- *Correspondence: María Victoria Delpino, ; Jorge Quarleri,
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