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Effects of Cannabidiol on Innate Immunity: Experimental Evidence and Clinical Relevance. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043125. [PMID: 36834537 PMCID: PMC9964491 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is the main non-psychotropic cannabinoid derived from cannabis (Cannabis sativa L., fam. Cannabaceae). CBD has received approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Medicines Agency (EMA) for the treatment of seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome or Dravet syndrome. However, CBD also has prominent anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects; evidence exists that it could be beneficial in chronic inflammation, and even in acute inflammatory conditions, such as those due to SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this work, we review available evidence concerning CBD's effects on the modulation of innate immunity. Despite the lack so far of clinical studies, extensive preclinical evidence in different models, including mice, rats, guinea pigs, and even ex vivo experiments on cells from human healthy subjects, shows that CBD exerts a wide range of inhibitory effects by decreasing cytokine production and tissue infiltration, and acting on a variety of other inflammation-related functions in several innate immune cells. Clinical studies are now warranted to establish the therapeutic role of CBD in diseases with a strong inflammatory component, such as multiple sclerosis and other autoimmune diseases, cancer, asthma, and cardiovascular diseases.
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Jiang F, Wu P, Zhang W. Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of 3′,5′‐d
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‐Cannabidiol. ChemistrySelect 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202204628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fan Jiang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry School of Pharmacy Fudan University 826 Zhangheng Road Shanghai 201203 China
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry School of Pharmacy Fudan University 826 Zhangheng Road Shanghai 201203 China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry School of Pharmacy Fudan University 826 Zhangheng Road Shanghai 201203 China
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Sim YE, Kim JW, Ko BJ, Kim JY, Cheong JC, Pyo J. Determination of urinary metabolites of cannabidiol, Δ 8-tetrahydrocannabinol, and Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol by automated online μSPE-LC-MS/MS method. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2023; 1214:123568. [PMID: 36527808 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2022.123568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In this study, an automated online micro-solid-phase extraction (μSPE)-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the detection of metabolites of cannabidiol (CBD), Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC), and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), particularly 7-carboxy- cannabidiol (7-COOH-CBD), 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THCCOOH), 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THCCOOH), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9- tetrahydrocannabinol-glucuronide (Δ9-THCCOOH-glu) in urine. An instrument top sample preparation (ITSP) cartridge was introduced to increase the sensitivity toward analytes and decrease the matrix effect of the urine. LC-MS/MS analysis was performed in the multiple-reaction monitoring mode, and the analytes were separated using an Acquity UPLC HSS T3 (2.1 × 100 mm, 1.8 µm) column and gradient elution with water containing 0.05 % acetic acid and methanol as the mobile phase. The calibration range was 0.5-200 ng/mL for all the analytes, with a correlation coefficient (r) of ≥0.996 and a weighting factor of 1/x2. The limits of detection for 7-COOH-CBD, Δ8-THCCOOH, Δ9-THCCOOH, and Δ9-THCCOOH-glu were 0.06, 0.02, 0.03, and 0.1 ng/mL, respectively. The intra- and inter-day accuracy ranged from -8.0 to 6.2 % and -7.3 to 7.8 % with a precision of ≤7.2 % and ≤6.2 %, respectively. The method was also validated for selectivity, recovery, matrix effect, stability, and dilution integrity. The developed method was successfully applied to the analysis of 78 urine samples, and 7-COOH-CBD, Δ8-THCCOOH, Δ9-THCCOOH, and Δ9-THCCOOH-glu were detected in 54 urine samples at normalized concentrations of 1.1, 0.6-939.1, 0.9-2595.0, and 1.3-527.6 ng/mg creatinine, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeong Eun Sim
- Forensic Genetics & Chemistry Division, Supreme Prosecutors' Office, Seoul 06590, Republic of Korea; College of Pharmacy, Kyungsung University, Busan 48434, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Woo Kim
- Forensic Genetics & Chemistry Division, Supreme Prosecutors' Office, Seoul 06590, Republic of Korea
| | - Beom Jun Ko
- Forensic Genetics & Chemistry Division, Supreme Prosecutors' Office, Seoul 06590, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Young Kim
- Forensic Genetics & Chemistry Division, Supreme Prosecutors' Office, Seoul 06590, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Chul Cheong
- Forensic Genetics & Chemistry Division, Supreme Prosecutors' Office, Seoul 06590, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jaesung Pyo
- College of Pharmacy, Kyungsung University, Busan 48434, Republic of Korea.
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Lookfong NA, Raup-Konsavage WM, Silberman Y. Potential Utility of Cannabidiol in Stress-Related Disorders. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2022; 8:230-240. [PMID: 36409719 PMCID: PMC10061337 DOI: 10.1089/can.2022.0130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The endocannabinoid (eCB) system plays an important role in homeostatic regulation of anxiety and stress responses; however, the eCB system can be disrupted following traumatic stressors. Additionally, traumatic or chronic stressors that occur during adulthood or early life can cause long-lasting disturbances in the eCB system. These alterations interfere with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function and may be involved in lifelong increased fear and anxiety behaviors as well as increased risk for development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Methods: This review focuses on the implications of trauma and significant stressors on eCB functionality and neural pathways, both in adolescence and into adulthood, as well as the current state of testing for CBD efficacy in treating pediatric and adult patients suffering from stress-induced eCB dysregulation. Articles were searched via Pubmed and included studies examining eCB modulation of stress-related disorders in both clinical settings and preclinical models. Conclusion: Given the potential for lifelong alterations in eCB signaling that can mediate stress responsiveness, consideration of pharmaceutical or nutraceutical agents that impact eCB targets may improve clinical outcomes in stress-related disorders. However, caution may be warranted in utilization of medicinal cannabinoid products that contain delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol due to pronounced euphorigenic effects and potential to exacerbate stress-related behaviors. Other cannabinoid products, such as cannabidiol (CBD), have shown promise in reducing stress-related behaviors in pre-clinical models. Overall, pre-clinical evidence supports CBD as a potential treatment for stress or anxiety disorders resulting from previously stressful events, particularly by reducing fearful behavior and promoting extinction of contextual fear memories, which are hallmarks of PTSD. However, very limited clinical research has been conducted examining the potential effectiveness of CBD in this regard and should be examined further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole A. Lookfong
- Department of Neural and Behavioral Sciences, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Yuval Silberman
- Department of Neural and Behavioral Sciences, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
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Hindelang P, Scharinger A, Golombek P, Laible M, Tamosaite S, Walch SG, Lachenmeier DW. Absence of Relevant Thermal Conversion of Cannabidiol to Tetrahydrocannabinol in E-Cigarette Vapor and Low-Tetrahydrocannabinol Cannabis Smoke. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2022; 7:616-620. [PMID: 36169637 PMCID: PMC9587771 DOI: 10.1089/can.2022.0163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Recent research claimed that CBD in commercial electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) liquids can be converted into psychotropic amounts of Δ9-THC. This study aims to validate this claim using a realistic e-cigarette setup. In addition, this study also investigates if such a conversion may occur during smoking of CBD-rich cannabis joints. Materials and Methods: Two different CBD liquids were vaporized using two different e-cigarette models, one of which was operated at extreme energy settings (0.2 Ω and 200 W). The smoke of six CBD joints was collected using a rotary smoking machine according to ISO 4387:2019. Analyses were conducted using nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry as well as liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Results: For the condensed e-cigarette liquids, no increase in THC concentration could be observed. For the CBD joints, no THC formation was provable. The recovered THC concentrations were ranging between 1% and 48% (0.034 and 0.73 mg) of the THC amount initially contained in the joints before smoking. Conclusions: Using realistic conditions of consumer exposure, relevant conversion of CBD to THC appears to not be occurring. The health risk of CBD liquids for e-cigarettes, as well as low-THC cannabis intended for smoking, can be assessed by concentrations in the source material without the need to consider significant changes in psychotropic compounds during use by consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Hindelang
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Andreas Scharinger
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Patricia Golombek
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Miriam Laible
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Sigmaringen, Sigmaringen, Germany
| | - Sandra Tamosaite
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Sigmaringen, Sigmaringen, Germany
| | - Stephan G Walch
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Dirk W Lachenmeier
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany
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Time Trends of Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in a 2008–2021 German National Survey of Hemp Food Products. Foods 2022; 11:foods11030486. [PMID: 35159636 PMCID: PMC8834408 DOI: 10.3390/foods11030486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
∆9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is known as the main psychotropic compound present in the hemp plant. It also occurs in commercially available hemp food products and may have adverse effects on consumers. This article provides an overview of the current situation of the THC content in hemp food products in Germany in recent years. The content of THC was evaluated in a data set of 5 different hemp food product groups (tea, seeds, seed oils, food supplements, and nonalcoholic beverages) comprising 511 samples. For the toxicological assessment, the THC intake was estimated and the exhaustion of acute reference dose (ARfD) and lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) was calculated using average daily consumption scenarios. Data show that hemp beverages and seeds typically do not contain amounts of THC that can exceed toxicological thresholds. On the contrary, hemp food supplements, such as cannabidiol (CBD) products, can contain high levels of THC, since the THC content of 18% of the samples has the potential to exceed the LOAEL and 8% even exceed the minimum intoxication dose. However, a significant linear decrease in the THC content of hemp food supplements was observed between 2018 and 2021 (n = 111, R = −0.36, p < 0.0001). A problematic food group is also tea based on flowers, leading to an increase in overall THC levels in recent years. Regulation of low-THC products within the framework of controlled distribution of cannabis for recreational use appears to be advisable.
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Kanabus J, Bryła M, Roszko M, Modrzewska M, Pierzgalski A. Cannabinoids-Characteristics and Potential for Use in Food Production. Molecules 2021; 26:6723. [PMID: 34771132 PMCID: PMC8588477 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26216723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Scientific demonstrations of the beneficial effects of non-psychoactive cannabinoids on the human body have increased the interest in foods containing hemp components. This review systematizes the latest discoveries relating to the characteristics of cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. var. sativa, it also presents a characterization of the mentioned plant. In this review, we present data on the opportunities and limitations of cannabinoids in food production. This article systematizes the data on the legal aspects, mainly the limits of Δ9-THC in food, the most popular analytical techniques (LC-MS and GC-MS) applied to assay cannabinoids in finished products, and the available data on the stability of cannabinoids during heating, storage, and access to light and oxygen. This may constitute a major challenge to their common use in food processing, as well as the potential formation of undesirable degradation products. Hemp-containing foods have great potential to become commercially popular among functional foods, provided that our understanding of cannabinoid stability in different food matrices and cannabinoid interactions with particular food ingredients are expanded. There remains a need for more data on the effects of technological processes and storage on cannabinoid degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Kanabus
- Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland; (M.B.); (M.R.); (M.M.); (A.P.)
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Fortin D, Di Beo V, Massin S, Bisiou Y, Carrieri P, Barré T. Reasons for using cannabidiol: a cross-sectional study of French cannabidiol users. J Cannabis Res 2021; 3:46. [PMID: 34615556 PMCID: PMC8495963 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-021-00102-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cannabidiol and cannabidiol-based products are proliferating in many countries. This recent and rapid diffusion prompts investigating the reasons for its use. Methods We analyzed data from an online survey among cannabidiol users in the French general population (n = 1166) selected for their interest in such products. We described the reported reasons for using cannabidiol. We performed logistic regressions to identify the correlates of declaring well-being and other specific reasons for using cannabidiol. We also provided descriptive data regarding the cannabidiol patterns of use. Results Well-being was the most cited primary reason for use (27% of the sample). Declaring well-being as a primary reason for using cannabidiol was inversely associated with cigarette smoking, cannabis use, and employment. Among cannabidiol users reporting well-being as their primary reason for use, stress and sleep improvements were the most-cited specific reasons. In the whole study sample, the most common modes of use were smoking cannabidiol-rich cannabis (61%) and ingesting cannabidiol oil sublingually (19%). Conclusions In a sample of cannabidiol users from France, well-being was the most-cited primary reason for use, and smoking was the first route of administration. Further research is needed to clarify to what extent expected effects are scientifically sound and to understand country-related specificities regarding patterns of use.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vincent Di Beo
- Aix Marseille Univ, Inserm, IRD, SESSTIM, Sciences Economiques & Sociales de la Santé & Traitement de l'Information Médicale, ISSPAM, Marseille, France
| | - Sophie Massin
- Univ. Artois, CNRS, IESEG School of management, Univ. Lille, UMR 9221, Lille Economie Management (LEM), F-62000, Arras, France
| | - Yann Bisiou
- University Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, CORHIS , Montpellier, France
| | - Patrizia Carrieri
- Aix Marseille Univ, Inserm, IRD, SESSTIM, Sciences Economiques & Sociales de la Santé & Traitement de l'Information Médicale, ISSPAM, Marseille, France
| | - Tangui Barré
- Aix Marseille Univ, Inserm, IRD, SESSTIM, Sciences Economiques & Sociales de la Santé & Traitement de l'Information Médicale, ISSPAM, Marseille, France.
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Bhaskar A, Bell A, Boivin M, Briques W, Brown M, Clarke H, Cyr C, Eisenberg E, de Oliveira Silva RF, Frohlich E, Georgius P, Hogg M, Horsted TI, MacCallum CA, Müller-Vahl KR, O'Connell C, Sealey R, Seibolt M, Sihota A, Smith BK, Sulak D, Vigano A, Moulin DE. Consensus recommendations on dosing and administration of medical cannabis to treat chronic pain: results of a modified Delphi process. J Cannabis Res 2021; 3:22. [PMID: 34215346 PMCID: PMC8252988 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-021-00073-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Globally, medical cannabis legalization has increased in recent years and medical cannabis is commonly used to treat chronic pain. However, there are few randomized control trials studying medical cannabis indicating expert guidance on how to dose and administer medical cannabis safely and effectively is needed. METHODS Using a multistage modified Delphi process, twenty global experts across nine countries developed consensus-based recommendations on how to dose and administer medical cannabis in patients with chronic pain. RESULTS There was consensus that medical cannabis may be considered for patients experiencing neuropathic, inflammatory, nociplastic, and mixed pain. Three treatment protocols were developed. A routine protocol where the clinician initiates the patient on a CBD-predominant variety at a dose of 5 mg CBD twice daily and titrates the CBD-predominant dose by 10 mg every 2 to 3 days until the patient reaches their goals, or up to 40 mg/day. At a CBD-predominant dose of 40 mg/day, clinicians may consider adding THC at 2.5 mg and titrate by 2.5 mg every 2 to 7 days until a maximum daily dose of 40 mg/day of THC. A conservative protocol where the clinician initiates the patient on a CBD-predominant variety at a dose of 5 mg once daily and titrates the CBD-predominant dose by 10 mg every 2 to 3 days until the patient reaches their goals, or up to 40 mg/day. At a CBD-predominant dose of 40 mg/day, clinicians may consider adding THC at 1 mg/day and titrate by 1 mg every 7 days until a maximum daily dose of 40 mg/day of THC. A rapid protocol where the clinician initiates the patient on a balanced THC:CBD variety at 2.5-5 mg of each cannabinoid once or twice daily and titrates by 2.5-5 mg of each cannabinoid every 2 to 3 days until the patient reaches his/her goals or to a maximum THC dose of 40 mg/day. CONCLUSIONS In summary, using a modified Delphi process, expert consensus-based recommendations were developed on how to dose and administer medical cannabis for the treatment of patients with chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Bhaskar
- Pain Management Centre, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Alan Bell
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | | | - Matthew Brown
- Department of Pain Medicine, The Royal Marsden Hospital, London, UK
- The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Hance Clarke
- Department of Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Claude Cyr
- Department of Family Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Elon Eisenberg
- Institute of Pain Medicine, Rambam Health Care Campus, The Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | | | - Eva Frohlich
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Pain Management, Helen Joseph Hospital, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | | | - Malcolm Hogg
- Department of Anaesthesia and Pain Management, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | | | - Kirsten R Müller-Vahl
- Hannover Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover, Germany
| | - Colleen O'Connell
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Stan Cassidy Centre for Rehabilitation, Fredericton, NB, Canada
| | - Robert Sealey
- Cannabinoid Medicine Specialist, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Marc Seibolt
- Algesiologikum- Centers for Pain Medicine, Day Clinic for Pain Medicine, Munich, Germany
| | - Aaron Sihota
- The University of British Columbia, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Brennan K Smith
- CTC Communications, Medical Division, Mississauga, ON, Canada
| | | | - Antonio Vigano
- Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Dwight E Moulin
- Departments of Clinical Neurological Sciences and Oncology, Earl Russell Chair of Pain Medicine, Western University, 800 Commissioners Road East, London, ON, N6A 5W9, Canada.
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10
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Barthlott I, Scharinger A, Golombek P, Kuballa T, Lachenmeier DW. A Quantitative 1H NMR Method for Screening Cannabinoids in CBD Oils. TOXICS 2021; 9:136. [PMID: 34200567 PMCID: PMC8228318 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9060136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Toxicologically relevant levels of the psychoactive ∆9-tetrahydocannabinol (∆9-THC) as well as high levels of non-psychoactive cannabinoids potentially occur in CBD (cannabidiol) oils. For consumer protection in the fast-growing CBD oil market, facile and rapid quantitative methods to determine the cannabinoid content are crucial. However, the current standard method, i.e., liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS), requires a time-consuming multistep sample preparation. In this study, a quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (qNMR) method for screening cannabinoids in CBD oils was developed. Contrary to the HPLC-MS/MS method, this qNMR features a simple sample preparation, i.e., only diluting the CBD oil in deuterochloroform. Pulse length-based concentration determination (PULCON) enables a direct quantification using an external standard. The signal intensities of the cannabinoids were enhanced during the NMR spectra acquisition by means of multiple suppression of the triglycerides which are a major component of the CBD oil matrix. The validation confirmed linearity for CBD, cannabinol (CBN), ∆9-THC and ∆8-THC in hemp seed oil with sufficient recoveries and precision for screening. Comparing the qNMR results to HPLC-MS/MS data for 46 commercial CBD oils verified the qNMR accuracy for ∆9-THC and CBD, but with higher limits of detection. The developed qNMR method paves the way for increasing the sample throughput as a complementary screening before HPLC-MS/MS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Dirk W. Lachenmeier
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weißenburger Straße 3, 76187 Karlsruhe, Germany; (I.B.); (A.S.); (P.G.); (T.K.)
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11
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Citti C, Russo F, Linciano P, Strallhofer SS, Tolomeo F, Forni F, Vandelli MA, Gigli G, Cannazza G. Origin of Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Impurity in Synthetic Cannabidiol. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2021; 6:28-39. [PMID: 33614950 DOI: 10.1089/can.2020.0021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Cannabidiol (CBD), the nonintoxicating constituent of cannabis, is largely employed for pharmaceutical and cosmetic purposes. CBD can be extracted from the plant or chemically synthesized. Impurities of psychotropic cannabinoids Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and Δ8-THC have been found in extracted CBD, thus hypothesizing a possible contamination from the plant. Materials and Methods: In this study, synthetic and extracted CBD samples were analyzed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry and the parameters that can be responsible of the conversion of CBD into THC were evaluated by an accelerated stability test. Results: In synthetic and extracted CBD no trace of THC species was detected. In contrast, CBD samples stored in the dark at room temperature on the benchtop for 3 months showed the presence of such impurities. Experiments carried out under inert atmosphere in the absence of humidity or carbon dioxide led to no trace of THC over time even at high temperature. Conclusions: The results suggested that the copresence of carbon dioxide and water from the air could be the key for creating the acidic environment responsible for the cyclization of CBD. These findings suggest that it might be appropriate to review the storage conditions indicated on the label of commercially available CBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Citti
- Mediteknology s.r.l. (CNR Spin-off Company), Lecce, Italy.,CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Lecce, Italy.,Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Fabiana Russo
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Pasquale Linciano
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Sarah Sylvana Strallhofer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Flavio Forni
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | | | | | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Lecce, Italy.,Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
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12
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Nelson KM, Bisson J, Singh G, Graham JG, Chen SN, Friesen JB, Dahlin JL, Niemitz M, Walters MA, Pauli GF. The Essential Medicinal Chemistry of Cannabidiol (CBD). J Med Chem 2020; 63:12137-12155. [PMID: 32804502 PMCID: PMC7666069 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This Perspective of the published essential medicinal chemistry of cannabidiol (CBD) provides evidence that the popularization of CBD-fortified or CBD-labeled health products and CBD-associated health claims lacks a rigorous scientific foundation. CBD's reputation as a cure-all puts it in the same class as other "natural" panaceas, where valid ethnobotanicals are reduced to single, purportedly active ingredients. Such reductionist approaches oversimplify useful, chemically complex mixtures in an attempt to rationalize the commercial utility of natural compounds and exploit the "natural" label. Literature evidence associates CBD with certain semiubiquitous, broadly screened, primarily plant-based substances of undocumented purity that interfere with bioassays and have a low likelihood of becoming therapeutic agents. Widespread health challenges and pandemic crises such as SARS-CoV-2 create circumstances under which scientists must be particularly vigilant about healing claims that lack solid foundational data. Herein, we offer a critical review of the published medicinal chemistry properties of CBD, as well as precise definitions of CBD-containing substances and products, distilled to reveal the essential factors that impact its development as a therapeutic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn M. Nelson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Therapeutics Discovery and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414, United States
| | - Jonathan Bisson
- Center for Natural Product Technologies, Program for Collaborative Research in the Pharmaceutical Sciences (PCRPS), and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Gurpreet Singh
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Therapeutics Discovery and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414, United States
| | - James G. Graham
- Center for Natural Product Technologies, Program for Collaborative Research in the Pharmaceutical Sciences (PCRPS), and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Shao-Nong Chen
- Center for Natural Product Technologies, Program for Collaborative Research in the Pharmaceutical Sciences (PCRPS), and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - J. Brent Friesen
- Center for Natural Product Technologies, Program for Collaborative Research in the Pharmaceutical Sciences (PCRPS), and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Jayme L. Dahlin
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | | | - Michael A. Walters
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Therapeutics Discovery and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414, United States
| | - Guido F. Pauli
- Center for Natural Product Technologies, Program for Collaborative Research in the Pharmaceutical Sciences (PCRPS), and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
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13
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Abstract
The Australian Federal Government legalised access to medicinal cannabis in 2016 More than 100 different cannabis products are now available to prescribe. Most are oral preparations (oils) or capsules containing delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol or cannabidiol. Dried-flower products are also available As most products are unregistered drugs, prescribing requires approval under the Therapeutic Goods Administration Special Access Scheme-B or Authorised Prescriber Scheme Special Access Scheme Category B applications can be made online, with approval usually being given within 24–48 hours. However, supply chain problems may delay dispensing by the pharmacy By the end of 2019, over 28,000 prescribing approvals had been issued to patients, involving more than 1400 doctors, mostly GPs. More than 70,000 approvals are projected by the end of 2020 Most prescriptions are for chronic non-cancer pain, anxiety, cancer-related symptoms, epilepsy and other neurological disorders. However, the evidence supporting some indications is limited Many doctors are cautious about prescribing cannabis. While serious adverse events are rare, there are legitimate concerns around driving, cognitive impairment and drug dependence with products containing delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Cannabidiol-only products pose fewer risks
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathon C Arnold
- University of Sydney
- National Institute of Integrative Medicine, Melbourne
| | - Tamara Nation
- University of Sydney
- National Institute of Integrative Medicine, Melbourne
| | - Iain S McGregor
- University of Sydney
- National Institute of Integrative Medicine, Melbourne
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14
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Montoya Z, Conroy M, Vanden Heuvel BD, Pauli CS, Park SH. Cannabis Contaminants Limit Pharmacological Use of Cannabidiol. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:571832. [PMID: 33013414 PMCID: PMC7516211 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.571832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
For nearly a century, Cannabis has been stigmatized and criminalized across the globe, but in recent years, there has been a growing interest in Cannabis due to the therapeutic potential of phytocannabinoids. With this emerging interest in Cannabis, concerns have arisen about the possible contaminations of hemp with pesticides, heavy metals, microbial pathogens, and carcinogenic compounds during the cultivation, manufacturing, and packaging processes. This is of particular concern for those turning to Cannabis for medicinal purposes, especially those with compromised immune systems. This review aims to provide types of contaminants and examples of Cannabis contamination using case studies that elucidate the medical consequences consumers risk when using adulterated Cannabis products. Thus, it is imperative to develop universal standards for cultivation and testing of products to protect those who consume Cannabis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zackary Montoya
- Institute of Cannabis Research, Colorado State University-Pueblo, Pueblo, CO, United States
| | - Matthieu Conroy
- Institute of Cannabis Research, Colorado State University-Pueblo, Pueblo, CO, United States
| | | | - Christopher S Pauli
- Institute of Cannabis Research, Colorado State University-Pueblo, Pueblo, CO, United States
| | - Sang-Hyuck Park
- Institute of Cannabis Research, Colorado State University-Pueblo, Pueblo, CO, United States
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University-Pueblo, Pueblo, CO, United States
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15
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Kruse D, Beitzke B. Comment on Lachenmeier et al (2020) "Are side effects of cannabidiol (CBD) products caused by tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) contamination?": disputation on various points in the publication. F1000Res 2020; 9:900. [PMID: 32864108 PMCID: PMC7445557 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.25354.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This Correspondence article is a counterstatement to a Brief Report published by Lachenmeier and co-workers on 17th February 2020 in F1000Research: “Are side effects of cannabidiol (CBD) products caused by tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) contamination?”. This counterstatement proposes that the authors of that article neither present proof or evidence for the alleged side effects of CBD products (no case reports presented with utilisable data), nor do they show that side effects are due to the presence of THC. Primarily, there is no clear definition of THC because the authors do not explain whether they mean Delta9-THC only (without its precursor tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA)) or total-THC (the sum of Delta9-THC and its precursor THCA, normalised to THC); indeed EU Recommendation 2016/2115 on the monitoring of cannabinoids in food requires the measurement and documentation of the precursor acids complementary to the decarboxylated cannabinoids. The key part of the authors’ work – Table 2 with the assessment of the CBD products – leaves the reader in the dark about the nature of “THC”. This is all the more concerning because acid-free Delta9-THC is psychotropic but THCA is not. Additionally, the classification of the CBD products (“toxicity assessment”) presented is based on the assignment of the quantitative relation to the LOAEL (lowest observed adverse effect level) of THC (2.5 mg of acid-free Delta9-THC per adult and day as assigned by EFSA, 2015). However, many assumptions by Lachenmeier
et al. on daily intake of CBD products are questionable, in particular food supplements, where the recommended daily consumption was missing on the label. Finally, the authors of the paper also compare their findings with the German recommendations on maximum levels of total-THC in food, ignoring that those limits refer to total-THC and the ready-to-eat products, and not to the food ingredient itself – in particular hemp tea products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Kruse
- European Industrial Hemp Association (EIHA), Hürth, NRW, 50354, Germany
| | - Bernhard Beitzke
- European Industrial Hemp Association (EIHA), Hürth, NRW, 50354, Germany
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16
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Lachenmeier DW, Walch SG. Evidence for adverse effects of cannabidiol (CBD) products and their non-conformity on the European food market - response to the European Industrial Hemp Association. F1000Res 2020; 9:1051. [PMID: 33082934 PMCID: PMC7542252 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.26045.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
An interesting and valuable discussion has arisen from our recent article (Lachenmeier et al., 2020) and we are pleased to have the opportunity to expand on the various points we made. Equally important, we wish to correct several important misunderstandings that were made by Kruse and Beitzke (2020) on behalf of the European Industrial Hemp Association (EIHA) that possibly contributed to their concerns about the validity of our data, toxicological assessment and conclusions regarding regulatory status of cannabidiol (CBD) products. First and foremost, our study did only assess the risk of psychotropic Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) without inclusion of non-psychotropic Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA). Secondly, as this article will discuss in more detail, there is ample evidence for adverse effects of CBD products, not only in paediatric patients, but also in adult users of over-the-counter CBD products (including inadvertent "high" effects). Thirdly, the exposure and risk assessment was conducted using up-to-date guidelines according to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR). And finally, the current legal situation in the European Union, without approval of any hemp extract-containing product according to the Novel Food regulation, actually allows blanket statements that all such products are illegal on the market, and this indeed would imply a general ban on the use and marketing of such products as food or food ingredients until such an approval has been granted. We hope that this reassures the F1000Research readership regarding the validity of our results and conclusions. We are pleased, though, that the EIHA has acknowledged the fact that there are non-compliant CBD products available, but according to our data these are a substantial fraction of the market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk W. Lachenmeier
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, 76187, Germany
| | - Stephan G. Walch
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, 76187, Germany
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17
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Golombek P, Müller M, Barthlott I, Sproll C, Lachenmeier DW. Conversion of Cannabidiol (CBD) into Psychotropic Cannabinoids Including Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): A Controversy in the Scientific Literature. TOXICS 2020; 8:E41. [PMID: 32503116 PMCID: PMC7357058 DOI: 10.3390/toxics8020041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a naturally occurring, non-psychotropic cannabinoid of the hemp plant Cannabis sativa L. and has been known to induce several physiological and pharmacological effects. While CBD is approved as a medicinal product subject to prescription, it is also widely sold over the counter (OTC) in the form of food supplements, cosmetics and electronic cigarette liquids. However, regulatory difficulties arise from its origin being a narcotic plant or its status as an unapproved novel food ingredient. Regarding the consumer safety of these OTC products, the question whether or not CBD might be degraded into psychotropic cannabinoids, most prominently tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), under in vivo conditions initiated an ongoing scientific debate. This feature review aims to summarize the current knowledge of CBD degradation processes, specifically the results of in vitro and in vivo studies. Additionally, the literature on psychotropic effects of cannabinoids was carefully studied with a focus on the degradants and metabolites of CBD, but data were found to be sparse. While the literature is contradictory, most studies suggest that CBD is not converted to psychotropic THC under in vivo conditions. Nevertheless, it is certain that CBD degrades to psychotropic products in acidic environments. Hence, the storage stability of commercial formulations requires more attention in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Dirk W. Lachenmeier
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weissenburger Straße 3, 76187 Karlsruhe, Germany; (P.G.); (M.M.); (I.B.); (C.S.)
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18
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Cannabis and Canabidinoids on the Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Going Beyond Misuse. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21082940. [PMID: 32331305 PMCID: PMC7215817 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21082940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are characterized by a chronic and recurrent gastrointestinal condition, including mainly ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease (CD). Cannabis sativa (CS) is widely used for medicinal, recreational, and religious purposes. The most studied compound of CS is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). Besides many relevant therapeutic roles such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, there is still much controversy about the consumption of this plant since the misuse can lead to serious health problems. Because of these reasons, the aim of this review is to investigate the effects of CS on the treatment of UC and CD. The literature search was performed in PubMed/Medline, PMC, EMBASE, and Cochrane databases. The use of CS leads to the improvement of UC and CD scores and quality of life. The medical use of CS is on the rise. Although the literature shows relevant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects that could improve UC and CD scores, it is still not possible to establish a treatment criterion since the studies have no standardization regarding the variety and part of the plant that is used, route of administration and doses. Therefore, we suggest caution in the use of CS in the therapeutic approach of IBD until clinical trials with standardization and a relevant number of patients are performed.
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19
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Karoly HC, Mueller RL, Andrade CC, Hutchison KE. Investigating Relationships Between Alcohol and Cannabis Use in an Online Survey of Cannabis Users: A Focus on Cannabinoid Content and Cannabis for Medical Purposes. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:613243. [PMID: 33408657 PMCID: PMC7779394 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.613243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis is commonly used among people who drink alcohol, but findings are mixed regarding the direction of this relationship. The type of cannabis used [high-cannabidiol (CBD) vs. high-delta-9tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)] and motives for use (i.e., whether cannabis is used to treat a medical condition) may influence the relationship between cannabis and drinking. Specifically, CBD has shown preclinical promise in reducing alcohol consumption, and medical cannabis users report using cannabis to reduce drinking. This study leverages survey data from cannabis users who drink alcohol (N = 533). Respondents were categorized as using cannabis to treat (CTT) a medical condition or as individuals whose cannabis use is not intended to treat (NCTT) a medical condition and grouped based on the THC/CBD ratio of the flower or edible cannabis they typically use (e.g., "High-THC/CBD," "Medium-THC/CBD" and "Low-THC/CBD"). The CTT group (n = 412) reported drinking significantly less frequently than the NCTT group (n = 121). Cannabinoid content of flower cannabis was associated with alcohol consumed on cannabis-use days, such that individuals in the High-THC/CBD group drink more on cannabis-use days compared to the Medium-THC/CBD group. Cannabinoid content of edible cannabis was associated with drinks per drinking occasion, such that the High-THC/CBD group consumed the most drinks and the Low-THC/CBD group consumed the fewest. For both edible and flower groupings, higher-THC/CBD cannabis was associated with more frequent co-use than lower-THC/CBD cannabis. Results suggest that whether someone uses cannabis to treat a medical condition may impact their drinking frequency, and the cannabinoid content in flower and edible cannabis impacts alcohol consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hollis C Karoly
- Institute for Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States.,Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Raeghan L Mueller
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Chrysta C Andrade
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Kent E Hutchison
- Institute for Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States.,Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
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