Effect of exercise training and anabolic androgenic steroids on hemodynamics, glycogen content, angiogenesis and apoptosis of cardiac muscle in adult male rats

Nandrolone Decanoate and Swimming Affects Cardiodynamic and Morphometric Parameters in the Isolated Rat Heart

(1) Background: The aim of this study was to show the effects of swimming and nandrolone administration on cardiodynamic and morphometric parameters of the isolated rat heart. (2) The study included 72 Wistar rats, divided into three groups, scheduled to be sacrificed after the second, third, and fourth week. Each group was divided into four subgroups: control (T-N-), nandrolone (T-N+), swimming training (T+N-), and swimming training plus nandrolone (T+N+) group. The rats from T+N- and T+N+ swam 1 h/day, 5 days/week while ones from T-N+ and T+N+ received weekly nandrolone decanoate (20 mg/kg). The isolated hearts were perfused according to the Langendorff technique and measured parameters: dp/dt max/min, SLVP, DLVP, heart rate, and coronary flow. Hearts were fixed and stained with H/E and Masson trichrome dyes. (3) dp/dt max and dp/dt min were increased in the T-N+ group at higher perfusion pressure compared to the T-N- group. SLVP and DLVP were increased in all groups after the 4th week. Collagen content was increased in T-N+ by 403% and in T+N+ by 357% groups, while it was decreased in T+N- compared to the control after 4th week. (4) Conclusions: Nandrolone alone or combined with swimming had a deleterious effect on myocardial function and perfusion.

Synchronized resistance training and bioactive herbal compounds of Tribulus Terrestris reverse the disruptive influence of Stanozolol

Androgenic-Anabolic Steroids (AAS) consumption may have irreversible effects on athletes' hearts. The beneficial effects of Tribulus Terrestris (TT) have been shown to reduce cardiovascular risks through disruption in apoptosome complex construction. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of eight weeks of resistance training (RT) with TT consumption in the heart tissue of rats exposed to Stanozolol. Thirty-five male rats were divided into seven groups, Control group, Stanozolol (ST), ST + 100 mg/kg TT, ST + 50 mg/kg TT, RT + ST, RT + ST + 100 mg/kg TT, and RT + ST + 50 mg/kg TT. Differential genes expression was measured by q-RT-PCR. Artificial intelligence highlighted apoptosis pathways as a vital process in cardiovascular risks. Hence, we estimated the binding affinity of chemical and bioactive molecules on the cut point hub gene by pharmacophore modeling and molecular docking. Moreover, ST increased IL-6, Cat, Aif-1, and Caspase-9. 100 mg/kg TT has a more favorable effect than 50 mg/kg T. Also, RT with TT had interactive effects on reducing IL-6, Cat, Aif-1, and Caspase-9. RT and TT consumption seemed to synergistically reduce the apoptotic pathway markers in the heart tissue of rats exposed to the supra-physiologic dose of ST. Moreover, TT could be added to supplements and sports drink to increase an athlete's performance.

Myocardium microcirculation study in a healthy Chinese population using 3.0-T cardiac magnetic resonance intravoxel incoherent motion imaging

BACKGROUND

Intravoxel incoherent motion imaging (IVIM) can non-invasively evaluate diffusion and microvascular perfusion.

PURPOSE

To explore the myocardium microcirculation of a healthy Chinese population by using cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) IVIM.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 80 healthy volunteers (44 men, 36 women) who underwent 3.0-T CMR examination were enrolled. All participants had cardiac cine imaging and short-axis CMR-IVIM of the left ventricle (LV) using multiple b-values. The consistency of the IVIM parameters was assessed by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and the Bland-Altman test. Spearman correlation analysis was performed between IVIM parameters and age, and body mass index (BMI). The differences of IVIM parameters were analyzed between gender and different ages.

RESULTS

LV end-diastolic volume (EDV), end-systolic volume (ESV), LVmass, cardiac output (CO), and BMI in the male group were higher than those in the female group (P<0.05). IVIM parameters had good intra-observer and inter-observer consistency (≥0.75). Bland-Altman analysis also showed good intra-observer and inter-observer consistency. ADC_fast decreased with increasing female age (rs = -0.37; P = 0.01), while IVIM parameters had no correlation with BMI regardless of sex. ADC_fast in the female group had a statistical difference between different age groups. The ADC_slow and f in the male group were lower than those in the female group (P<0.05); however, there was no statistical difference in ADC_fast between genders.

CONCLUSION

IVIM parameters in healthy Chinese volunteers provided good consistency. There was a negative correlation between ADC_fast and age in the female group.

Anti-Apoptotic Effects of Resistance Training and Tribulus Terrestris Consumption in the Heart Tissue of Rats Exposed to Stanozolol

Objective

Nowadays, the use of energetic substances has become a complex problem in sports, such that the role of anabolic-androgenic steroids is undeniable. This study aimed to investigate the antiapoptotic effect of resistance training and Tribulus terrestris in the heart tissue of rats exposed to stanozolol.

Materials and Methods

35 rats divided into 7 groups including (1) sham, (2) stanozolol-treated, (3) stanozolol+50 mg/kg Tribulus terrestris-treated, (4) stanozolol+100 mg/kg Tribulus terrestris-treated, (5) stanozolol+resistance training-treated, (6) stanozolol+resistance training+50 mg/kg Tribulus terrestris-treated, and (7) stanozolol+resistance training+100 mg/kg Tribulus terrestris-treated. During 8 weeks, groups 2-7 received 5 mg/kg stanozolol per day peritoneally; groups 5-7 performed resistance training for 3 sessions per week; and groups 3, 4, 6 and 7 received daily doses of Tribulus terrestris peritoneally.

Results

Stanozolol administration significantly increased the BAX, BCL-2, P53, and caspase 3 and BAX/BCL-2 ratio (P < .001). Resistance training, 100 mg/kg Tribulus terrestris administration, 50 mg/kg Tribulus terrestris administration, resistance training+100 mg/kg Tribulus terrestris administration, and resistance training+50 mg/kg Tribulus terrestris administration significantly decreased BAX, BCL-2, P53, and caspase 3 levels and BAX/BCL-2 ratio (P < .001); however, stanozolol+resistance training+100 mg/kg Tribulus terrestris administration caused more decrease than stanozolol+resistance training+50 mg/kg Tribulus terrestris administration in BAX (P < .001).

Conclusion

Resistance training and Tribulus terrestris administration alone appear to have antiapoptotic effects; however, resistance training combined with Tribulus terrestris administration, especially at higher doses, have more desirable effects than resistance training or Tribulus terrestris administration alone on the apoptosis markers.

Anabolic steroid excess promotes hydroelectrolytic and autonomic imbalance in adult male rats: Is it enough to alter blood pressure?

AIM

The present study investigated the effects of anabolic steroid (AS) excess on blood pressure regulation.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats were treated with nandrolone decanoate (AS) or vehicle (CTL) for 8 or 10 weeks. Saline (1.8%) and water intake were measured in metabolic cages. Urinary volume, osmolarity, Na⁺ and K⁺ concentrations, and plasma osmolarity were measured. The autonomic balance was estimated by heart rate variability at baseline or after icv injection of losartan. Cardiac function was assessed by echocardiography and ex vivo recordings. Myocardial collagen deposition was evaluated by Picrosirius-Red staining. Vascular reactivity and wall thickness were investigated in aortic sections. Blood pressure (BP) was assessed by tail-cuff plethysmography. Angiotensin II type I receptor (AT1R), renin, and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) mRNA expression was measured in the kidneys and whole hypothalamus.

RESULTS

AS group exhibited decreased urinary volume and Na⁺ concentration, while urinary K⁺ concentration, plasma osmolarity, and renal AT1R and renin mRNA levels were increased compared to CTL (p < 0.05). Water intake was increased, and saline intake was decreased in the AS group (p < 0.01). AS group exhibited increased low-frequency/high-frequency-ratio, while it was decreased by icv injection of losartan (p < 0.05) compared to baseline. Neither cardiac function nor vascular reactivity/morphology was affected by AS excess (p > 0.05). Ultimately, BP levels were not altered by AS excess (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

AS excess promoted hydroelectrolytic and autonomic imbalance but did not alter vascular or cardiac function/morphology.

Anabolic steroid excess and myocardial infarction: From ischemia to reperfusion injury

Anabolic steroids (AS) are synthetic testosterone-derivatives developed by the pharmaceutical industry to mimic testosterone biological effects. So far, AS have been implicated in the treatment of pathological conditions, such as hypogonadism, anemia, and cachexia. Since their discovery, though, AS have been illicitly used by elite and recreational athletes, bodybuilders and weightlifters in order to enhance athletic and aesthetic performance. This practice is characterized by cycles of administration and withdrawal, the combination of different AS compounds, and administration of doses 50 - 1000 times higher than those recommended for therapeutic purposes. AS excess has been correlated to cardiovascular detrimental effects, including cardiac hypertrophy, arrhythmias, and hypertension. Particularly, acute myocardial infarction (AMI) has been extensively reported by clinical and post-mortem studies. Atherosclerosis, hypercoagulability state, increased thrombogenesis and vasospasm have arisen as potential causes of myocardial ischemia in AS users. Additionally, several experimental reports have demonstrated that AS can increase the susceptibility to cardiac ischemia/reperfusion injury, whereas the cardioprotection elicited by physical exercise and ischemic postconditioning is blunted. Altogether, these factors can contribute to increased AMI morbidity and mortality during AS excess, particularly when AS are combined with other compounds, such as thyroid hormones, growth hormones, insulin, and diuretics.

Immunohistomorphometric and Hormonal Analysis of the Pituitary Gonadotropic Cells After Application of the Nandrolone Decanoate and Swimming Training in Adult Male Rats

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of chronic nandrolone decanoate treatment and/or swimming training on immunohistomorphometric parameters on rat pituitary gonadotropic cells. Male Wistar albino rats, 10 weeks old, were classified into four groups: control (T−N−), nandrolone (T−N+), swimming training (T+N−), and swimming training with nandrolone (T+N+). The T+ groups swam for 4 weeks, 1 h/day, 5 days/week. The N+ groups received nandrolone decanoate (20 mg/kg) once per week for 4 weeks. Pituitary tissue sections were processed and stained for immunohistochemical analysis and immunofluorescence. The volume density of luteinizing hormone (LH) cells was decreased by 48% in T−N+ and for 35% in the T+N+ group. The volume density of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) cells was decreased by 39% in T−N+ and for 30% in T+N+ compared to the control. Nandrolone alone, or combined with swimming training, decreased the number of LH/FSH cells compared to the control. The levels of the immunofluorescent signal of LH/FSH cells were increased in all experimental groups. Nandrolone alone decreased the serum level of LH by 17%, whereas swimming training alone increased FSH levels by 11% compared to the control. Serum levels of testosterone were increased in all experimental groups. Nandrolone alone, or combined with swimming training, decreased immunohistomorphometric parameters of gonadotropic cells, whereas the levels of immunofluorescent signal were increased.

Mechanisms for the transition from physiological to pathological cardiac hypertrophy

The heart is capable of responding to stressful situations by increasing muscle mass, which is broadly defined as cardiac hypertrophy. This phenomenon minimizes ventricular wall stress for the heart undergoing a greater than normal workload. At initial stages, cardiac hypertrophy is associated with normal or enhanced cardiac function and is considered to be adaptive or physiological; however, at later stages, if the stimulus is not removed, it is associated with contractile dysfunction and is termed as pathological cardiac hypertrophy. It is during physiological cardiac hypertrophy where the function of subcellular organelles, including the sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and myofibrils, may be upregulated, while pathological cardiac hypertrophy is associated with downregulation of these subcellular activities. The transition of physiological cardiac hypertrophy to pathological cardiac hypertrophy may be due to the reduction in blood supply to hypertrophied myocardium as a consequence of reduced capillary density. Oxidative stress, inflammatory processes, Ca2+-handling abnormalities, and apoptosis in cardiomyocytes are suggested to play a critical role in the depression of contractile function during the development of pathological hypertrophy.

Anabolic Androgenic Steroid Abuse and their Health Impacts: A Cross-sectional Study among Body Builders in a City of Eastern India

Background:

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs), when taken in supraphysiologic doses, increase muscle strength and athletic performance. Evidence suggests that long-term use of AAS in supraphysiologic doses have adverse effects on health. Therefore, the study was conducted to find crude estimate of the prevalence of AAS use among attendees of the gymnasium, the factors that could have influenced them for AAS abuse and to assess the short- and long-term side effects as perceived by them.

Methods:

A cross-sectional study was conducted in selected gymnasiums of a smart city of India using a predesigned and pretested questionnaire. Snowball sampling method was undertaken. The study was from July 2015 to June 2016. Informed written consent was taken. The analysis was done using SPSS v. 20.0.

Results:

Of 84 bodybuilders approached, 74 participants used AAS. All users were male with mean age of 26.5 + 0.55 years. The mean age of initiation of AAS abuse was 23 years, and 66.2% (49) were unmarried. Eighty-five percent (63) preferred injectable. Seventy percent (52) abusers were influenced by trainers for abuse. Most commonly abused was Nandrolone decanoate (55.4%). Seventy-three percent were not aware of any legal ban on steroids. Reported benefits include increased strength, muscle size, and power, while harms were increased acne, deepening of voice, swelling of feet, increased irritability, depressive thoughts, impaired judgment, panic disorder, and withdrawal effect.

Conclusions:

Frequency of ASS use was substantial among young bodybuilders. Awareness about side effects was not a deterrent factor. Abusers were highly influenced by coaches. Efforts should be made for preventing easy access to AAS.

Anabolic-androgenic steroids and cardiovascular risk

OBJECTIVE

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) represents a group of synthetic testosterone derivatives that play an important role in clinical treatment. These drugs are widely abused among the general public to increase lean weight and improve athletic performance. It has been reported that AAS use can produce many adverse effects, especially the occurrence of cardiovascular risk. Although there are many related studies, there has been no consensus on AAS use and cardiovascular risk. The present study was to review the effect of AAS on the cardiovascular system.

DATA SOURCES

The data in this review were obtained from articles included in PubMed and the National Center for Biotechnology Information database.

STUDY SELECTION

Original articles, case reports, and systematic reviews about AAS were selected for the article.

RESULTS

The use/abuse of AAS is correlated with higher cardiovascular risks, and many AAS users/abusers had cardiovascular diseases. However, there are many confounding factors in the studies that explored the causality between AAS intake and disease development, and additional studies are required to determine AAS toxicity.

CONCLUSION

AAS produces toxic effects on the cardiovascular system, and it is necessary to ensure that more people know this about AAS, including medical personnel.

Cardiac electrical and contractile disorders promoted by anabolic steroid overdose are associated with late autonomic imbalance and impaired Ca2+ handling

AIM

Investigate cardiac electrical and mechanical dysfunctions elicited by chronic anabolic steroid (AS) overdose.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats were treated with nandrolone decanoate (DECA) or vehicle (CTL) for 8 weeks. Electrocardiography and heart rate variability were assessed at weeks 2, 4, and 8. Cardiac reactivity to isoproterenol was investigated in isolated rat hearts. Action potential duration (APD) was measured from left ventricular (LV) muscle strips. L-type Ca²⁺ current (I_CaL), and transient outward potassium current (I_to) were recorded by whole-cell patch-clamp in LV cardiomyocytes. Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca²⁺ mobilization and Ca²⁺-induced contractile response sensitivity were evaluated in skinned cardiac fibers. Muscarinic type 2 receptor (M₂R), β₁-adrenergic receptor (β₁AR), sarcoplasmic Ca²⁺ ATPase (SERCA-2a), type 2 ryanodine receptor (RyR2), L-type Ca²⁺ channel (CACNA1), Kv4.2 (KCND2), and Kv4.3 (KCND3) mRNA expression levels were measured by quantitative RT-PCR.

RESULTS

Compared with CTL group, DECA group exhibited decreased high frequency band power density (HF) and increased low frequency power density (LF), Cardiac M₂R mRNA level was decreased. QTc interval at 2nd, 4th, and 8th week as well as APD₃₀ and APD₉₀ were increased by DECA. I_to density was decreased, while I_CaL density was increased by DECA. SR Ca²⁺ loading and release were decreased by DECA, while contractile sensitivity to Ca²⁺ was increased versus CTL group.

CONCLUSION

DECA overdose induced cardiac rhythmic and mechanical abnormalities that can be associated with autonomic imbalance, up-regulated I_CaL and down-regulated I_to, abnormal SR Ca²⁺ mobilization, and increased contractile sensitivity to Ca²⁺.

Chronic high-dose testosterone treatment: impact on rat cardiac contractile biology

Androgen therapy provides cardiovascular benefits for hypogonadism. However, myocardial hypertrophy, fibrosis, and infarction have been reported in testosterone or androgenic anabolic steroid abuse. Therefore, better understanding of the factors leading to adverse results of androgen abuse is needed. The aim of the present study was to examine the impact of high dose of androgen treatment on cardiac biology, and whether exposure duration modulates this response. Male rats were treated with 10 mg/kg testosterone, three times a week, for either 4 or 12 weeks; vehicle injections served as controls. Four weeks of testosterone treatment induced an increase in ventricular wall thickness, indicative of concentric hypertrophy, as well as increased ejection fraction; in contrast, both parameters were blunted following 12 weeks of high-dose testosterone treatment. Cardiac myocyte contractile parameters were assessed in isolated electrically stimulated myocytes (sarcomere and intracellular calcium dynamics), and in chemically permeabilized isolated myocardium (myofilament force development and tension-cost). High-dose testosterone treatment for 4 weeks was associated with increased myocyte contractile parameters, while 12 weeks treatment induced significant depression of these parameters, mirroring the cardiac pump function results. In conclusion, chronic administration of high-dose testosterone initially induces increased cardiac function. However, this initial beneficial impact is followed by significant depression of cardiac pump function, myocyte contractility, and cardiac myofilament function. Our results indicate that chronic high-testosterone usage is of limited use and may, instead, induce significant cardiac dysfunction.

Nandrolone administration with or without strenuous exercise increases cardiac fatal genes overexpression, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinaseiiδ, and monoamine oxidase activities and enhances blood pressure in adult wistar rats

Misuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) increases prevalence of cardiovascular abnormalities in athletes, and the underlying molecular mechanism involved in those abnormalities continues to be investigated. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of chronic nandrolone exposure on alpha and beta-myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms gene expression transition, blood pressure related parameters, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinaseIIδ (CaMKIIδ), and monoamine oxidase (MAO) activities in rats' hearts. It was also planned to evaluate the effect of strenuous exercise on cardiac abnormalities induced by nandrolone. Thirty-two male wistar rats were assigned into four groups, namely control, nandrolone, nandrolone with strenuous exercise, and strenuous exercise groups. Nandrolone consumption significantly increased systolic, diastolic, pulse and dicrotic pressure, mean arterial pressure, as well as the amplitude of first peak (H1). Moreover, exercise combined with nandrolone completely masked this effect. The mRNA expression of β-MHC and the ratio of β -MHC/α -MHC showed a significant increase in the nandrolone and nandrolone with strenuous exercise groups compared to those in the control group. The values of heart tissue calcium/calmoldulin-dependent protein kinase IIδ (CaMKIIδ), and monoamine oxidase (MAO) in the nandrolone, nandrolone with strenuous exercise and exercise groups were significantly higher than those values in the control group. These findings indicate that nandrolone-induced heart and hemodynamic abnormalities may in part be associated with MHC isoform changes and Ca²⁺ homeostasis changes mediated by increased CaMKIIδ and MAO activities and that these effects can be provoked via strenuous exercise.

Excessive treadmill training enhances the insulin signaling pathway and glycogen deposition in mice hearts

Exhaustive and chronic physical exercise leads to peripheral inflammation, which is one of the molecular mechanisms responsible for the impairment of the insulin signaling pathway in the heart. Recently, 3 different running overtraining models performed downhill (OTR/down), uphill (OTR/up), and without inclination (OTR) increased the serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines. This proinflammatory status induced insulin signaling impairment in the skeletal muscle; however, the response of this signaling pathway in the cardiac muscle of overtrained mice was still unknown. Thus, we investigated the effects of OTR/down, OTR/up, and OTR protocols on the protein levels of phosphorylation of insulin receptor β (pIRβ) (Tyr), phosphorylation of protein kinase B (pAkt) (Ser473), plasma membrane glucose transporter-1 (GLUT1) and GLUT4, phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 (pIRS-1) (Ser307), phosphorylation of IκB kinase α/β) (pIKKα/β (Ser180/181), phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p-p38MAPK) (Thr180/Tyr182), phosphorylation of stress-activated protein kinases-Jun amino-terminal kinases (pSAPK-JNK) (Thr183/Tyr185), and glycogen content in mice hearts. The rodents were divided into naïve (N, sedentary mice), control (CT, sedentary mice submitted to performance evaluations), trained (TR, performed the training protocol), OTR/down, OTR/up, and OTR groups. After the grip force test, the cardiac muscles (ie, left ventricle) were removed and used for immunoblotting and histology. Although the OTR/up and OTR groups exhibited higher cardiac levels of pIRβ (Tyr), only the OTR group exhibited higher cardiac levels of pAkt (Ser473) and plasma membrane GLUT4. On the contrary, the OTR/down group exhibited higher cardiac levels of pIRS-1 (Ser307). The OTR model enhanced the cardiac insulin signaling pathway. All overtraining models increased the left ventricle glycogen content, with this probably acting as a compensatory organ in response to skeletal muscle insulin signaling impairment.

Angiogenesis: focusing on the effects of exercise in aging and cancer

[Purpose]

Although it is known that exercise induces angiogenesis, a clear mechanism has remained elusive due to various experimental limitations. This review presents the current status of angiogenesis-related experiments and future directions of experimentation in relation to exercise, aging, and cancer.

[Methods]

We conducted a PubMed search of the available literature to identify reported exercise related changes of angiogenic factors obtained in vitro using C2C12 cells and endothelial cells, and in vivo using animal experiments and in clinical studies.

[Results]

Exercise induced angiogenesis under normal conditions. Aging decreased angiogenic factors and increased during exercise. On the other hand, in cancer, the results indicate that angiogenic factors tend to increase in general, and that the effects of exercise need to be studied more. The exact mechanism remains unclear.

[Conclusion]

The effect of exercise on angiogenesis appears positive. Both resistance and aerobic exercise have positive effects, but many evidences suggest that the effects are more pronounced with aerobic exercise. Further research on the precise mechanism(s) is necessary. It is expected that these studies will include models of aging and cancer.

Nandrolone alter left ventricular contractility and promotes remodelling involving calcium-handling proteins and renin-angiotensin system in male SHR

AIMS

Hypertension is a highly prevalent disease that has been correlated to severe organ damage and mortality. However, the role of androgens in hypertension is controversial. The aim of this study was to evaluate the cardiac effects of the nandrolone decanoate (NDL) in male SHR.

MAIN METHODS

At 12 weeks of age, male SHR rats were separated into three groups: Control (CON), Nandrolone 10 mg/kg twice weekly (NDL), and NDL plus Enalapril 10 mg/kg/day (NDL-E) groups. The animals were treated for 4 weeks. Haemodynamic parameters were acquired through ventricular catheter implantation. The left ventricle was stained with haematoxylin/eosin or picrosirius red. Western blot analysis of TNF-α, ACE, AT₁R, β₁-AR, PLB, p-PLB^ser16 and SERCA2a was performed.

KEY FINDINGS

Nandrolone increased hypertension in SHR rats and enalapril reduced blood pressure to values below those of the control. NDL increased +dP/dt_max, -dP/dt_max and cardiac hypertrophy, which were prevented in the NDL-E group. Cardiac collagen deposition was increased in the NDL group, with this effect being attenuated by enalapril in NDL-E animals. TNF-α, ACE, AT₁R and β1-AR proteins were increased in the NDL, and enalapril decreased them, except for TNF-α. The ratio p-PLB^ser16/PLB revealed an increase after nandrolone, which was prevented in the NDL-E group. The SERCA2a expression protein and SERCA2a/PLB were increased in NDL animals, which did not occur in the NDL-E group.

SIGNIFICANCE

Nandrolone has distinct effects on cardiac function and remodelling in male SHR, altering the hypertension development process in the heart through modulation of calcium handling proteins and the renin-angiotensin system.

Nandrolone decanoate and physical activity affect quadriceps in peripubertal rats

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) are synthetic analogs of testosterone often used by athletes to increase the skeletal muscle mass. Our goal was to examine the effects of physical activity and physical activity combined with supraphysiological doses of nandrolone on functional morphology of the quadriceps muscle. The study included 32 peripubertal Wistar rats, divided into 4 groups: control (T-N-), nandrolone (T-N+), physical activity (T+N-) and physical activity plus nandrolone (T+N+) groups. The T+N- and T+N+ group swam for 4 weeks, 1 h/day, 5 days/week. The T-N+ and T+N+ groups received nandolone decanoate (20 mg/kg b.w.) once per week, subcutaneously. Subsequently, the rats were sacrificed and muscle specimens were prepared for the processing. Tissue sections were histochemically and immunohistochemically stained, while the image analysis was used for quantification. Longitudinal diameter of quadriceps muscle cells was increased for 21% in T-N+, for 57% in T+N- and for 64% in T+N+ group while cross section muscle cell area was increased in T-N+ for 19%, in T+N- for 47% and in T+N+ group for 59%, compared to the control. Collagen fibers covered area was increased in T-N+ group for 36%, in T+N- for 109% and in T+N+ group for 159%, compared to the control. Erythrocyte depots were decreased in T-N+ group and increased in T+N- and T+N+ group, in comparison with T-N-. VEGF depots were increased in all treated groups. Chronic administration of supraphysiological doses of AASs alone or in combination with physical activity induces hypertrophy and significant changes in the quadriceps muscle tissue structure.

Effects of stanozolol on apoptosis mechanisms and oxidative stress in rat cardiac tissue

Stanozolol is a widely used 17α-alkylated anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) derivative. Despite stanozolol's adverse effects, its effect on oxidative stress parameters and mitochondrial apoptosis pathway is not clearly defined. In our study, thirty four male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 5 groups as control (C), vehicle control (VC), steroid (ST), vehicle control-exercise (VCE), and steroid-exercise (STE). Animals were subcutaneously administered stanozolol 5 mg/kg in steroid groups and propylene glycol 1 ml/kg in the vehicle-control groups. On the 28th day-after sacrification, oxidative stress (MDA, GSH, PC, SOD, CAT) and apoptosis parameters (TUNEL, Cytochrome-c) in cardiac tissue were evaluated. Also, blood vessel morphology of cardiac tissue was evaluated with Verhoeff-van Giesen staining. It has been demonstrated that stanozolol administration triggers apoptosis by using TUNEL assay and cytochrome-c immunohistochemical staining intensity, while this effect is significantly reduced in the presence of exercise. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that stanozolol administration induces apoptosis with increasing PC and CAT levels, while GSH, MDA and SOD parameters do not reveal any significant change. Exercise has a protective role in stanozolol induced oxidative stress and apoptosis. According to Verhoeff-van Giesen staining results for blood vessel morphology assessment, it has been seen that exercise has a protective role on cardiac blood vessels. This mechanism needs further investigations with long term exposure studies for clarifying possible pathways.

Androgenic-anabolic steroids inhibited post-exercise hypotension: a case control study

BACKGROUND

There is evidence of hypertensive effects caused by anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS). A single exercise session promotes the acute reduction of blood pressure, but the effects of AAS on this phenomenon are unknown.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the post-exercise blood pressure response in androgenic-anabolic steroid users.

METHODS

Thirteen AAS users (23.9±4.3 years old) and sixteen controls (22.1±4.5 years old) performed a session of aerobic exercise. Heart rate and blood pressure were assessed before exercise and during a 60min post-exercise resting period. Repeated ANOVA measures were used to determine differences between the groups.

RESULTS

While the control group had a significant reduction in post-exercise systolic blood pressure of up to 13.9±11.6mmHg at 40min, this phenomenon was limited among AAS users who reached a maximum of 6.2±11.5mmHg at 60min. The between groups comparison revealed significant higher post-exercise hypotension (PEH) for the control group at 30min (-12.9±14.1mmHg versus -2.9±7.6mmHg), 40min (-13.9±11.6mmHg versus -2.5±8.3mmHg), 50min (-13.9±13.9mmHg versus -5.0±7.9mmHg) and 60min (-12.5±12.8mmHg versus -6.2±11.5mmHg). There was no significant diastolic PEH in any of the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated impaired systolic post-exercise hypotension as a new adverse effect of AAS usage.

The opposite effects of nandrolone decanoate and exercise on anxiety levels in rats may involve alterations in hippocampal parvalbumin-positive interneurons

The aim of this study was to evaluate the behavioral effects of chronic (six weeks) nandrolone decanoate (ND, 20 mg/kg, s.c., weekly in single dose) administration (in order to mimic heavy human abuse), and exercise (swimming protocol of 60 minutes a day, five days in a row/two days break), applied alone and simultaneously with ND, in male rats (n = 40). Also, we evaluated the effects of those protocols on hippocampal parvalbumin (PV) content and the possible connection between the alterations in certain parts of hippocampal GABAergic system and behavioral patterns. Both ND and exercise protocols induced increase in testosterone, dihydrotestosterone and estradiol blood levels. Our results confirmed anxiogenic effects of ND observed in open field (OF) test (decrease in the locomotor activity, as well as in frequency and cumulative duration in the centre zone) and in elevated plus maze (EPM) test (decrease in frequency and cumulative duration in open arms, and total exploratory activity), that were accompanied with a mild decrease in the number of PV interneurons in hippocampus. Chronic exercise protocol induced significant increase in hippocampal PV neurons (dentate gyrus and CA1 region), followed by anxiolytic-like behavioral changes, observed in both OF and EPM (increase in all estimated parameters), and in evoked beam-walking test (increase in time to cross the beam), compared to ND treated animals. The applied dose of ND was sufficient to attenuate beneficial effects of exercise in rats by means of decreased exercise-induced anxiolytic effect, as well as to reverse exercise-induced augmentation in number of PV immunoreactive neurons in hippocampus. Our results implicate the possibility that alterations in hippocampal PV interneurons (i.e. GABAergic system) may be involved in modulation of anxiety level induced by ND abuse and/or extended exercise protocols.

Chronic endurance exercise antagonizes the cardiac UCP2 and UCP3 protein up-regulation induced by nandrolone decanoate

BACKGROUND

Several lines of evidence revealed that chronic treatment of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) is accompanied with some cardiovascular side effects and in addition they also negatively mask the beneficial effects of exercise training on cardiac performance.

METHODS

The present study examined whether the nandrolone decanoate (ND)-induced cardiac effects were mediated by changing the cardiac uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) and 3 (UCP3) expression. Five groups of male wistar-albino rats including sedentary control (SC), sedentary vehicle (SV), sedentary nandrolone decanoate (SND), exercise control (EC), and exercise nandrolone decanoate (END) were used. ND was injected (10 mg/kg/week, intramuscular) to the animals in the SND and END groups and endurance exercise training was performed on a treadmill five times per week.

RESULTS

The protein expressions of cardiac UCP2 and UCP3 have significantly increased in both the SND and EC groups compared to the SC ones. In contrast to UCP3, no significant differences were found between UCP2 protein expressions of the END and SC groups. Compared with the SND group, the exercise training significantly decreased the UCP2 and UCP3 protein expressions in the END group.

CONCLUSIONS

The study has indicated that endurance exercise in combination with ND can result in that the exercise effectively antagonizes the effects of ND treatment on UCP2 and UCP3 up-regulation.

Nandrolone decanoate interferes with testosterone biosynthesis altering blood-testis barrier components

The aim of this study was to investigate whether nandrolone decanoate (ND) use affects testosterone production and testicular morphology in a model of trained and sedentary mice. A group of mice underwent endurance training while another set led a sedentary lifestyle and were freely mobile within cages. All experimental groups were treated with either ND or peanut oil at different doses for 6 weeks. Testosterone serum levels were measured via liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. Western blot analysis and quantitative real‐time PCR were utilized to determine gene and protein expression levels of the primary enzymes implicated in testosterone biosynthesis and gene expression levels of the blood–testis barrier (BTB) components. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence were conducted for testicular morphological evaluation. The study demonstrated that moderate to high doses of ND induced a diminished serum testosterone level and altered the expression level of the key steroidogenic enzymes involved in testosterone biosynthesis. At the morphological level, ND induced degradation of the BTB by targeting the tight junction protein‐1 (TJP1). ND stimulation deregulated metalloproteinase‐9, metalloproteinase‐2 (MMP‐2) and the tissue inhibitor of MMP‐2. Moreover, ND administration resulted in a mislocalization of mucin‐1. In conclusion, ND abuse induces a decline in testosterone production that is unable to regulate the internalization and redistribution of TJP1 and may induce the deregulation of other BTB constituents via the inhibition of MMP‐2. ND may well be considered as both a potential inducer of male infertility and a potential risk factor to a low endogenous bioavailable testosterone.

Testosterone and Voluntary Exercise Promote Angiogenesis in Hearts of Rats with Diabetes by Enhancing Expression of VEGF-A and SDF-1a

OBJECTIVES

Impaired angiogenesis in cardiac tissue is a major complication of diabetes. This study was aimed to evaluate the effects of testosterone and voluntary exercise on vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A), stromal cell-derived factor 1a (SDF-1a) and myocardial capillary density in heart of rats with diabetes.

METHODS

Type 1 diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal injection of 55 mg/kg of streptozotocin in 80 male Wistar rats. After 42 days of treatment with testosterone (2 mg/kg/day) or voluntary exercise alone or in combination, angiogenesis was determined in the hearts by immunostaining for PECAM-1/CD31. The expressions of VEGF-A and SDF-1a levels in heart were also determined by the ELISA method.

RESULTS

Our results showed that capillary density, VEGF-A and SDF-1a levels in the heart were significantly decreased in castrated rats with diabetes, whereas these effects were reversed by testosterone and exercise. Furthermore, simultaneous treatment of castrated rats with diabetes with testosterone and exercise had a synergistic effect on capillary density, VEGF-A and SDF-1a levels in the heart. In the group with diabetes, either testosterone or exercise increased capillary density, VEGF-A and SDF-1a protein levels in heart tissue. However, the effects of combination therapy in rats with diabetes with testosterone and exercise on capillary density, VEGF-A and SDF-1a levels in the heart was synergistic.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that testosterone and exercise can promote neoangiogenesis in rats with diabetes and in castrated rats with diabetes. The proangiogenesis effect of testosterone and exercise is associated with the enhanced expression of VEGF-A and SDF-1a in heart tissue.

Effects of Tribulus terrestris saponins on exercise performance in overtraining rats and the underlying mechanisms

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of Tribulus terrestris L. (TT) saponins on exercise performance and the underlying mechanisms. A rat overtraining model was established and animals were treated with TT extracts (120 mg/kg body mass) 30 min before each training session. Serum levels of testosterone and corticosterone and levels of androgen receptor (AR) and insulin growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R) in the liver, gastrocnemius, and soleus were determined by ELISA and Western blot. Treatment of rats with TT saponins significantly improved the performance of the overtraining rats, reflected by the extension of time to exhaustion, with a concomitant increase in body mass, relative mass, and protein levels of gastrocnemius. Overtraining alone induced a significant decrease in the serum level of testosterone. In contrast, treatment with TT saponins dramatically increased the serum level of testosterone in overtraining rats to about 150% of control and 216% of overtraining groups, respectively. In addition, TT saponins resulted in a further significant increase in AR in gastrocnemius and significantly suppressed the overtraining-induced increase in IGF-1R in the liver. These results indicated that TT saponins increased performance, body mass, and gastrocnemius mass of rats undergoing overtraining, which might be attributed to the changes in androgen-AR axis and IGF-1R signaling.

Lipoic acid and pentoxifylline mitigate nandrolone decanoate-induced neurobehavioral perturbations in rats via re-balance of brain neurotransmitters, up-regulation of Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, and down-regulation of TNFR1 expression

Behavioral perturbations associated with nandrolone decanoate abuse by athletes and adolescents may be attributed to oxidative stress and inflammation. However, the underlying mechanisms are not yet fully explored. On the other hand, the natural antioxidant lipoic acid can pass the blood brain barrier and enhance Nrf2/HO-1 (nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1) pathway. In addition, the phosphodiesterase-IV inhibitor xanthine derivative pentoxifylline has a remarkable inhibitory effect on tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Therefore, this study aimed at investigation of the possible protective effects of lipoic acid and/or pentoxifylline against nandrolone-induced neurobehavioral alterations in rats. Accordingly, male albino rats were randomly distributed into seven groups and treated with either vehicle, nandrolone (15mg/kg, every third day, s.c.), lipoic acid (100mg/kg/day, p.o.), pentoxifylline (200mg/kg/day, i.p.), or nandrolone with lipoic acid and/or pentoxifylline. Rats were challenged in the open field, rewarded T-maze, Morris water maze, and resident-intruder aggression behavioral tests. The present findings showed that nandrolone induced hyperlocomotion, anxiety, memory impairment, and aggression in rats. These behavioral abnormalities were accompanied by several biochemical changes, including altered levels of brain monoamines, GABA, and acetylcholine, enhanced levels of malondialdehyde and TNF-α, elevated activity of acetylcholinesterase, and up-regulated expression of TNF-α receptor-1 (TNFR1). In addition, inhibited catalase activity, down-regulated Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, and suppressed acetylcholine receptor expression were observed. Lipoic acid and pentoxifylline combination significantly mitigated all the previously mentioned deleterious effects mainly via up-regulation of Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, inhibition of TNF-α and down-regulation of TNFR1 expression. In conclusion, the biochemical and histopathological findings of this study revealed the protective mechanisms of lipoic acid and pentoxifylline against nandrolone-induced behavioral changes and neurotoxicity in rats.

Neuroglobin protects cardiomyocytes against apoptosis and cardiac hypertrophy induced by isoproterenol in rats

Neuroglobin (Ngb) is well known as a physiological role in oxygen homeostasis of neurons and perhaps a protective role against hypoxia and oxidative stress. In this study, we found that Ngb is expressed in rat heart tissues and it is related to isoproterenol induced cardiac hypertrophy. Moreover, overexpression or knock-down of Ngb influences the expression of hypertrophic markers ANP and BNP and the ratio of hypertrophic cells in rat H9c2 myoblasts when isoproterenol treatment. The Annexin V-FITC/PI Staining, Western blot and qPCR analysis showed that the involvement in p53-mediated apoptosis of cardiomyocytes of Ngb is might be the mechanism. This protein could prevent the cells against ROS and POS-induced apoptosis not only in nervous systems but also in cardiomyocytes. From the results, it is concluded that Ngb is a promising protectant in the cardiac hypertrophy, it may be a candidate target to cardiac hypertrophy for clinic treatment.

Myocardial T2 mapping reveals age- and sex-related differences in volunteers

BACKGROUND

T2 mapping indicates to be a sensitive method for detection of tissue oedema hidden beyond the detection limits of T2-weighted Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance (CMR). However, due to variability of baseline T2 values in volunteers, reference values need to be defined. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate the effects of age and sex on quantitative T2 mapping with a turbo gradient-spin-echo (GRASE) sequence at 1.5 T. For that reason, we studied sensitivity issues as well as technical and biological effects on GRASE-derived myocardial T2 maps. Furthermore, intra- and interobserver variability were calculated using data from a large volunteer group.

METHODS

GRASE-derived multiecho images were analysed using dedicated software. After sequence optimization, validation and sensitivity measurements were performed in muscle phantoms ex vivo and in vivo. The optimized parameters were used to analyse CMR images of 74 volunteers of mixed sex and a wide range of age with typical prevalence of hypertension and diabetes. Myocardial T2 values were analysed globally and according to the 17 segment model. Strain-encoded (SENC) imaging was additionally performed to investigate possible effects of myocardial strain on global or segmental T2 values.

RESULTS

Ex vivo studies in muscle phantoms showed, that GRASE-derived T2 values were comparable to those acquired by a standard multiecho spinecho sequence but faster by a factor of 6. Besides that, T2 values reflected tissue water content. The in vivo measurements in volunteers revealed intra- and interobserver correlations with R2=0.91 and R2=0.94 as well as a coefficients of variation of 2.4% and 2.2%, respectively. While global T2 time significantly decreased towards the heart basis, female volunteers had significant higher T2 time irrespective of myocardial region. We found no correlation of segmental T2 values with maximal systolic, diastolic strain or heart rate. Interestingly, volunteers´ age was significantly correlated to T2 time while that was not the case for other coincident cardiovascular risk factors.

CONCLUSION

GRASE-derived T2 maps are highly reproducible. However, female sex and aging with typical prevalence of hypertension and diabetes were accompanied by increased myocardial T2 values. Thus, sex and age must be considered as influence factors when using GRASE in a diagnostic manner.

Amelioration of nandrolone decanoate-induced testicular and sperm toxicity in rats by taurine: effects on steroidogenesis, redox and inflammatory cascades, and intrinsic apoptotic pathway

The wide abuse of the anabolic steroid nandrolone decanoate by athletes and adolescents for enhancement of sporting performance and physical appearance may be associated with testicular toxicity and infertility. On the other hand, taurine; a free β-amino acid with remarkable antioxidant activity, is used in taurine-enriched beverages to boost the muscular power of athletes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the mechanisms of the possible protective effects of taurine on nandrolone decanoate-induced testicular and sperm toxicity in rats. To achieve this aim, male Wistar rats were randomly distributed into four groups and administered either vehicle, nandrolone decanoate (10mg/kg/week, I.M.), taurine (100mg/kg/day, p.o.) or combination of taurine and nandrolone decanoate, for 8 successive weeks. Results of the present study showed that taurine reversed nandrolone decanoate-induced perturbations in sperm characteristics, normalized serum testosterone level, and restored the activities of the key steroidogenic enzymes; 3β-HSD, and 17β-HSD. Moreover, taurine prevented nandrolone decanoate-induced testicular toxicity and DNA damage by virtue of its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects. This was evidenced by taurine-induced modulation of testicular LDH-x activity, redox markers (MDA, NO, GSH contents, and SOD activity), inflammatory indices (TNF-α, ICAM-1 levels, and MMP-9 gene expression), intrinsic apoptotic pathway (cytochrome c gene expression and caspase-3 content), and oxidative DNA damage markers (8-OHdG level and comet assay). In conclusion, at the biochemical and histological levels, taurine attenuated nandrolone decanoate-induced poor sperm quality and testicular toxicity in rats.

Cardiovascular complications following chronic treatment with cocaine and testosterone in adolescent rats

Concomitant use of anabolic androgenic steroids and cocaine has increased in the last years. However, the effects of chronic exposure to these substances during adolescence on cardiovascular function are unknown. Here, we investigated the effects of treatment for 10 consecutive days with testosterone and cocaine alone or in combination on basal cardiovascular parameters, baroreflex activity, hemodynamic responses to vasoactive agents, and cardiac morphology in adolescent rats. Administration of testosterone alone increased arterial pressure, reduced heart rate (HR), and exacerbated the tachycardiac baroreflex response. Cocaine-treated animals showed resting bradycardia without changes in arterial pressure and baroreflex activity. Combined treatment with testosterone and cocaine did not affect baseline arterial pressure and HR, but reduced baroreflex-mediated tachycardia. None of the treatments affected arterial pressure response to either vasoconstrictor or vasodilator agents. Also, heart to body ratio and left and right ventricular wall thickness were not modified by drug treatments. However, histological analysis of left ventricular sections of animals subjected to treatment with testosterone and cocaine alone and combined showed a greater spacing between cardiac muscle fibers, dilated blood vessels, and fibrosis. These data show important cardiovascular changes following treatment with testosterone in adolescent rats. However, the results suggest that exposure to cocaine alone or combined with testosterone during adolescence minimally affect cardiovascular function.

Inhibitory effect of high temperature- and high pressure-treated red ginseng on exercise-induced oxidative stress in ICR mouse

As previously reported, high temperature- and high pressure-treated red ginseng (HRG) contain higher contents of phenolic compounds and protect C2C12 muscle cells and 3T3-L1 adipocytes against oxidative stress. This study investigated the effect of HRG on oxidative stress using a mouse model. Our results show that the levels of glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase and glutamic pyruvic transaminase, hepatic malondialdehyde in the HRG group were significantly lower than those of the exercise groups supplemented with commercial red ginseng (CRG) or not supplemented. The muscular glycogen level, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase activities of the HGR group were higher than that of the CGR group. Furthermore, the HRG treatment group displayed upregulated mRNA expression of Cu/Zn-SOD and muscle regulatory factor 4. These results indicate that HRG may protect oxidative stress induced by exercise as well as improve exercise performance capacity.

Testosterone changes bladder and kidney structure in juvenile male rats

PURPOSE

Testosterone affects male development, maturation and aging but limited data exist on testosterone effects on the juvenile genitourinary system. We hypothesized that testosterone has bladder and kidney developmental effects, and investigated this in juvenile male rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To examine the testosterone effect 21-day-old prepubertal male Wistar rats were divided into 3 groups of 12 each, including sham orchiectomy as controls, and bilateral orchiectomy with vehicle and bilateral orchiectomy with testosterone. Starting at age 28 days (week 0) testosterone enanthate (5 mg/100 gm) or vehicle was injected weekly. Testosterone was measured at study week 0 before injection, and at weeks 1, 6 and 16. Whole bladders and kidneys were evaluated for androgen receptor, bladder collagen-to-smooth muscle ratio, and renal morphometry and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Testosterone was not detectable at week 0 in all groups. It remained undetectable at weeks 1, 6 and 16 in the orchiectomy plus vehicle group. Testosterone levels were physiological in controls and rats with orchiectomy plus testosterone but levels were higher in the latter than in the former group. Rats with orchiectomy plus testosterone had increased bladder-to-body and kidney-to-body weight ratios (p<0.01 and <0.05, respectively), and decreased collagen-to-smooth muscle ratio than the orchiectomy plus vehicle and control groups. Rats with orchiectomy plus testosterone had a lower renal total glomerular count (p<0.01) but increased androgen receptor density.

CONCLUSIONS

In juvenile male rats testosterone was associated with increased bladder and renal mass, and increased bladder smooth muscle. Testosterone associated kidneys also appeared to have fewer but larger glomeruli. These data support an important role for sex hormones in structural and functional development of the bladder and kidney.