Stability and infectivity of coronaviruses in inanimate environments

Bioengineered self-assembled nanofibrils for high-affinity SARS-CoV-2 capture and neutralization

The recent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spurred intense research efforts to develop new materials with antiviral activity. In this study, we genetically engineered amyloid-based nanofibrils for capturing and neutralizing SARS-CoV-2. Building upon the amyloid properties of a short Sup35 yeast prion sequence, we fused it to SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain (RBD) capturing proteins, LCB1 and LCB3. By tuning the reaction conditions, we achieved the spontaneous self-assembly of the Sup35-LCB1 fusion protein into a highly homogeneous and well-dispersed amyloid-like fibrillar material. These nanofibrils exhibited high affinity for the SARS-CoV-2 RBD, effectively inhibiting its interaction with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor, the primary entry point for the virus into host cells. We further demonstrate that this functional nanomaterial entraps and neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 virus-like particles (VLPs), with a potency comparable to that of therapeutic antibodies. As a proof of concept, we successfully fabricated patterned surfaces that selectively capture SARS-CoV-2 RBD protein on wet environments. Collectively, these findings suggest that these protein-only nanofibrils hold promise as disinfecting coatings endowed with selective SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing properties to combat viral spread or in the development of sensitive viral sampling and diagnostic tools.

SARS-CoV-2 genome incidence on the inanimate surface of the material used in the flow of biological samples from the collection point to the testing unit

Despite the undeniable effect of vaccination against COVID-19 in reducing disease severity, there is still a need to monitor and limit SARS-CoV-2 circulation and transmission. Thus, this study evaluated the presence of the SARS-CoV-2 genome on the surfaces of highly touched objects manipulated in the biological sample collection point and at the reception unit of the diagnostic laboratory. Surfaces were sampled once a week, for 6 weeks, between September 18th and October 23rd, 2020. RT-qPCR was used for SARS-CoV-2 detection. The coolers for biological sample transportation and the envelope containing the patient form were the objects with the highest occurrence of viral genome detection, although it was detected in each object in only two of the 6 evaluations. And the SARS-CoV-2 genome was detected just once on the vehicle steering wheel, computer keyboard, bathroom door handle and disinfection bench. The virus genome was not detected in any object on three of the six evaluations. And eight was the largest number of surfaces contaminated by the virus genome on one occasion. The reduced incidence of object contamination by the SARS-CoV-2 genome can be explained by the exposure of the objects to environmental conditions and the adoption of virus-spread containment measures. It can also reflect the low incidence of SARS-CoV-2 during the study's development period. Despite the low frequency of SARS-CoV-2 genome detection, our findings show that the virus was present in the environment at some point. This highlights the importance of adopting personal preventive measures to reduce respiratory virus spread, especially during epidemics and outbreaks.

Evaluating Droplet Survivability on Face Masks with X-ray Microtomography

When a person talks, coughs, or sneezes, respiratory droplets are expelled and inevitably land on several surfaces, representing a route for respiratory disease transmission. Here, face masks act as a barrier by obstructing the passage of droplets during exhalation and inhalation. Being constantly exposed to respiratory events and carrying droplet residue, understanding the evaporation and absorption dynamics for tiny droplets on face masks and the fate of viral particle deposition is necessary to analyze the contamination risk. We explore the ideal design for masks from the interaction of mask surfaces with surrogate respiratory droplets by X-ray microscopy and microtomography. We show that the respiratory droplet survivability is significantly reduced in masks with a hydrophilic surface where absorption takes place, leading to a reduction of the postevaporation droplet residue at the mask surface compared with a hydrophobic surface. The results allow us to propose a better mask layer design dependent on wettability, reducing the risk of contamination from respiratory droplets.

Environmental dissemination of respiratory viruses: dynamic interdependencies of respiratory droplets, aerosols, aerial particulates, environmental surfaces, and contribution of viral re-aerosolization

During the recent pandemic of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), influential public health agencies such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have favored the view that SARS CoV-2 spreads predominantly via droplets. Many experts in aerobiology have openly opposed that stance, forcing a vigorous debate on the topic. In this review, we discuss the various proposed modes of viral transmission, stressing the interdependencies between droplet, aerosol, and fomite spread. Relative humidity and temperature prevailing determine the rates at which respiratory aerosols and droplets emitted from an expiratory event (sneezing, coughing, etc.) evaporate to form smaller droplets or aerosols, or experience hygroscopic growth. Gravitational settling of droplets may result in contamination of environmental surfaces (fomites). Depending upon human, animal and mechanical activities in the occupied space indoors, viruses deposited on environmental surfaces may be re-aerosolized (re-suspended) to contribute to aerosols, and can be conveyed on aerial particulate matter such as dust and allergens. The transmission of respiratory viruses may then best be viewed as resulting from dynamic virus spread from infected individuals to susceptible individuals by various physical states of active respiratory emissions, instead of the current paradigm that emphasizes separate dissemination by respiratory droplets, aerosols or by contaminated fomites. To achieve the optimum outcome in terms of risk mitigation and infection prevention and control (IPAC) during seasonal infection peaks, outbreaks, and pandemics, this holistic view emphasizes the importance of dealing with all interdependent transmission modalities, rather than focusing on one modality.

Investigation and analysis of children's behavior and outpatient number of respiratory diseases in Shanghai before and after the COVID-19 pandemic

Objective

Alterations in behavioral habits of children were analyzed in Shanghai in the winters prior to and following the COVID-19 pandemic, with the aim of assisting in the prevention of children's respiratory diseases in the post-pandemic era.

Method

This cross-sectional survey was conducted via an offline questionnaire from January 1 to February 28, 2021. The behavioral habits of Shanghainese children in different age groups during the winter of 2019 and 2020 were statistically analyzed using the SPSS 25.0 software. The parameters surveyed and analyzed included the frequency of outdoor activities, self-protection measures (frequency of wearing masks and washing hands after going out), travel history, time to visit since symptom onset, and influenza vaccination status. Lastly, the number of cases of respiratory diseases in the pediatric outpatient department of our hospital was analyzed during the same period.

Result

A total of 1816 questionnaires were investigated and analyzed, and the results revealed that self-protection measures were significantly enhanced in children of all age groups after the COVID-19 pandemic breakout compared with those before the pandemic, whereas the frequency of outdoor activities and traveling were reduced. In the age group over 3 years old, the time to visit since symptom onset was shorter, and the influenza vaccination rate increased following the pandemic. During the same period, the number of cases of children with respiratory diseases in our outpatient department was significantly decreased compared with that prior to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Conclusion

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on self-protection measures, outdoor activities, and other children's behaviors in all age groups in Shanghai. These changes in habits were correlated with a lower incidence and transmission of respiratory diseases in children. Overall, this study lays a theoretical basis for the prevention of childhood illnesses in the post-pandemic era.

Access to Information, and Concerns, Myths and Truths about Food Safety during the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Overview of the Portuguese Population

The COVID-19 pandemic raised questions and concerns about the possibility of the virus being transmitted through food, as the virus was found in sewage, shrimps and packages of frozen food. During the first wave of COVID-19, concerns about the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 through food arose. As the number of cases began to increase rapidly, so did the availability of information regarding the virus and ways to prevent infection. A significant portion of this information was disseminated by the media and the general public. Identifying and understanding the main doubts and concerns about food hygiene and safety raised by the Portuguese population during the first wave of COVID-19 is important in order to understand whether these issues have influenced their practices and what lessons can be learnt for food safety and hygiene education. The aims of this work were (1) to understand the doubts and concerns of the Portuguese population regarding food safety and hygiene during the first wave of COVID-19, and how these issues were clarified, (2) to analyze the population's opinion on food/hygiene myths and truths related to the transmission and prevention of the infection, and (3) to understand how the first wave of COVID-19 may have influenced the population's practices linked to food handling and consumption. The main doubts of the respondents were related to food handling (41.6%) and the possibility of transmission of COVID-19 through food (17%). Television was the main source of information used to clarify these doubts (32.9%), followed by a guideline issued by the Directorate-General of Health (30.7%). However, most respondents (50.9%) said that they had only found answers to some of their questions. Most respondents reported washing and disinfecting hands before (85% and 63.4%, respectively) and after (73.8% and 57.3%, respectively) the handling and organization of food purchases. Most respondents did not believe the myths about COVID-19 and food safety, but this depended on their level of education. Some practices may have changed as a result of the pandemic, particularly with regard to washing and disinfecting hands and food, as well as kitchen hygiene.

Environmental Stability and Transmissibility of Enveloped Viruses at Varied Animate and Inanimate Interfaces

Enveloped viruses have been the leading causative agents of viral epidemics in the past decade, including the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak. In epidemics caused by enveloped viruses, direct contact is a common route of infection, while indirect transmissions through the environment also contribute to the spread of the disease, although their significance remains controversial. Bridging the knowledge gap regarding the influence of interfacial interactions on the persistence of enveloped viruses in the environment reveals the transmission mechanisms when the virus undergoes mutations and prevents excessive disinfection during viral epidemics. Herein, from the perspective of the driving force, partition efficiency, and viral survivability at interfaces, we summarize the viral and environmental characteristics that affect the environmental transmission of viruses. We expect to provide insights for virus detection, environmental surveillance, and disinfection to limit the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.

Viral respiratory infections in a rapidly changing climate: the need to prepare for the next pandemic

Viral respiratory infections (VRIs) cause seasonal epidemics and pandemics, with their transmission influenced by climate conditions. Despite the risks posed by novel VRIs, the relationships between climate change and VRIs remain poorly understood. In this review, we synthesized existing literature to explore the connections between changes in meteorological conditions, extreme weather events, long-term climate warming, and seasonal outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics of VRIs from an interdisciplinary perspective. We proposed a comprehensive conceptual framework highlighting the potential biological, socioeconomic, and ecological mechanisms underlying the impact of climate change on VRIs. Our findings suggested that climate change increases the risk of VRI emergence and transmission by affecting the biology of viruses, host susceptibility, human behavior, and environmental conditions of both society and ecosystems. Further interdisciplinary research is needed to address the dual challenge of climate change and pandemics.

Clinical Significance and Diagnostic Utility of NLR, LMR, PLR and SII in the Course of COVID-19: A Literature Review

Nowadays, society is increasingly struggling with infectious diseases that are characterized by severe course and even death. Recently, the whole world has faced the greatest epidemiological threat, which is COVID-19 caused by SARS CoV-2 virus. SARS CoV-2 infection is often accompanied by severe inflammation, which can lead to the development of different complications. Consequently, clinicians need easily interpreted and effective markers of inflammation that can predict the efficacy of the treatment and patient prognosis. Inflammation is associated with changes in many biochemical and hematological parameters, including leukocyte counts and their populations. In COVID-19, changes in leukocytes count populations such as neutrophils, lymphocytes or monocytes are observed. The numerous research confirm that indicators like neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), lymphocyte-to-monocyte ratio (LMR), platelets-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR) and systemic inflammatory index (SII) may prove effective in assessment patient prognosis and choosing optimal therapy. Therefore, in this review, we would like to summarize the latest knowledge about the diagnostic utility of systemic inflammatory ratios - NLR, LMR, PLR and SII in patients with COVID-19. We focused on the papers evaluating the diagnostic utility of inflammatory ratios using ROC curve published in the recent 3 years. Identification of biomarkers associated with inflammation would help the selection of patients with severe course of COVID-19 and high risk of death.

Efficacy of copper blend coatings in reducing SARS-CoV-2 contamination

SARS-CoV-2 is a highly infectious virus and etiologic agent of COVID-19, which is spread by respiratory droplets, aerosols, and contaminated surfaces. Copper is a known antiviral agent, and has resulted in successful reduction of pathogens and infections by 83-99.9% when coated on surfaces in intensive care units. Additionally, copper has been shown to inactivate pathogens such as Coronavirus 226E, a close relative of SARS-CoV-2. Here, we examine the ability of two copper blends with differing compositions to inactivate SARS-CoV-2 virus at different time points. Copper Blend 2 (75.07% pure copper) was found to significantly reduce (over 50%) the viability of SARS-CoV-2 at 5 min of contact, with at least 98% reduction in recovered virus at 20 min (vs. plastic control). However, Copper Blend 1 (48.26% pure copper), was not found to significantly reduce viability of SARS-CoV-2 at any time point when compared to plastic. This may indicate that there is an important percentage of copper content in materials that is needed to effectively inactivate SARS-CoV-2. Overall, this study shows that over the course of 20 min, coatings made of copper materials can significantly reduce the recovery of infectious SARS-CoV-2 compared to uncoated controls, indicating the effective use of copper for viral inactivation on surfaces. Furthermore, it may suggest higher copper content has stronger antiviral properties. This could have important implications when short turnaround times are needed for cleaning and disinfecting rooms or equipment, especially in strained healthcare settings which are struggling to keep up with demand.

Evaluation of compressed sodium chloride on the inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 and surrogates

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes the global COVID-19 pandemic. Limited studies have been performed on various types of disinfectants utilized to control the spread of this highly contagious virus. This study aimed to investigate the inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 using compressed sodium chloride (CSC) surface. A real-time reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) assay was used to evaluate the effectiveness of CSC on the disintegration of viral RNA in a time dependent manner. The effects of CSC on viral infectivity were determined using a TCID50 assay of a surrogate virus, hCoV-229E, in MRC-5 cell culture. The results demonstrated that CSC achieved a 2 to 3- log10 reduction of viral genomic RNA for a laboratory strain of hCoV-229E, and clinical samples of hCoV-229E and hCoV-OC43. A 3 to 4-log10 reduction was observed for SARS-CoV-2 (RdRp and E gene) suggesting that a CSC surface could effectively disintegrate the SARS-CoV-2 RNA genome. CSC was observed to have a 6 log10 inactivation of infectious hCoV-229E using cell culture after 5 minutes of exposure compared to the control, indicating good disinfection efficacy of a CSC surface against virus.

Effect of Reducing Agent on Characteristics and Antibacterial Activity of Copper-Containing Particles in Textile Materials

Textile materials modified with copper-containing particles have antibacterial and antiviral properties that have prospects for use in healthcare. In the study, textile materials were saturated with copper-containing particles in their entire material volume by the absorption/diffusion method. The antibacterial properties of modified textile materials were confirmed by their inhibitory effect on Staphylococcus aureus, a Gram-positive bacterium that spreads predominantly through the respiratory tract. For the modification, ordinary textile materials of various origins and fiber structures were used. Technological conditions and compositions of modifying solutions were established, as well as the most suitable textile materials for modification. To assess the morphological and physical characteristics of copper-containing particles and the textile materials themselves, X-ray diffraction, a scanning electron microscope, and an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrum were used. In modified textile samples, XRD data showed the presence of crystalline phases of copper (Cu) and copper (I) oxide (Cu₂O). On the grounds of the SEM/EDS analysis, the saturation of textile materials with copper-containing particles depends on the structure of the textile materials and the origins of the fibers included in their composition, as well as the modification conditions and the copper precursor.

Amine-Functionalized Silver Nanoparticles: A Potential Antiviral-Coating Material with Trap and Kill Efficiency to Combat Viral Dissemination (COVID-19)

The outbreak of COVID-19 has drastically affected the daily lifestyles of people globally where specific Coronavirus-2 transmits primarily by respiratory droplets. Structurally, the SARS-CoV-2 virus is made up of four types of proteins in which S-protein is indispensable among them, as it causes rapid replication in the host body. Therefore, the glycine and alanine composed of HR1 of S-protein is the ideal target for antiviral action. Different forms of surface-active PPEs can efficiently prevent this transmission in this circumstance. However, the virus can survive on the conventional PPEs for a long time. Hence, the nanotechnological approaches based on engineered nanomaterials coating on medical equipments can potentially prevent the dissemination of infections in public. Silver nanoparticles with tuneable physicochemical properties and versatile chemical functionalization provide an excellent platform to combat the disease. The coating of amine-functionalized silver nanoparticle (especially amine linked to aliphatic chain and trialkoxysilane) in its nanostructured form enables cloths trap and kill efficient. PPEs are a primary and reliable preventive measure, although they are not 100% effective against viral infections. So, developing and commercializing surface-active PPEs with trap and kill efficacy is highly needed to cope with current and future viral infections. This review article discusses the COVID-19 morphology, antiviral mechanism of Ag-NPs against SARS-CoV-2 virus, surface factors that influence viral persistence on fomites, the necessity of antiviral PPEs, and the potential application of amine-functionalized silver nanoparticles as a coating material for the development of trap and kill-efficient face masks and PPE kits.

Point-of-care CRISPR/Cas biosensing technology: A promising tool for preventing the possible COVID-19 resurgence caused by contaminated cold-chain food and packaging

The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused great public health concern and has been a global threat due to its high transmissibility and morbidity. Although the SARS-CoV-2 transmission mainly relies on the person-to-person route through the respiratory droplets, the possible transmission through the contaminated cold-chain food and packaging to humans has raised widespread concerns. This review discussed the possibility of SARS-CoV-2 transmission via the contaminated cold-chain food and packaging by tracing the occurrence, the survival of SARS-CoV-2 in the contaminated cold-chain food and packaging, as well as the transmission and outbreaks related to the contaminated cold-chain food and packaging. Rapid, accurate, and reliable diagnostics of SARS-CoV-2 is of great importance for preventing and controlling the COVID-19 resurgence. Therefore, we summarized the recent advances on the emerging clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas system-based biosensing technology that is promising and powerful for preventing the possible COVID-19 resurgence caused by the contaminated cold-chain food and packaging during the COVID-19 pandemic, including CRISPR/Cas system-based biosensors and their integration with portable devices (e.g., smartphone, lateral flow assays, microfluidic chips, and nanopores). Impressively, this review not only provided an insight on the possibility of SARS-CoV-2 transmission through the food supply chain, but also proposed the future opportunities and challenges on the development of CRISPR/Cas system-based detection methods for the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2.

Chitosan-Based Formulations Intended as Protective Spray for Mask Surfaces in Prevention of Coronavirus Dissemination

The extraordinary occurrence of COVID-19 by the fast expansion of viral infections has propelled particular interest in developing novel antiviral and virucidal agents to guarantee personal security. The main objective of this work is to propose novel formulations able to optimize the use of personal protection elements. In recent years, chitosan (CH) has attracted attention for being an interesting multifunctional, biodegradable, non-antigenic, non-toxic, and biocompatible natural polymer with antimicrobial properties. In this work, formulations based on a CH matrix containing silver, and Copper based nanoparticles have been developed. The novelty of this proposal is that almost liquid formulations have been reached, possessing verified properties to inhibit evolved virus such as herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) and bovine betacoronavirus (BCoV), the latter belonging to the same family of the well-known the well-known SARS-CoV-2. Besides antibacterial bioactivity; as well as the ability of these formulations to be easily sprayed on various surfaces, including conventional face masks, have been verified and discussed. The results presented in this contribution provide strong evidence on CH films as an ideal biosafe surface-protective for several daily used materials including the conventional face masks.

Human Responses in Public Health Emergencies for Infectious Disease Control: An Overview of Controlled Topologies for Biomedical Applications

COVID-19 originated in Wuhan city of Hubei Province in China in December three years ago. Since then, it has spread to more than 210 countries and territories. This disease is caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2. The virus has a size of one to two nanometers and a single-stranded positive RNA. Droplets spread the virus from coughing and sneezing. This condition causes coughing, fever, acute respiratory problems, and even death. According to the WHO, the virus can survive outside the body for several hours. This research aimed to determine how environmental factors influenced the COVID-19 virus's survival and behavior, as well as its transmission, in a complex environment. Based on the results, virus transmissions are influenced by various human and environmental factors such as population distribution, travel, social behavior, and climate change. Environmental factors have not been adequately examined concerning the transmission of this epidemic. Thus, it is necessary to examine various aspects of prevention and control of this disease, including its effects on climate and other environmental factors.

COVID-19 and vaccination: myths vs science

INTRODUCTION

Several vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been developed since the inception of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in December 2019, at unprecedented speed. However, these rapidly developed vaccines raised many questions related to the efficacy and safety of vaccines in different communities across the globe. Various hypotheses regarding COVID-19 and its vaccines were generated, and many of them have also been answered with scientific evidence. Still, there are many myths/misinformation related to COVID-19 and its vaccines, which create hesitancy for COVID-19 vaccination, and must be addressed critically to achieve success in the battle against the pandemic.

AREA COVERED

The development of anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines against COVID-19, their safety and efficacy, and myths/misinformation relating to COVID-19 and vaccines are presented.

EXPERT OPINION

In this pandemic we have seen a global collaborative effort of researchers, governments, and industry, supported by billions of dollars in funding, have allowed the development of vaccines far more quickly than in the past. Vaccines go through rigorous testing, analysis, and evaluations in clinical settings prior to their approval, even if they are approved for emergency use. Despite the myths, vaccination represents an important strategy to get back to normality.

Environmental detection of SARS-CoV-2 in hospital rooms in different wards of an University Hospital

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Inanimate Surfaces as a Source of Hospital Infections Caused by Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses with Particular Emphasis on SARS-CoV-2

The carriers of nosocomial infections are the hands of medical personnel and inanimate surfaces. Both hands and surfaces may be contaminated as a result of contact with the patient, their body fluids, and touching contaminated surfaces in the patient’s surroundings. Visually clean inanimate surfaces are an important source of pathogens. Microorganisms have properties thanks to which they can survive in unfavorable conditions, from a few days to several months. Bacteria, viruses and fungi are able to transmit from inanimate surfaces to the skin of the patient and the medical staff. These pathogens include SARS-CoV-2, which can survive on various types of inanimate surfaces, being a potential source of infection. By following the recommendations related to washing and disinfecting hands and surfaces, and using appropriate washing and disinfecting agents with a broad biocidal spectrum, high material compatibility and the shortest duration of action, we contribute to breaking the chain of nosocomial infections.

First case of SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection in municipal solid waste leachate from Brazil

This work presents the first case of SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection in leachate collected from a transfer station in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. After calibration of the viral detection method already used for wastewater samples with a pilot leachate sample and virus fragments in laboratory, twelve polyethylene glycol concentrated leachates samples were tested by RT-qPCR. The results confirmed the presence of N1 gene in 9 of the 12 analyzed samples between epidemiological weeks 33 and 38 of the year 2021 (08/15/2021 to 09/19/2021). The occurrence of the N2 gene was only observed in 5 of the 12 samples. The concentration values for N1 and N2 genes varied between 3.1 and 4.6 log₁₀.GC·L^-1, which are values close to those measured in sanitary wastewater. This method showed to be a promising procedure to verify the presence of viral RNA in municipal solid waste leachate, being especially useful where there is no treatment system and sanitation infrastructure, which makes the conventional wastewater surveillance unfeasible.

Safe provision of elective endocrine surgery operations amid the COVID-19 crisis

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study was to determine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the provision of clinical services (perioperative clinical outcomes and productivity) of the department of endocrine and general surgery at a teaching hospital in the UK.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review was conducted of all patients who were operated in our department during two periods: 1 April to 31 October 2019 (pre-COVID-19 period) and 1 April to 31 October 2020 (COVID-19 period). The perioperative clinical outcomes and productivity of our department for the two time periods were compared.

RESULTS

In the pre-COVID-19 period, 130 operations were carried out, whereas in the COVID-19 group, this reduced to 89. The baseline characteristics between the two groups did not significantly differ. Parathyroid operations decreased significantly by 68% between the two study periods. Overall, during the COVID-19 phase, the department maintained 68% of its operating workload compared with the respective 2019 time period. The clinical outcomes for the patients who had a thyroid/parathyroid/adrenal operation were not statistically different for the two study periods. There were no COVID-19 related perioperative complications for any of the operated patients and no patient tested positive for COVID-19 while an inpatient. For the COVID-19 group, the department maintained 67% of its outpatient appointments for endocrine surgery and 26% for general surgery pathologies.

CONCLUSIONS

The COVID-19 pandemic significantly reduced the clinical activity of our department. However, it is possible to continue providing clinical services for urgent/cancer cases with the appropriate safety measures in place.

SARS-CoV-2 in Environmental Samples of Quarantined Households

The role of environmental transmission of SARS-CoV-2 remains unclear. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether viral contamination of air, wastewater, and surfaces in quarantined households result in a higher risk for exposed persons. For this study, a source population of 21 households under quarantine conditions with at least one person who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA were randomly selected from a community in North Rhine-Westphalia in March 2020. All individuals living in these households participated in this study and provided throat swabs for analysis. Air and wastewater samples and surface swabs were obtained from each household and analysed using qRT-PCR. Positive swabs were further cultured to analyse for viral infectivity. Out of all the 43 tested adults, 26 (60.47%) tested positive using qRT-PCR. All 15 air samples were qRT-PCR-negative. In total, 10 out of 66 wastewater samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2 (15.15%) and 4 out of 119 surface samples (3.36%). No statistically significant correlation between qRT-PCR-positive environmental samples and the extent of the spread of infection between household members was observed. No infectious virus could be propagated under cell culture conditions. Taken together, our study demonstrates a low likelihood of transmission via surfaces. However, to definitively assess the importance of hygienic behavioural measures in the reduction of SARS-CoV-2 transmission, larger studies should be designed to determine the proportionate contribution of smear vs. droplet transmission.

SARS-CoV-2 in Environmental Samples of Quarantined Households

The role of environmental transmission of SARS-CoV-2 remains unclear. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether viral contamination of air, wastewater, and surfaces in quarantined households result in a higher risk for exposed persons. For this study, a source population of 21 households under quarantine conditions with at least one person who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA were randomly selected from a community in North Rhine-Westphalia in March 2020. All individuals living in these households participated in this study and provided throat swabs for analysis. Air and wastewater samples and surface swabs were obtained from each household and analysed using qRT-PCR. Positive swabs were further cultured to analyse for viral infectivity. Out of all the 43 tested adults, 26 (60.47%) tested positive using qRT-PCR. All 15 air samples were qRT-PCR-negative. In total, 10 out of 66 wastewater samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2 (15.15%) and 4 out of 119 surface samples (3.36%). No statistically significant correlation between qRT-PCR-positive environmental samples and the extent of the spread of infection between household members was observed. No infectious virus could be propagated under cell culture conditions. Taken together, our study demonstrates a low likelihood of transmission via surfaces. However, to definitively assess the importance of hygienic behavioural measures in the reduction of SARS-CoV-2 transmission, larger studies should be designed to determine the proportionate contribution of smear vs. droplet transmission.

Virus MIP-composites for SARS-CoV-2 detection in the aquatic environment

SARS-CoV-2 is the virus responsible for causing the global COVID-19 pandemic. Identifying the presence of this virus in the environment could potentially improve the effectiveness of disease control measures. Environmental SARS-CoV-2 monitoring may become increasingly demanded in areas where the available testing methods are ineffective. In this study, we present an electrochemical polymer composites biosensor for measuring SARS-CoV-2 whole-virus particles in the environment. The sensitized layer was prepared from molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) composites of inactivated SARS-CoV-2. Testing demonstrated increased sensor signaling with SARS-CoV-2 specifically, while lower responses were observed to the negative controls, H5N1 influenza A virus and non-imprinted polymers (NIPs). This sensor detected SARS-CoV-2 at concentrations as low as 0.1 fM in buffer and samples prepared from reservoir water with a 3 log-scale linearity.

How to Deal With Vaccine Breakthrough Infection With SARS-CoV-2 Variants

Novel Coronary Pneumonia is the most infectious disease with the highest number of morbidity and mortality in 100 years. Despite aggressive and effective COVID-19 prevention and control measures, countries have been unable to stop its outbreaks. With the widespread use of vaccines, the occurrence of COVID-19 has declined markedly. April 21, 2021, New York scholars reported Vaccine Breakthrough Infections with SARS-CoV-2 Variants, which immediately attracted widespread attention. In this mini-review, we focus on the characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and its mutant strains and vaccine breakthrough infections. We have found that outbreaks of vaccine-breaking SARS-CoV-2 Delta infections in many countries are primarily the result of declining vaccine-generated antibody titers and relaxed outbreak management measures. For this reason, we believe that the main response to vaccine-breaking infections with the SARS-CoV-2 variant is to implement a rigorous outbreak defense policy and vaccine application. Only by intensifying the current vaccination intensity, gradually improving the vaccine and its application methods, and strengthening non-pharmaceutical measures such as travel restrictions, social distancing, masking and hand hygiene, can the COVID-19 outbreak be fully controlled at an early date.

Host Defence Peptides: A Potent Alternative to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance in the Era of the COVID-19 Pandemic

One of the greatest challenges facing the medical community today is the ever-increasing trajectory of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), which is being compounded by the decrease in our antimicrobial armamentarium. From their initial discovery to the current day, antibiotics have seen an exponential increase in their usage, from medical to agricultural use. Benefits aside, this has led to an exponential increase in AMR, with the fear that over 10 million lives are predicted to be lost by 2050, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO). As such, medical researchers are turning their focus to discovering novel alternatives to antimicrobials, one being Host Defence Peptides (HDPs). These small cationic peptides have shown great efficacy in being used as an antimicrobial therapy for currently resistant microbial variants. With the sudden emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 variant and the subsequent global pandemic, the great versatility and potential use of HDPs as an alternative to conventional antibiotics in treating as well as preventing the spread of COVID-19 has been reviewed. Thus, to allow the reader to have a full understanding of the multifaceted therapeutic use of HDPs, this literature review shall cover the association between COVID-19 and AMR whilst discussing and evaluating the use of HDPs as an answer to antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

Design strategies for antiviral coatings and surfaces: A review☆

The routine disinfection and sanitization of surfaces, objects, and textiles has become a time-consuming but necessary task for managing the COVID-19 pandemic. Nonetheless, the excessive use of sanitizers and disinfectants promotes the development of antibiotic-resistant microbes. Moreover, that improper disinfection could lead to more virus transfer, which leads to more viral mutations. Recently developed antiviral surface coatings can reduce the reliance on traditional disinfectants. These surfaces remain actively antimicrobial between periods of active cleaning of the surfaces, allowing a much more limited and optimized use of disinfectants. The novel nature of these surfaces has led, however, to many inconsistencies within the rapidly growing literature. Here we provide tools to guide the design and development of antimicrobial and antiviral surfaces and coatings. We describe how engineers can best choose testing options and propose new avenues for antiviral testing. After defining testing protocols, we summarize potential inorganic and organic materials able to serve as antiviral surfaces and present their antiviral mechanisms. We discuss the main limitations to their application, including issues related to toxicity, antimicrobial resistance, and environmental concerns. We propose solutions to counter these limitations and highlight how the context of specific use of an antiviral surface must guide material selection. Finally, we discuss how the use of coatings that combine multiple antimicrobial mechanisms can avoid the development of antibiotic resistance and improve the antiviral properties of these surfaces.

Characterizing the microbiota of instrumentation in ophthalmology clinics during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic

Purpose

Increased ophthalmology-specific risk of novel coronavirus 2019 (SARS-CoV-2) transmission is well-established, increasing the fear of infection and causing associated decreased rates of procedures known to save vision. However, the potential transmission from exposure to clinic instrumentation is unknown, including which additional pathogens may be spreading in this context. This study seeks to fill this gap by characterizing the microbiota of instrumentation in ophthalmology clinics during the COVID-19 pandemic and identifying potential sources of pathogenic spread encountered by patients and healthcare workers.

Methods

Thirty-three samples were captured using standard cultures and media. Ten positive and negative controls were used to confirm proper technique. Descriptive statistics were calculated for all samples. Samples were collected from the retina (N = 17), glaucoma (N = 6), cornea (N = 6), and resident (N = 4) clinics with rigorous disinfection standards at a tertiary academic medical center. Standard media cultures and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed for each sample.

Results

From 33 samples, more than half (17/33, 51.5%) yielded bacterial growth. Using two different molecular methods, three samples (3/33, 9%) tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 (cycle thresholds 36.48, 37.14, and 37.83). There was no significant difference in bacterial growth (95% confidence interval [95% CI]: − 0.644–0.358, p = 0.076) among different clinics (retina, glaucoma, cornea, resident). Staphylococcus (S.) epidermidis grew most frequently (12/35, 34%), followed by S. capitis (7/35, 20%), Micrococcus luteus (2/35, 5.7%), Corynebacterium tuberculostearicum (2/35, 5.7%), and Cutibacterium ([C.], Propionibacterium) acnes (2/35, 5.7%). C. acnes growth was more frequent with imaging device forehead rests (2/7, 28.6%) than other surfaces (0/26, 0%, 95% CI: 0.019–0.619, p = 0.040). No samples isolated fungus or adenovirus.

Conclusions

Most samples across subspecialty clinic instrumentation grew bacteria, and several tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. Many isolated pathogens have been implicated in causing infections such as endophthalmitis, conjunctivitis, uveitis, and keratitis. The clinical implications of the ophthalmology microbiome for transmitting nosocomial infections warrant optimization of disinfection practices, strategies for mitigating spread, and additional study beyond the pandemic.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00417-022-05639-0.

Mucins Inhibit Coronavirus Infection in a Glycan-Dependent Manner

Mucins are a diverse and heterogeneous family of glycoproteins that comprise the bulk of mucus and the epithelial glycocalyx. Mucins are intimately involved in viral transmission. Mucin and virus laden particles can be expelled from the mouth and nose to later infect others. Viruses must also penetrate the mucus layer before cell entry and replication. The role of mucins and their molecular structure have not been well-characterized in coronavirus transmission studies. Laboratory studies predicting high rates of fomite transmission have not translated to real-world infections, and mucins may be one culprit. Here, we probed both surface and direct contact transmission scenarios for their dependence on mucins and their structure. We utilized disease-causing, bovine-derived, human coronavirus OC43. We found that bovine mucins could inhibit the infection of live cells in a concentration- and glycan-dependent manner. The effects were observed in both mock fomite and direct contact transmission experiments and were not dependent upon surface material or time-on-surface. However, the effects were abrogated by removal of the glycans or in a cross-species infection scenario where bovine mucin could not inhibit the infection of a murine coronavirus. Together, our data indicate that the mucin molecular structure plays a complex and important role in host defense.

Mechanical Wiping Increases the Efficacy of Liquid Disinfectants on SARS-CoV-2

High-touch environmental surfaces are acknowledged as potential sources of pathogen transmission, particularly in health care settings where infectious agents may be readily abundant. Methods of disinfecting these surfaces often include direct application of a chemical disinfectant or simply wiping the surface with a disinfectant pre-soaked wipe (DPW). In this study, we examine the ability of four disinfectants, ethanol (EtOH), sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), chlorine dioxide (ClO2), and potassium monopersulfate (KMPS), to inactivate SARS-CoV-2 on a hard, non-porous surface, assessing the effects of concentration and contact time. The efficacy of DPWs to decontaminate carriers spiked with SARS-CoV-2, as well as the transferability of the virus from used DPWs to clean surfaces, is also assessed. Stainless steel carriers inoculated with approximately 6 logs of SARS-CoV-2 prepared in a soil load were disinfected within 5 min through exposure to 66.5% EtOH, 0.5% NaOCl, and 1% KMPS. The addition of mechanical wiping using DPWs impregnated with these biocides rendered the virus inactive almost immediately, with no viral transfer from the used DPW to adjacent surfaces. Carriers treated with 100 ppm of ClO2 showed a significant amount of viable virus remaining after 10 min of biocide exposure, while the virus was only completely inactivated after 10 min of treatment with 500 ppm of ClO2. Wiping SARS-CoV-2-spiked carriers with DPWs containing either concentration of ClO2 for 5 s left significant amounts of viable virus on the carriers. Furthermore, higher titers of infectious virus retained on the ClO2-infused DPWs were transferred to uninoculated carriers immediately after wiping. Overall, 66.5% EtOH, 0.5% NaOCl, and 1% KMPS appear to be highly effective biocidal agents against SARS-CoV-2, while ClO2 formulations are much less efficacious.

Biomedical detection dogs for the identification of SARS-CoV-2 Infections from axillary sweat and breath samples

A PCR test of a nasal swab is still the "gold standard" for detecting a SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, PCR testing could be usefully complemented by non-invasive, fast, reliable, cheap methods for detecting infected individuals in busy areas (e.g. airports and railway stations) or remote areas. Detection of the volatile, semivolatile and non-volatile compound signature of SARS-CoV-2 infection by trained sniffer dogs might meet these requirements. Previous studies have shown that well-trained dogs can detect SARS-CoV-2 in sweat, saliva and urine samples. The objective of the present study was to assess the performance of dogs trained to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in axillary-sweat-stained gauzes and on expired breath trapped in surgical masks. The samples were provided by individuals suffering from mild-to-severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), asymptomatic individuals, and individuals vaccinated against COVID-19. Results: Seven trained dogs tested on 886 presentations of sweat samples from 241 subjects and detected SARS-CoV-2 with a diagnostic sensitivity (relative to the PCR test result) of 89.6% (95% confidence interval (CI): 86.4-92.2%) and a specificity of 83.9% (95% CI: 80.3-87.0%) - even when people with a low viral load were included in the analysis. When considering the 207 presentations of sweat samples from vaccinated individuals, the sensitivity and specificity were respectively 85.7% (95% CI: 68.5-94.3) and 86.0% (95% CI: 80.2-90.3%). The likelihood of a false-positive result was greater in the two weeks immediately after COVID-19 vaccination. Four of the seven dogs also tested on 262 presentations of mask samples from 98 subjects; the diagnostic sensitivity was 83.1% (95% CI: 73.2-89.9) and the specificity was 88.6% (95% CI: 83.3-92.4%). There was no difference (McNemar's test P=0.999) in the dogs' abilities to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in paired samples of sweat-stained gauzes vs. surgical masks worn for only 10 minutes. Conclusion: Our findings confirm the promise of SARS-CoV-2 screening by detection dogs and broaden the method's scope to vaccinated individuals and easy-to-obtain face masks, and suggest that a "dogs + confirmatory rapid antigen detection tests" screening strategy might be worth investigating.

Time course and epidemiological features of COVID-19 resurgence due to cold-chain food or packaging contamination

Contaminations in frozen food imported from countries with ongoing COVID-19 epidemics have been reported in China. However, the epidemiological features of the outbreaks initiated by material-to-human transmission were less reported. The risk of this route of transmission remains unclear, and strategies to prevent resurgence could be flawed.

We aimed to demonstrate the existence of cold-chain food or packaging contamination transmission and describe the time course and epidemiological features associated with the transmission in China. This review was based on the official reports or literature for resurging COVID-19 events that were related to cold-chain food or packaging contamination in China and other countries. Although SARS-CoV-2 on the material surface is not the main source of infection, the closed and humid environment for food packaging and transportation is a place favoring the material-to-human spread of SARS-CoV-2. In this transmission mode, patient zero is often hidden and difficult to detect, such that the outbreak usually can only be perceived after a period of a secret epidemic. Regular testing for high-risk populations and imported cold-chain products, proper disinfection of imported products, and protection of susceptible population while working remain an effective way to detect and prevent SARS-CoV-2 spread.

One year of anatomy teaching and learning in the outbreak: Has the Covid-19 pandemic marked the end of a century-old practice? A systematic review

At the end of 2019, the Covid-19 pandemic spread caused restrictions in business and social spheres. Higher education was also severely affected: universities and medical schools moved online to distance learning and laboratory facilities closed. Questions arise about the long-term effects of this pandemic on anatomical education. In this systematic review, the authors investigated whether or not anatomical educators were able to deliver anatomical knowledge during this pandemic. They also discuss the challenges that anatomical education has faced over the last year. The search strategy was conducted between July 2020 and July 2021. Two hundred and one records were identified, and a total of 79 studies were finally included. How best to deliver anatomy to students remains a moot point. In the last years, the advent of new technologies has raised the question of the possible overcoming of dissection as the main instrument in anatomical education. The Covid-19 pandemic further sharpened the debate. Remote learning enhanced the use of technologies other than cadaveric dissection to teach anatomy. Moreover, from the analyzed records it appears that both from students' perspective as well as teachers' there is a clear tear between those who endorse dissection and those who believe it could be easily overcome or at least integrated by virtual reality and online learning. The authors strongly believe that the best anatomy teaching practice requires the careful adaptation of resources and methods. Nevertheless, they support cadaveric dissection and hope that it will not be replaced entirely as a result of this pandemic.

Identifying SARS-COV-2 infected patients through canine olfactive detection on axillary sweat samples; study of observed sensitivities and specificities within a group of trained dogs

There is an increasing need for rapid, reliable, non-invasive, and inexpensive mass testing methods as the global COVID-19 pandemic continues. Detection dogs could be a possible solution to identify individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2. Previous studies have shown that dogs can detect SARS-CoV-2 on sweat samples. This study aims to establish the dogs’ sensitivity (true positive rate) which measures the proportion of people with COVID-19 that are correctly identified, and specificity (true negative rate) which measures the proportion of people without COVID-19 that are correctly identified. Seven search and rescue dogs were tested using a total of 218 axillary sweat samples (62 positive and 156 negative) in olfaction cones following a randomised and double-blind protocol. Sensitivity ranged from 87% to 94%, and specificity ranged from 78% to 92%, with four dogs over 90%. These results were used to calculate the positive predictive value and negative predictive value for each dog for different infection probabilities (how likely it is for an individual to be SARS-CoV-2 positive), ranging from 10–50%. These results were compared with a reference diagnostic tool which has 95% specificity and sensitivity. Negative predictive values for six dogs ranged from ≥98% at 10% infection probability to ≥88% at 50% infection probability compared with the reference tool which ranged from 99% to 95%. Positive predictive values ranged from ≥40% at 10% infection probability to ≥80% at 50% infection probability compared with the reference tool which ranged from 68% to 95%. This study confirms previous results, suggesting that dogs could play an important role in mass-testing situations. Future challenges include optimal training methods and standardisation for large numbers of detection dogs and infrastructure supporting their deployment.

Porous surfaces: stability and recovery of coronaviruses

The role of indirect contact in the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is not clear. SARS-CoV-2 persists on dry surfaces for hours to days; published studies have largely focused on hard surfaces with less research being conducted on different porous surfaces, such as textiles. Understanding the potential risks of indirect transmission of COVID-19 is useful for settings where there is close contact with textiles, including healthcare, manufacturing and retail environments. This article aims to review current research on porous surfaces in relation to their potential as fomites of coronaviruses compared to non-porous surfaces. Current methodologies for assessing the stability and recovery of coronaviruses from surfaces are also explored. Coronaviruses are often less stable on porous surfaces than non-porous surfaces, for example, SARS-CoV-2 persists for 0.5 h-5 days on paper and 3-21 days on plastic; however, stability is dependent on the type of surface. In particular, the surface properties of textiles differ widely depending on their construction, leading to variation in the stability of coronaviruses, with longer persistence on more hydrophobic materials such as polyester (1-3 days) compared to highly absorbent cotton (2 h-4 days). These findings should be considered where there is close contact with potentially contaminated textiles.

A New Method for the Sputum Cytology Test Without Direct Contact to Specimens During COVID-19 Pandemic

Background

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic continues to spread across the world. Specimens of blood, body fluids and excreta received in the department of pathology undoubtedly increased the risk of infection, especially in some hospitals that are short of professional protection capability. Here we provided a new simple way for the sputum cytology test during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods

Sputum samples from 30 patients with lung cancer were collected and divided into two groups, including the control group and the experimental group. Samples of the control group were processed in the biological safety cabinet, while the experimental group was put into the sealed specimen bag directly and pretreated with 75% medical alcohol. Then the cell morphology and tumor cell identification were analyzed by cell smears and liquid-based cell staining. The expression of cell antigens was determined by immunohistochemical staining.

Result

Our result showed that both sputum samples in two groups exhibited complete cell structure and clear morphology according to the cell smear and liquid-based cell staining. In addition, the immunohistochemical result showed that cell antigens, including cytokeratin (CK), leukocyte common antigen (LCA), and thyroid transcription factor-1 (TTF1), were specifically expressed in the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus, respectively. The tumor cells were distributed diffusely, and cell antigens were located accurately after pretreatment with 75% medical alcohol and were consistent with that of the control group.

Conclusion

Using 75% medical alcohol to pretreat sputum specimens has no obvious impact on cell morphology and antigens expression. Our study provided a new method for the sputum cytology test with no direct contact so as to protect medical staff against the virus during COVID-19 outbreak.

Omicron variant (B.1.1.529) of SARS-CoV-2: Mutation, infectivity, transmission, and vaccine resistance

The appearance of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variant Omicron (B.1.1.529) has caused panic responses around the world because of its high transmission rate and number of mutations. This review summarizes the highly mutated regions, the essential infectivity, transmission, vaccine breakthrough and antibody resistance of the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2. The Omicron is highly transmissible and is spreading faster than any previous variant, but may cause less severe symptoms than previous variants. The Omicron is able to escape the immune system's defenses and coronavirus disease 2019 vaccines are less effective against the Omicron variant. Early careful preventive steps including vaccination will always be key for the suppression of the Omicron variant.

Omicron variant (B.1.1.529) of SARS-CoV-2: Mutation, infectivity, transmission, and vaccine resistance

The appearance of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variant Omicron (B.1.1.529) has caused panic responses around the world because of its high transmission rate and number of mutations. This review summarizes the highly mutated regions, the essential infectivity, transmission, vaccine breakthrough and antibody resistance of the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2. The Omicron is highly transmissible and is spreading faster than any previous variant, but may cause less severe symptoms than previous variants. The Omicron is able to escape the immune system’s defenses and coronavirus disease 2019 vaccines are less effective against the Omicron variant. Early careful preventive steps including vaccination will always be key for the suppression of the Omicron variant.

Jordanian nurses' attitudes toward using electronic health records during COVID-19 pandemic

Electronic health records (EHRs) have proven their effectiveness during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. However, successful implementation of EHRs requires assessing nurses' attitudes as they are considered the first line in providing direct care for patients. This study assessed Jordanian nurses' attitudes and examined factors that affect nurses' attitudes toward using EHRs. A cross-sectional, correlational design was used. A convenient sample of 130 nurses was recruited from three major public hospitals in Jordan. All Participants completed the Nurses' attitudes Towards Computerization (NATC) Questionnaire. The overall nurses' attitude was positive; the mean was 61.85 (SD = 10.97). Findings revealed no significant relationship between nurses' attitudes toward using EHRs and nurses’ age, gender, education level, previous computer skills experience, years of work experience, and years of dealing with EHRs. However, the work unit was found to have a significant correlation with nurses' attitudes toward using EHRs. Therefore, nurse administrators should arrange for the conduct of educational workshops and continuous training programs considering the needs of the nurses.

First evidence of SARS-CoV-2 genome detection in zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)

The uses of bivalve molluscs in environmental biomonitoring have recently gained momentum due to their ability to indicate and concentrate human pathogenic microorganisms. In the context of the health crisis caused by the COVID-19 epidemic, the objective of this study was to determine if the SARS-CoV-2 ribonucleic acid genome can be detected in zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) exposed to raw and treated urban wastewaters from two separate plants to support its interest as bioindicator of the SARS-CoV-2 genome contamination in water. The zebra mussels were exposed to treated wastewater through caging at the outlet of two plants located in France, as well as to raw wastewater in controlled conditions. Within their digestive tissues, our results showed that SARS-CoV-2 genome was detected in zebra mussels, whether in raw and treated wastewaters. Moreover, the detection of the SARS-CoV-2 genome in such bivalve molluscans appeared even with low concentrations in raw wastewaters. This is the first detection of the SARS-CoV-2 genome in the tissues of a sentinel species exposed to raw and treated urban wastewaters. Despite the need for development for quantitative approaches, these results support the importance of such invertebrate organisms, especially zebra mussel, for the active surveillance of pathogenic microorganisms and their indicators in environmental waters.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 in domesticated animals and its potential of transmission: A meta-analysis

Background and Aim

The coronavirus diseases-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused a global lockdown, which has limited the mobility of the public, and thus, more time is spent with their pets. Unfortunately, many social media have blamed pet animals as a reservoir of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiologic agent of COVID-19, triggering a panic abandonment of pets. However, no article has summarized the information regarding the role of pets as SARS-CoV-2 reservoirs. This study aimed to evaluate the role of pets as a reservoir of SARS-CoV-2 on the basis of research papers (i.e., animal model, surveillance, and case report) published in 2020.

Materials and Methods

The review was conducted using articles from the PubMed database in 2020, using the keywords "COVID-19 in domesticated animals," which were screened and analyzed. Only the data from research articles were mimicked and transformed to conduct a meta-analysis. The meta-analysis was conducted regarding the effects of inhabitation and viral shedding in pets. In this study, we used 95% confidence intervals.

Results

A total of 132 papers in PubMed were related to the keywords, whereas only 12 papers were appropriate to answer the dynamics of the role of pets as the reservoir for SARS-CoV-2. Seven studies indicated the potential of cat-cat (4/7), human-cat (2/7), and human-dog (1/7) SARS-CoV-2 transmission. No study proved the presence of cat-human transmission. Another study showed that comingling did not affect SARS-CoV-2 viral shedding among a cat and dog. Furthermore, the viral shedding of cats and dogs caused asymptomatic manifestations and generated neutralizing antibodies within a short period of time.

Conclusion

SARS-CoV-2 transmission is present in domesticated animals, especially in pet cats and dogs, and transmission occurs between animals of the same species (cat-cat). The reverse zoonosis (zooanthroponosis) was found from human to cat/dog (comingled) with asymptomatic clinical signs due to the representation of neutralizing antibodies.

Cryptocurrency as Epidemiologically Safe Means of Transactions: Diminishing Risk of SARS-CoV-2 Spread

In comparison with other respiratory viruses, the current COVID-19 pandemic’s rapid seizing the world can be attributed to indirect (contact) way of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 virus in addition to the regular airborne way. A significant part of indirect transmission is made through cash bank notes. SARS-CoV-2 remains on cash paper money for period around four times larger than influenza A virus and is absorbed by cash notes two and a half times more effectively than influenza A (our model). During the pandemic, cryptocurrencies have gained attractiveness as an “epidemiologically safe” means of transactions. On the basis of the authors’ gallop polls performed online with social networks users in 44 countries in 2020–2021 (the total number of clear responses after the set repair 32,115), around 14.7% of surveyed participants engaged in cryptocurrency-based transactions during the pandemic. This may be one of the reasons of significant rise of cryptocurrencies rates since mid-March 2020 till the end of 2021. The paper discusses the reasons for cryptocurrency attractiveness during the COVID-19 pandemic. Among them, there are fear of SARS-CoV-2 spread via cash contacts and the ability of the general population to mine cryptocurrencies. The article also provides a breakdown of the polled audience profile to determine the nationalities that have maximal level of trust to saving and transacting money as cryptocurrencies.

Drying of virus-containing particles: modelling effects of droplet origin and composition

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Virus-containing aerosol droplets emitted by breathing, speech or coughing dry rapidly to equilibrium with ambient relative humidity (RH), increasing in solute concentration with effects on virus survival and decreasing in diameter with effects on sedimentation and respiratory uptake. The aim of this paper is to model the effect of ionic and macromolecular solutes on droplet drying and solute concentration.

METHODS

Deliquescence-efflorescence concepts and Kohler theory were used to simulate the evolution of solute concentrations and water activity in respiratory droplets, starting from efflorescence data on mixed NaCl/KCl aerosols and osmotic pressure data on respiratory macromolecules.

RESULTS

In NaCl/KCl solutions total salt concentrations were shown to reach 10-13 M at the efflorescence RH of 40-55%, depending on the K:Na ratio. Dependence on K:Na ratio implies that the evaporation curves differ between aerosols derived from saliva and from airway surfaces. The direct effect of liquid droplet size through the Kelvin term was shown to be smaller and restricted to the evolution of breath emissions. Modelling the effect of proteins and glycoproteins showed that salts determine drying equilibria down to the efflorescence RH, and macromolecules at lower RH.

CONCLUSION

Differences in solute composition between airway surfaces and saliva are predicted to lead to different drying behaviour of droplets emitted by breathing, speech and coughing. These differences may influence the inactivation of viruses.

A review on detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater in light of the current knowledge of treatment process for removal of viral fragments

The entire globe is affected by the novel disease of coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19 or 2019-nCoV), which is formally recognised as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The World Health Organisation (WHO) announced this disease as a global pandemic. The presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in unprocessed wastewater has become a cause of worry due to these emerging pathogens in the process of wastewater treatment, as reported in the present study. This analysis intends to interpret the fate, environmental factors and route of transmission of SARS-CoV-2, along with its eradication by treating the wastewater for controlling and preventing its further spread. Different recovery estimations of the virus have been depicted by the detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater through the viral concentration techniques. Most frequently used viral concentration techniques include polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation, ultrafiltration, electronegative membrane, and ultracentrifugation, after which the detection and quantification of SARS-CoV-2 RNA are done in wastewater samples through quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) holds the key responsibility of eliminating pathogens prior to the discharge of wastewater into surface water bodies. The removal of SARS-CoV-2 RNA at the treatment stage is dependent on the operations of wastewater treatment systems during the outbreak of the virus; particularly, in the urban and extensively populated regions. Efficient primary, secondary and tertiary methods of wastewater treatment and disinfection can reduce or inactivate SARS-CoV-2 RNA before being drained out. Nonetheless, further studies regarding COVID-19-related disinfectants, environment conditions and viral concentrations in each treatment procedure, implications on the environment and regular monitoring of transmission need to be done urgently. Hence, monitoring the SARS-CoV-2 RNA in samples of wastewater under the procedure of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) supplement the real-time data pertaining to the investigation of the COVID-19 pandemic in the community, regional and national levels.

In vitro virucidal efficacy of a dry steam disinfection system against Human Coronavirus, Human Influenza Virus, and Echovirus

This in vitro study was aimed to assess the efficacy of dry steam in inactivating Human Coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43) as surrogate of SARS-CoV-2, Human Influenza Virus A/H1N1/WSN/33 and Echovirus 7 on stainless steel, polypropylene, and cotton. The virus models were chosen on the basis of their transmission route and environmental resistance. Tests were carried out under a laminar flow cabinet, where two panels of each material were contaminated with a viral suspension. The inocula were left to dry and then the virus on untreated panel (control) was collected by swabbing in order to determine the initial titer. The other panel was treated using a professional vacuum cleaner equipped with a dry steam generator. Dry steam is generated in a boiler where tap water is heated up to 155 °C at 5.5 bar pressure and then during the passage along the flexible hose the temperature decreases to a value between 100 °C and 110 °C at the output. The dry steam was applied for four sec with a window wiper on metal and plastic panels or a brush covered by a microfiber cap on cotton, simulating the steam application during routine cleaning. After the treatment, infectious virus possibly remained on the surface was collected following the same swabbing procedure applied for controls. HCoV-OC43 and Echovirus 7 were titrated by end-point method on HCT-8 line cells and Vero cells, respectively, while Human Influenza Virus was quantified by plaque reduction assay on MDCK cells. Dry steam resulted effective against the three viruses on all tested materials, achieving a mean Log₁₀ reduction factor ≥4 in viral titer of treated samples compared with controls according to UNI EN 14476:2019. Thus, dry steam may be proposed as an ease to use, effective, fast, and nontoxic alternative to chemicals for surface disinfection without damaging materials. Therefore, this device could be employed not only in healthcare facilities but also in occupational, domestic, and community settings, with advantages for environment and human health.

Interim recommendations for the management of forensic investigation during the COVID-19 pandemic: An Italian perspective

The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is spreading around the world, representing a global pandemic. In this context, governments from around the world suspended almost all education, industry and business activities, alongside restricting the movement of people. Nevertheless, during this period, the activity of the law enforcement and forensic investigators never stopped. At present, guidelines regarding forensic autopsies of SARS-CoV-2 virus-positive cases and the handling of potentially infected biological samples are available in literature. However, less attention has been given to the development of specific adjustments to the existing crime scene investigation protocols and procedures for this exceptional time. This manuscript aims to share the methods and strategies adopted for the investigation of high priority criminal cases during the pandemic. Furthermore, other pandemic-related processes are critically explored, in order to propose adjustments for any forensic services to be prepared to face similar challenges in the future. The overall goal of this manuscript is to provide a summary of the main measures and the procedures developed to make the operations possible, while safeguarding the technicians in the field and the activity in the forensic laboratory. In order to minimize the risk of infection for personnel, adjustments to the standard practice have been proposed for each of the different phases of crime scene management, i.e. CSI call policy, equipment preparation, working groups, procedure at the scene, chain of custody and analyses of the evidence at the forensic lab. As this is a current study, based on limited cases and limited sources in the literature, changes and updates to the indications provided in this paper may be needed in the near future, according to new virological data epidemiological trends.

What is the risk of acquiring SARS-CoV-2 from the use of public toilets?

Public toilets and bathrooms may act as a contact hub point where community transmission of SARS-CoV-2 occurs between users. The mechanism of spread would arise through three mechanisms: inhalation of faecal and/or urinary aerosol from an individual shedding SARS-CoV-2; airborne transmission of respiratory aerosols between users face-to-face or during short periods after use; or from fomite transmission via frequent touch sites such as door handles, sink taps, lota or toilet roll dispenser. In this respect toilets could present a risk comparable with other high throughput enclosed spaces such as public transport and food retail outlets. They are often compact, inadequately ventilated, heavily used and subject to maintenance and cleaning issues. Factors such as these would compound the risks generated by toilet users incubating or symptomatic with SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, toilets are important public infrastructure since they are vital for the maintenance of accessible, sustainable and comfortable urban spaces. Given the lack of studies on transmission through use of public toilets, comprehensive risk assessment relies upon the compilation of evidence gathered from parallel studies, including work performed in hospitals and prior work on related viruses. This narrative review examines the evidence suggestive of transmission risk through use of public toilets and concludes that such a risk cannot be lightly disregarded. A range of mitigating actions are suggested for both users of public toilets and those that are responsible for their design, maintenance and management.

Risks of Infection with SARS-CoV-2 Due to Contaminated Surfaces: A Scoping Review

The COVID-19 outbreak is a global health concern. Understanding the transmission modes of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is key to limit the spread of the pandemic. A lack of knowledge about the possibility of SARS-CoV-2 transmission and infection through contaminated surfaces is noticeable and recent studies have stated conflicting findings. This scoping review aims to understand the risks of contaminations via fomites better. Relevant publications were selected through Google Scholar, Web of Science, PubMed, Embase, Medline, and Cochrane Library, with related keywords. PRISMA-ScR guidelines were followed. Out of the 565 articles found, exclusion criteria were applied, duplicates removed, and a total of 25 articles were finally included in the study. The included documents were assessed by the contamination risk: "low" (37.5%), "high" (16.7%), "plausible" (8.3%), "unlikely" (8.3%) risk, and "insufficient evidence" (29.2%). Research in hospital settings was found as the main setting in the reviewed papers, which precisely indicated the risk of contaminated surfaces. This scoping review underscores the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection via contaminated surfaces assessed as low in the majority of the reviewed articles. Further evaluation of the risk of the virus transmission by fomites and providing adequate information on its infectivity via contaminated surfaces in real-life conditions is essential.

Soap, water, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): an ancient handwashing strategy for preventing dissemination of a novel virus

Public Health Agencies worldwide (World Health Organization, United States Centers for Disease Prevention & Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, etc.) are recommending hand washing with soap and water for preventing the dissemination of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections. In this review, we have discussed the mechanisms of decontamination by soap and water (involving both removal and inactivation), described the contribution of the various components of formulated soaps to performance as cleansers and to pathogen inactivation, explained why adherence to recommended contact times is critical, evaluated the possible contribution of water temperature to inactivation, discussed the advantages of antimicrobial soaps vs. basic soaps, discussed the differences between use of soap and water vs. alcohol-based hand sanitizers for hand decontamination, and evaluated the limitations and advantages of different methods of drying hands following washing. While the paper emphasizes data applicable to SARS-CoV-2, the topics discussed are germane to most emerging and re-emerging enveloped and non-enveloped viruses and many other pathogen types.