Differences between Black and White elementary school children's orientations toward alcohol and cocaine: a three-study comparison

Examining Racial/Ethnic Differences in the Association of Victimization and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors with Alcohol Use Among Sexual Minority Youth

Purpose: Integrating Minority Stress Theory and Bagge and Sher's Theoretical Framework of the Alcohol-Suicide Attempt Relation, this study aimed to test whether experiencing both minority stress and suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs) had a greater strength of association with Latinx and Black sexual minority youth (SMY)'s alcohol use compared with that of White SMY. Methods: Using data on 2341 non-Latinx Black, Latinx, and non-Latinx White SMY from the 2015 and 2017 Youth Risk Behavior Surveys, we tested the prevalence of STBs, victimization, and alcohol use for Black and Latinx participants compared with White participants. Multivariate logistic regression analyses tested the main effects of STBs, victimization, and race/ethnicity on alcohol use. Finally, interaction terms assessed the interaction among STBs, victimization, and race/ethnicity on alcohol use. Results: The results supported our hypothesis, based on Minority Stress Theory, that experiencing victimization would be associated with greater alcohol use. Results also supported Bagge and Sher's theoretical framework showing that suicide plan and attempts were associated with greater alcohol use. When taking all of these stressors into account, results showed that Latinx SMY who experienced victimization had greater current prevalence of alcohol use than their White counterparts. However, Latinx SMY who were victimized and experienced suicidal ideation reported lower alcohol use than White SMY. Conclusion: These findings support the double jeopardy and resiliency hypotheses, which suggest that minority stressors have differing associations for each racial/ethnic SMY group's alcohol use. More research is needed that helps to disentangle the protective and risk factors for alcohol use among Black and Latinx SMY.

Integrating Individual and Contextual Factors to Explain Disparities in HIV/STI Among Heterosexual African American Youth: A Contemporary Literature Review and Social Ecological Model

Heterosexual African American youth face substantial disparities in sexual health consequences such as HIV and STI. Based on the social ecological framework, the current paper provides a comprehensive, narrative review of the past 14 years of literature examining HIV/STI risk, including risky sexual behavior, among heterosexual African American youth and a conceptual model of risk among this population. The review found that individual psychological and biological factors are insufficient to explain the sexual health disparities faced by this group; instead, structural disadvantage, interpersonal risk, and community dysfunction contribute to the disparity in HIV/STI outcomes directly and indirectly through individual psychological factors. The conceptual model presented suggests that for African American youth, (1) HIV/STI risk commonly begins at the structural level and trickles down to the community, social, and individual levels, (2) risk works in a positive feedback system such that downstream effects compound the influence of structural risks, and (3) contextual and individual risk factors must be considered within the advanced stage of the epidemic facing this population. Despite advanced HIV and STI epidemics among heterosexual African American youth, multisystemic interventions that target structural risk factors and their downstream effects are posited to reduce the disparity among this high-risk population.

Examination of the indirect effect of alcohol expectancies on ethnic identity and adolescent drinking outcomes

Although overall rates of alcohol use tend to be lower among racial/ethnic minority youth compared to White youth, consequences associated with use tend to be more severe. Identifying factors that prevent alcohol use is crucial to reducing its impact among minority adolescents. One such factor is ethnic identity, which involves gaining clarity about one's ethnic background and regard toward one's ethnic group. Strong ethnic identity has been found to work through antidrug beliefs to decrease minority youth's substance use. The current study extends previous literature by examining whether specific alcohol cognitions-alcohol expectancies-explain the promotive effect of ethnic identity on alcohol use and severity of alcohol use among minority youth. Participants were 113 ethnic minority youth ages 12-18 (M = 15.27). Most participants were male (66%) and identified as non-Hispanic African American/Black (70%), followed by Hispanic/Latino (15%), multiracial (12%), and American Indian/Native American (3%). Participants completed self-report measures of ethnic identity, positive and negative alcohol expectancies, and hazardous drinking, which were analyzed in an indirect effects model. Results indicated that ethnic identity was inversely related to negative alcohol expectancies. A significant indirect effect of ethnic identity on severity of alcohol use through negative alcohol expectancies was found. However, no indirect effect was found for positive alcohol expectancies. Findings suggest that strong ethnic identity serves as a promotive factor preventing alcohol use for ethnic minority youth, in part through more negative alcohol expectancies, and may be a beneficial target for intervention programs to reduce alcohol use among this group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial/ethnic differences in the time-varying association between alcohol expectancies and drinking during the transition from childhood to adolescence

Alcohol expectancies are important determinants of adolescent drinking, but this relationship may differ based on race/ethnicity. This study used time-varying effect modeling to examine racial/ethnic differences in positive and negative alcohol expectancies and their relationship with drinking among White, African American, and Hispanic youth. Youth reported alcohol expectancies and drinking frequency from 5th grade to 10th grade. African Americans initially endorsed higher positive alcohol expectancies than Whites, but the relationship with drinking was stronger among Whites. Hispanic youth reported slightly higher negative alcohol expectancies in high school, but the relationship between negative expectancies and alcohol use was comparable across groups. The effect of expectancies on alcohol use outcomes may be more robust for Whites, which warrants investigation of risk factors for minority youth.

Longitudinal Associations Between Alcohol-Related Cognitions and Use in African American and European American Adolescent Girls

BACKGROUND

African American (AA) girls initiate alcohol use later and drink less than European American (EA) girls, potentially reflecting differences in the development of drinking behaviors. This study examined alcohol-related cognitions: expectancies, attitudes, and intention to drink, as possible sources of variation by race in alcohol use. The aim of this study was to characterize the nature and degree of association between cognitions and use over time and by race in EA and AA girls.

METHODS

Data were drawn from the longitudinal Pittsburgh Girls Study (N = 2,450), an urban population-based sample of girls and their caregivers recruited when girls were between ages 5 and 8, and assessed annually through adolescence. Cross-lagged panel models were conducted separately by race (56.2% AA, 43.8% EA) to identify patterns of association between alcohol use and cognitions from ages 12 to 17 in 2,173 girls.

RESULTS

Endorsement of cognitions and use was higher overall in EA than AA girls but the magnitude of cross-lagged path coefficients did not differ significantly by race. In both groups, bidirectional effects emerged between intentions and use, and alcohol use largely predicted cognitions across ages. However, intention to drink was the only alcohol-related cognition that consistently predicted subsequent use (odds ratios ranged from 1.55 to 2.71).

CONCLUSIONS

Although rates of alcohol use and endorsement of cognitions were greater in EA than AA girls, the anticipated racial differences in longitudinal associations between cognitions and use did not emerge, indicating that variation in associations between use and cognitions does not account for the lower prevalence of alcohol use in AA compared with EA girls. Furthermore, our finding that intention to drink is a consistent, robust predictor of subsequent alcohol use suggests the need to investigate potentially modifiable factors that influence intention to drink across racial groups.

A systematic review of children's alcohol-related knowledge, attitudes and expectancies

Understanding the nature of, and transitions in, young children's alcohol-related knowledge and attitudes is important to determining the age at which we should start educating children about alcohol and informing our understanding of the focus of such education. This paper aimed to explore current literature on the alcohol-related knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and expectancies of children aged 12years and under. Electronic databases were searched for papers published from January 2000-August 2016. Further papers were identified by a manual review of reference lists, and contacting corresponding authors of included papers. Papers that reported on children's knowledge or beliefs about alcohol, attitudes towards alcohol and/or expectancies regarding alcohol consumption were included. Seventeen cross-sectional, experimental or observational studies and seven longitudinal studies met the inclusion criteria. Data on key measures was tabulated. From a very young age children are aware of and able to identify alcohol, and have some knowledge of its effects; their attitudes become more positive with increasing age and these shifts appear to precede drinking initiation by some years. The small number of available studies, with different measures of knowledge, attitudes and expectancies, made assessment of bias unfeasible. Only three studies were published in the last five years. Children's knowledge of, and attitudes towards, alcohol form before they initiate alcohol use, and are likely acquired through observation. Alcohol-related education should commence before children begin drinking, and should encourage the delay of alcohol initiation, address social norms, and reduce positive expectancies.

Racial differences in the link between alcohol expectancies and adolescent drinking

INTRODUCTION

Alcohol expectancies are important determinants and predictors of adolescent alcohol use. Research with African Americans has shown that the endorsement of positive alcohol expectancies differs from that of Whites during childhood and predicts different alcohol outcomes during young adulthood. However, limited research has explored racial differences in the relationship between expectancy endorsement and alcohol use in school-aged adolescents. The current study examines the effect of White or African American race on the relationship between positive alcohol expectancies and alcohol use.

METHODS

Participants were 104 adolescents ages 12-18 who identified as either non-Hispanic White or non-Hispanic African American. Participants completed self-report measures of alcohol consumption and positive social alcohol expectancies.

RESULTS

Preliminary analyses revealed no racial differences in alcohol expectancies or consumption. However, race moderated the relationship between alcohol expectancies and alcohol use such that more positive expectancies predicted alcohol use among White youth, but not African American youth.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that alcohol expectancies, which were thought to be important mediators of the relationship between social and personality factors and adolescent alcohol use may not be as impactful for African Americans. Future research should focus on identifying factors posing unique risk for alcohol consumption in this population.

Ethnic differences in associations among popularity, likability, and trajectories of adolescents' alcohol use and frequency

Two-part latent growth models examined associations between two forms of peer status (popularity, likability) and adolescents' alcohol use trajectories throughout high school; ethnicity was examined as a moderator. Ninth-grade low-income adolescents (N = 364; Mage = 15.08; 52.5% Caucasian; 25.8% African American; 21.7% Latino) completed sociometric nominations of peer status and aggression at baseline, and reported their alcohol use every 6 months. After controlling for gender, aggression, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, popularity-but not likability-prospectively predicted alcohol use trajectories. However, these effects were moderated by ethnicity, suggesting popularity as a risk factor for alcohol use probability and frequency among Caucasian and Latino, but not African American adolescents. Results suggest that developmental correlates of peer status should be considered within cultural context.

Birth cohort effects on adolescent alcohol use: the influence of social norms from 1976 to 2007

CONTEXT The substantial changes in adolescent alcohol use prevalence over time suggest that population-level environmental factors are important determinants of use, yet the potential influence of such environmental factors is inadequately understood. OBJECTIVE To investigate whether adolescents in birth cohorts and/or time periods characterized by restrictive social norms toward alcohol were at decreased risk for alcohol use and binge drinking, controlling for individual attitudes (disapproval) toward use. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS In 32 annual national surveys of US high school students, a total of 967 562 students contributed outcome data from 1976 through 2007. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Frequency of past-year alcohol use and any instance of binge drinking (≥5 drinks) in the past 2 weeks, analyzed using multilevel models clustering individuals within periods and birth cohorts. Period- and cohort-specific social norm scores (indicating the proportion disapproving of weekend binge drinking) were modeled as predictors, controlling for individual attitudes and demographic characteristics. RESULTS Individuals who matured in birth cohorts with more restrictive social norms were less likely to use alcohol compared with individuals who matured in cohorts with more permissive norms; each 5% increase in the cohort-specific disapproval was associated with a 12% decrease in the odds of past-year alcohol use (odds ratio = 0.88; 99% CI, 0.87-0.89). The effects of cohort-specific disapproval were notably stronger among white adolescents than nonwhite adolescents. CONCLUSIONS This study documents the importance of considering time-varying population-level risk factors in the study of adolescent alcohol use and indicates that, even after an individual's personal attitudes are accounted for, risk is shaped by cohort effects whereby the norms within the cohort contribute to the risk of adolescent alcohol use.

Racial/ethnic differences in adolescent substance use: mediation by individual, family, and school factors

OBJECTIVE

This study examined racial/ethnic differences in alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use among a diverse sample of approximately 5,500 seventh and eighth graders. We also evaluated the extent to which individual, family, and school factors mediated racial/ ethnic disparities in use.

METHOD

Students (49% male) from 16 participating middle schools in southern California reported on lifetime and past-month substance use, individual factors (expectancies and resistance self-efficacy), family factors (familism, parental respect, and adult and older sibling use), and school factors (school-grade use and perceived peer use). We used generalized estimating equations to examine the odds of consumption for each racial/ethnic group adjusting for sex, grade, and family structure. Path analysis models tested mediation of racial/ethnic differences through individual, family, and school factors.

RESULTS

After adjusting for sex, grade, and family structure, Hispanics reported higher and Asians reported lower lifetime and past-month substance use, compared with non-Hispanic Caucasians. Rates of substance use did not differ between non-Hispanic African Americans and Caucasians. Several individual factors mediated the relationship between Hispanic ethnicity and substance use, including negative expectancies and resistance self-efficacy. Higher use among Hispanics was generally not explained by family or school factors. By contrast, several factors mediated the relationship between Asian race and lower alcohol use, including individual, family (parental respect, adult and older sibling use), and school (perceived peer use, school-grade use) factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Results highlight the importance of targeting specific individual, family, and school factors in tailored intervention efforts to reduce substance use among young minority adolescents.

The timing of alcohol use and sexual initiation among a sample of Black, Hispanic, and White adolescents

The goals of this study were to examine the relationship between age at first drink and age at first sex among an emergency department sample of Black, Hispanic, and White adolescents (N = 1,1110) and to assess two sexual behavior-related consequences of underage drinking. The authors used multivariable linear regression to analyze data from a self-reported survey. Age at first sex decreased linearly with decreasing age at first drink (p < .001) for all adolescents in the sample. In analyses stratified by race, significant positive trends between age at first drink and age at first sex were observed for all race and ethnic subgroups, although the relationship between age at first drink and age at first sex was not as strong for Black males and females as their White counterparts, respectively. Compared to White males, Black males were less likely to report having had sex without using a condom or birth control after drinking in the past month and during their lifetimes.

Distress tolerance and early adolescent externalizing and internalizing symptoms: the moderating role of gender and ethnicity

A large body of research has examined the development of internalizing and externalizing symptoms in childhood and early adolescence. Notably, there is significant concomitant impairment associated with early adolescent symptomatology, as well as association of these symptoms with future development of psychopathology, poor physical health, self-destructive thoughts and behaviors, criminal behavior, and HIV risk behaviors. Drawing on negative reinforcement theory, the current study sought to examine the potential role of distress tolerance, defined as the ability to persist in goal-directed activity while experiencing emotional distress, as a potential mechanism that may underlie both internalizing and externalizing symptoms among 231 Caucasian and African American youth (M age=10.9 years; 45.5% female; 54.5% Caucasian ethnicity). A series of regressions resulted in significant moderated relationships, such that low distress tolerance conferred increased risk for alcohol use among Caucasians, delinquent behavior among African Americans, and internalizing symptoms among females. Clinical implications, including the potential role of negative reinforcement models in early intervention with young adolescents, are discussed.

Ethnic differences in positive alcohol expectancies during childhood: the Pittsburgh Girls Study

BACKGROUND

Positive expectancies about alcohol's effects are more likely to be endorsed with increasing age through adolescence, and the strength of positive alcohol expectancies in children appears to differ by ethnicity. Little is known about the extent to which differences in a measure's psychometric properties as a function of development and ethnicity may account for changes that are observed over time and ethnic differences. This study used measurement invariance methods to examine ethnic differences in the development of alcohol expectancies, and examined risk factors associated with girls' positive expectancies.

METHODS

African-American (56%) and Caucasian (44%) girls (n = 570) in the age 7 cohort of the Pittsburgh Girls Study, and the girl's primary caretaker, were followed annually for 4 years (ages 7-10). Girls reported on alcohol expectancies at each wave, and physical aggression at Year 1. In Year 1, caretakers reported on neighborhood drug use, their own substance-related problems, and depression in the girl. Structural equation modeling was used to examine measurement invariance of positive alcohol expectancies, and to test associations of risk factors to initial level and change in expectancies.

RESULTS

Five of 8 positive alcohol expectancy items showed measurement equivalence for African-American and Caucasian girls in cross-sectional, but not longitudinal, analyses. Measurement equivalence over ages 7-10 was demonstrated for Caucasian girls, and over ages 7-8 and 9-10 (i.e., a two-part model) for African-American girls. Risk factor analyses indicated that, for Caucasian girls, greater physical aggression was associated with higher initial positive expectancies.

CONCLUSIONS

Some developmental change and ethnic differences in the performance of positive expectancy items were identified, highlighting the utility of measurement invariance methods. Risk factor analyses suggest the potential benefit of targeted alcohol prevention interventions for certain girls.