Revisiting Recent Research on Social Learning Theory as an Etiological Proposition for Sexually Abusive Male Adolescents

An Exploration of Racial Differences Among Male Youth Adjudicated for Sexual Offenses

In 2019, the male adjudicated youth (AY) population in correctional facilities was 33% White and 67% minority. Yet, the distribution among male AY charged with sexual offenses (AYSOs) was 55% White and 45% minority, highlighting the lack of disproportionate minority contact within the AYSO population. Little research on AYSOs has focused explicitly on exploring racial differences within this population. Using secondary data from 720 AY 11-18 years of age, the goal of this exploratory study was to identify differences in length of detention, presence of clinical syndromes, attachment patterns, and childhood trauma experiences among a sample of AYSOs and AYs by race category. Although few racial differences were identified among AYSOs, study results overwhelmingly highlighted differences between AYSOs and AYs.

Investigating Trauma Symptomology as a Mediator of the Relationships Between Childhood Maltreatment and Sexual and Non-Sexual Delinquency

Maltreatment is a risk factor for both sexual and non-sexual delinquency. Little is known about how specific forms of maltreatment relate to the distinct offending outcomes. Though trauma symptoms have been associated with maltreatment and delinquency, the intervening role of trauma symptoms in pathways from maltreatment to offending is not well understood. The goal of the current study was to test social learning and general strain theory explanations for sexual and non-sexual delinquency in adolescence, exploring trauma symptoms as a mediator between the four major types of maltreatment and offending outcomes. Data were collected via surveys of 136 incarcerated youth at seven residential treatment and community corrections facilities in a Midwestern state. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to establish a measurement model, and structural equation modeling was employed to test direct and indirect pathways from maltreatment to offending. Individual forms of maltreatment had differential relationships with offending outcomes, with neglect having a significant association with non-sexual delinquency, and sexual abuse having a significant direct relationship with sexual delinquency. Trauma symptomology did not mediate these relationships. Future research should explore developmentally appropriate proxies for measuring childhood trauma. Practice and policy should consider the role of maltreatment victimization history in the inception of delinquency behaviors, prioritizing therapeutic alternatives to detention and incarceration.

Pedohebephilia and Perceived Non-coercive Childhood Sexual Experiences: Two Non-matched Case-Control Studies

Research on the link between childhood sexual abuse experiences (CSAE) and pedohebephilia is limited by its focus on events that the respondents rate as abusive. We asked 199 German-speaking (Study 1) and 632 English-speaking (Study 2) men with and without self-reported pedohebephilia to complete the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and scales to assess perceived non-coercive childhood sexual experiences with adults (PNCSE-A), and peers (PNCSE-P, only Study 2). A substantial number of participants with PNCSE-A disagreed with all items of the CTQ Sexual Abuse subscale (e.g., 35% and 26% of pedohebephilic men in Studies 1 and 2, 38% of teleiophilic men in Study 2). While pedohebephilic men reported more CSAE than teleiophilic men, the effects for PNCSE-A did not consistently point in the expected direction. In Study 2, conviction status for sexual offenses among pedohebephilic men was linked to higher rates of CSAE, PNCSE-A, PNCSE-P, physical neglect, and physical abuse. Pedohebephilic men in Study 2 also reported more PNCSE-P than teleiophilic men. Our results highlight the importance of assessing different (positive or neutral) perceptions of CSAE. Better controlled designs (e.g., matched case-control studies) are needed to substantiate whether and how perceived non-coercive childhood sexual experiences relate to pedohebephilia and sexual offending.

Positive Caregiving Styles Attenuating Effects of Cumulative Trauma Among Youth Who Commit Sexual Crimes

Among youth who commit sexual crimes, childhood trauma experiences have been linked to a host of outcomes including trauma symptom expression. Furthermore, research has begun assessing differential rates of cumulative adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) between youth who commit sexual and non-sexual crimes. Yet, few studies have comparatively examined rates of cumulative traumatic events using more robust measures of adversity. There is scant research on outcomes associated cumulative trauma among youth who commit sexual crimes including linkages to trauma symptoms and how positive parenting styles (PCSs) can attenuate in this relationship. This study aims to compare cumulative trauma experiences between youth who commit sexual (n = 112) and non-sexual crimes (n = 224). Among youth who commit sexual crimes, we test how PCSs mitigate or moderate the effects of cumulative trauma on trauma symptoms. Results from independent samples t-tests revealed significant group differences on singular and cumulative traumatic experiences, and trauma symptomatology, where youth who commit sexual crimes had higher rates of all. Stepwise linear regressions revealed mitigating effects of maternal PCSs and tests of moderation revealed main and interaction effects, where intermediate positive maternal caregiving styles for youth with higher cumulative trauma were associated with greater trauma symptomatology. Implications and limitations are discussed.

How Does that Make You Feel? Development and Pilot Testing of Two New Instruments Measuring Emotional Attributions to Experiences of Childhood Sexual Abuse

Though prior research has demonstrated that survivors of childhood sexual abuse may experience a range of negative emotions following the abuse, studies have failed to consider the conflicting, ambivalent, or positive emotions being attributed to the experiences by survivors. The current study describes the development and piloting of two new scales to capture the positive and negative emotions that youth may attribute to experiences of childhood sexual abuse. A sample of youth (N = 136) were recruited and surveyed from community corrections and residential treatment centers in a Midwestern state. Item Response Theory was used to test the performance of the measures and their individual items with the subsample of youth who reported a history of childhood sexual abuse (n = 40). Both new measures demonstrated high internal consistency reliability and appropriately captured the range of positive and negative emotions youth may experience following childhood sexual abuse. Findings indicate that youth who have experienced childhood sexual abuse may have conflicting positive and negative emotions associated with the experiences. Implications for measurement refinement, future research directions, and clinical practice are discussed.

Trauma and Maternal Caregivers as Risks for Executive Function Deficits Among Youth Who Have Sexually Harmed

Despite robust research linking trauma events to the commission of sexual harm by youth, the majority of victims do not become victimizers, imploring us to study potential interceding influences. Some research indicates that intermediary factors like attachment characteristics, trauma symptomatology, and executive functioning may be critical in understanding sexual harm committed by youth. This study explored relationships between trauma events, trauma symptoms, and attachment characteristics, and their relationship to executive functioning in a sample of 196 youth who committed sexual harm. Results revealed bivariate associations between trauma events, symptomatology, and maternal attachment characteristics. Structural equation modeling revealed numerous direct and indirect effects on the path to deficits in executive functioning, and that sexual abuse, above and beyond other forms of traumatic events, contributed to executive functioning deficits via trauma symptoms. The results are contextualized and implications are discussed.

Die Entwicklung von Sexualität bei Kindern und Jugendlichen mit sexuellen Gewalterfahrungen

Zusammenfassung. Theoretischer Hintergrund: Zu den Folgen sexueller Gewalt gehören neben somatischen und psychischen Folgen auch Veränderungen in der Entwicklung der Sexualität. Fragestellung: Ziel dieses Reviews ist es, einen systematischen Überblick über den aktuellen Forschungsstand bezüglich der Entwicklung von Sexualität bei Kindern und Jugendlichen nach sexuellen Gewalterfahrungen zu geben. Methode: Eine systematische Literaturrecherche wurde in den Datenbanken PubMed, ERIC, Cochrane und PubPsych durchgeführt. Die Folgen von sexueller Gewalt bezüglich der Sexualität wurden systematisch analysiert. Ergebnisse: Es konnten insgesamt 127 Studien zur Sexualität nach sexueller Gewalt identifiziert werden, die acht Unterkategorien zugeordnet werden konnten: Sexuelles Risikoverhalten, Teenagerschwangerschaft, jugendliche Sexualstraftäter_innen, sexuelle Verhaltensauffälligkeiten, sexuelle Überzeugungen, Prostitution, Geschlechtskrankheiten und körperliche Symptome. Diskussion und Schlussfolgerung: Insgesamt zeigt die Literaturrecherche, dass die Sexualität von Kindern und Jugendlichen mit sexuellen Gewalterfahrungen teilweise nur lückenhaft untersucht wurde.

Childhood Maltreatment Experiences, Attachment, Sexual Offending: Testing a Theory

The aim of this study was to empirically examine the theoretical model proposed by Grady, Levenson, and Bolder used to explain the relationships between experiencing trauma, attachment styles, and risk factors associated with sexual offending. The specific risk factors tested were emotional, behavioral, and cognitive regulation deficits. The research questions were as follows: (1) What specific childhood traumatic experiences (physical and sexual abuse and/or other domestic trauma events) are associated with anxious-ambivalent and anxious-avoidant attachments? (2) Are anxious-ambivalent and anxious-avoidant attachment styles differentially linked to dysregulation outcomes (emotional, behavioral and cognitive shift, and inhibitions)? (3) Do insecure attachment styles explain why childhood trauma is associated with dysregulation? and (4) Do these early life experiences contribute to sexual offending behavior? The sample included 200 male youth adjudicated for either a sexual or nonsexual crime and living in the community or a residential facility. The average age of the youth was 17.17 years (SD = 1.81 years). Structural equation modeling was used to determine the direct and indirect relationships between abuse and traumatic experiences, anxious-avoidant and ambivalent-anxious attachment styles, and regulation deficits. Authors found a direct relationship between physical abuse and both of the attachment styles, separately. Both anxious-ambivalent and anxious-avoidant attachment styles related similarly to regulation deficits. Separately, anxious-ambivalent and anxious-avoidant attachment styles served as mediators between physical abuse and regulation deficits. Sexual abuse predicted the later commission of sexual crimes with no influence from attachment style. Finally, domestic trauma independently predicted regulation deficits in the model that included anxious-ambivalent attachment but had no effect on deficits in the model that included anxious-avoidant attachment. Implications for treatment include the need to consider using attachment-based interventions and prevention strategies, and a trauma-informed approach when working with justice involved youth. Suggestions for future research are also discussed.

Comparing the onset of child sexual abuse perpetration from adolescence into adulthood: Are there unique risks, and what does this mean for prevention?

BACKGROUND

There are no known studies that have directly compared factors associated with the onset of child sexual abuse (CSA) perpetration during emerging adulthood, with CSA perpetration in other life-stages.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated common and distinct factors associated with the onset of CSA perpetration (i.e., age at first child sexual offense) across the life course to inform, and tailor, current prevention efforts.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

The sample comprised 354 males, from custodial and community corrections, and sentenced for sexual offenses against children.

METHODS

Using self-report and official data, the sample was stratified into three age groups: adolescence (n = 214; 10-17 years), emerging adulthood (n = 39; 18-25 years) and later adulthood (n = 101; 26+ years). Bivariate analyses were conducted to compare developmental and contextual factors associated with CSA perpetration. A multinomial logistic regression was then performed to examine distinct risk factors for CSA-onset in emerging adulthood, compared to the other onset age groups.

RESULTS

Bivariate analyses identified similarities and differences among the groups. The multinomial regression identified several factors distinguishing the emerging-adulthood group from the adolescence and later-adulthood onset groups. The combined results point to some notable differences in the emerging-adulthood group, including the disproportionate number of offenses perpetrated against male children, strangers, and in public.

CONCLUSIONS

Implications for existing prevention and rehabilitation strategies are discussed in light of these findings, especially the need for a developmental lens to prevention and intervention efforts. Research to further delineate risks unique to onset of CSA in emerging adulthood is also warranted.

Intra- and Extra-Familial Victimization Experiences: Differentiating Between Incarcerated Serious Youth Offenders and Youth Rapists

Although research is becoming increasingly nuanced by exploring differential risk factors linked with types of youth offenders, typological distinctions have rarely been made between youth rapists and other serious youth offenders. This study tests the relative effects of intra- and extra-familial victimization-while holding other theoretically driven variables constant-on membership in three mutually exclusive youth offending groups: non-serious non-sexual offenders (n = 4,013), serious non-sexual offenders (n = 2,571), and rapists (n = 489). Data were drawn from the Survey of Youth in Residential Placement (SYRP). Incarcerated youth (N = 7,073) were surveyed on multiple constructs. Using appropriate weights in analyses, a multinomial logistic regression (referencing serious offenders) revealed youth who were victims of intra-familial physical abuse (22%) and intra-familial forced sex (42%) had a decreased risk of being in the non-serious offender category relative to the serious offender category. Furthermore, intra-familial emotional abuse (75%) and intra-familial forced sex (202%) demonstrated an increased risk of being in the rapist category relative to serious offender category. Although extra-familial victimization was statistically significant, victimization within the family had larger effects when predicting rape group membership. The research and practice implications are discussed.

Exploring parent sexuality profiles and links with the sexuality profiles of adolescents who have engaged in sexual abuse

BACKGROUND

Parents play an important role in children's development of sexual norms and behaviors. Regarding the family environment of adolescents who have engaged in sexual abuse (AESA), some studies have suggested potential factors of interest, although the sexuality of AESA parents has yet to be considered.

OBJECTIVES

(1) Explore sexual profiles among parents, (2) Examine if the sexual profiles of parents are related to the sexual profiles of AESA.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Participants include 201 parents (116 mothers, 85 fathers) of AESA recruited from specialized treatment and youth centers in Quebec.

METHODS

Hierarchical and nonhierarchical methods were used to generate cluster solutions. Chi-square or Fisher's exact tests were then conducted to explore links between parents' and AESA sexuality profiles.

RESULTS

Three sexuality profiles emerged separately for mothers and fathers, showing similar patterns. Parents in the first two clusters (Overinvested and Atypical Sexuality - OAS and Overinvested and Non-Atypical Sexuality - ONAS) showed greater interest/investment in sexuality and an earlier sexual onset. However, they differed on their sexual interests: Most parents in the OAS cluster reported a greater variety of atypical fantasies and atypical sexual behaviors, while the sexual interests of parents in the ONAS cluster were mainly limited to non-atypical sexuality. Parents in the third cluster (Constrictive Sexuality - CS) were less interested and invested in sexuality. A link between the exacerbated sexuality of mothers (OAS cluster) and of adolescents was also found.

CONCLUSIONS

This study represents a first step in showing a potential correspondence between parents' and AESA sexuality profiles.

Abuse disclosures of youth with problem sexualized behaviors and trauma symptomology

BACKGROUND

The majority of youth with problem sexualized behaviors (PSB) have substantiated experiences of abuse or exposures to violence (Silovsky & Niec, 2002). Little is known about specific abuse experiences that may differentiate youth with PSB from those without. Few studies have examined the types of abuse associated with post-traumatic stress symptomology.

OBJECTIVE

The current study explored two research questions: (1) Do children with PSB differ from children without PSB in terms of their abuse disclosures?; and (2) Are the types of abuse disclosed associated with the child's scores on a post-traumatic stress measure?.

PARTICIPANTS & SETTING

Data were analyzed for youth (N = 950) ages 3-18 years who completed a clinical assessment at a child advocacy center in the Midwest during the 2015 calendar year.

METHODS

Youth completed assessments that included a forensic interview and either the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (TSCYC) for children ages 3-10 years, or the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC) for children ages 11-16 years. Bivariate logistic regression was used to answer the research questions.

RESULTS

Findings indicated that youths who disclosed offender to victim fondling were less likely to disclose PSB (OR = 0.460, p =  .026), and children exposed to pornography were more likely to disclose PSB (OR = 3.252, p =  .001). Additionally, youth who disclosed physical abuse (OR = 1.678, p =  .001) or victim to offender sexual contact (OR = 2.242, p =  .003) had higher odds of clinically significant trauma scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Implications for practitioners and future research directions are discussed.

Exploring sexuality profiles of adolescents who have engaged in sexual abuse and their link to delinquency and offense characteristics

Very few studies have taken a specific interest in the various sexual dimensions, beyond delinquent sexual behavior, of adolescents who have engaged in sexual abuse (AESA). Those that went beyond delinquent sexual behavior have report mixed results, suggesting they are a heterogeneous group. The current study used cluster analysis to examine the sexuality profiles of AESA, which included information on several sexual dimensions (atypical and normative fantasies and experiences, drive, body image, pornography, first masturbation, onset of sexual interest and first exposure to sex). Participants (N = 136) are adolescents who have engaged in sexual abuse involving physical contact, for which at least one parent also participated in the study. They were recruited from six specialized treatment centers and three youth centers in Quebec (Canada). Cluster analyses were performed to identify specific sexual profiles. Results suggest three clusters of AESA: 1- Discordant sexuality pertaining to adolescents who show mostly normative sexual interests, 2- Constrictive sexuality, characterizing adolescents who seem to be less invested/interested in their sexuality and 3- Overinvested sexuality for adolescents showing an exacerbated sexuality, including atypical sexual interest. Additional analyses (ANOVAs and Chi-square tests) reveal that five delinquency and offense characteristics were significantly more likely to be present in the Overinvested than the Constrictive cluster: non-sexual offenses, three or more victims, peer victims and alcohol and drug consumption. Advancing our knowledge on this topic can provide relevant data for clinicians to better target interventions.

Family Experiences and Sexual Victimization Histories: A Comparative Analysis Between Youth Sexual and Nonsexual Offenders

Youth who commit sexual offenses often have sexual victimization histories that occur in the family context. These victimization experiences can be exacerbated by other risks present in the family environment. This research study uses MANOVAs to explore how family environments including substance use, mental health, physical and emotional victimization experiences, attachment, and parenting styles differentiate subgroups of youth offenders including youth sexual offenders with ( n = 179) and without ( n = 176) sexual victimization histories, and nonsexual offenders without sexual victimization histories ( n = 150). Results reveal that youth sexual offenders with sexual victimization histories had greater risks in family environments relative to youth sexual and nonsexual offenders without sexual victimization histories. Treatment and research implications are discussed.

Executive Dysfunction Predicts Delinquency But Not Characteristics of Sexual Aggression Among Adolescent Sexual Offenders

Our aim in this study was to evaluate executive function and its relationship to delinquency and sexual crime in adolescents incarcerated for sexual crimes. Based on self-report data, 196 male adolescent sexual offenders from a Midwest state reported high rates of executive dysfunction. Although such deficits did not relate to the number of victims of sexual abuse, severity, or degree of force used in commission of the sexual crimes, poor executive function was significantly predictive of both general delinquency and felony theft. In both measures of delinquent conduct, behavioral regulation dysfunction was predictive of the frequency of commission of the crimes, whereas metacognition was not. Research and treatment implications are offered.

The Relation of Familiarity With Sexual Abusers to Subsequent Developmental Adaptation in Youths Who Have Sexually Offended

The present study explored the effects of child sexual abuse (CSA) on the adaptation of male juveniles who subsequently sexually offended (JSOs; n = 178; age, M = 16.05 years, SD = 0.27, range = 12-22). It examined multiple levels of interpersonal closeness between the perpetrators of sexual abuse and their JSO victims. JSOs who were sexually abused by older children or adults who cohabitated with them for at least 3 months reported higher levels of emotional dysregulation, callousness/manipulativeness, and sexualization than did both JSOs who were sexually abused by someone they had never lived with and JSOs who reported no experiences of sexual abuse. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Emergence of nonsexual crimes and their relationship to sexual crime characteristics and the deviant arousal of male adolescent sexual offenders: an exploratory study

In this study, we explore nonsexual crimes committed by a sample of 437 incarcerated adolescent sexual offenders as well as deviant arousal and its relationships to nonsexual and sexual crimes. Over 50% of the juvenile sexual offenders in this sample have committed nonsexual offenses. In addition, nonsexual crimes, particularly general delinquency, were significantly correlated to a number of characteristics of sexual crimes committed by the youth. Previous research has shown that sexually abusive youth are more likely to recidivate nonsexual crimes, and among the implications of this study is the need for treatment providers and service delivery systems to address nonsexual as well as sexual crimes.

Exploring the overlap in male juvenile sexual offending and general delinquency: trauma, alcohol use, and masculine beliefs

Despite Burton and Meezan's (2004) finding that sexually aggressive youth are three to four times more likely to recidivate nonsexually than sexually, there is little to no research to date that explores this overlap in criminality. With a sample of 290 male sexually violent adjudicated and incarcerated youth, this study was able to successfully predict those who are exclusively sexually violent from those who are both nonsexually and sexually violent with each of the following factors: childhood trauma, masculine beliefs, and alcohol use. While alcohol use accounted for the greatest variance between the groups, masculine beliefs offered the greatest basis for the discussion and future projects for the authors of the study. Treatment and research implications are offered.

Comparison by crime type of juvenile delinquents on pornography exposure: the absence of relationships between exposure to pornography and sexual offense characteristics

Previous literature on pornography indicates that pornography use for men at risk for aggression may result in sexually aggressive behavior, but very little research has been reported on juvenile sexual abusers' exposure to pornography. The current study compared pornography exposure between male adolescent sexual abusers (n=283) and male nonsexually offending delinquent youth (n=170). Sexual abusers reported more pre- and post-10 (years of age) exposure to pornography than nonsexual abusers. Yet, for the sexual abusers, exposure is not correlated to the age at which the abusers started abusing, to their reported number of victims, or to sexual offense severity. The pre-10 exposure subscale was not related to the number of children the group sexually abused, and the forceful exposure subscale was not correlated with either arousal to rape or degree of force used by the youth. Finally, exposure was significantly correlated with all of the nonsexual crime scores in the study. Implications for forensic nursing are discussed.

Pornography use as a risk marker for an aggressive pattern of behavior among sexually reactive children and adolescents

Sexually reactive children and adolescents (SRCAs), sometimes referred to as juvenile sexual offenders, may be more vulnerable and likely to experience damaging effects from pornography use because they are a high-risk group for a variety of aggressive behaviors. The purpose of this study is to describe the characteristics of those who use pornography and those who do not and to examine the associations between pornography use and aggressive behaviors among SRCAs. This secondary analysis used a descriptive, exploratory design to study 160 SRCAs. Chi-square and individual odds ratio analyses were employed to examine the associations between use of pornography and aggressive behaviors. SRCAs who used pornography were more likely to display aggressive behaviors than their nonusing cohort. Recommendations for nurses and mental health professionals encountering these children and adolescents are offered. J Am Psychiatr Nurses Assoc, 2009; 14(6), 442-453.

An exploratory evaluation of the contribution of personality and childhood sexual victimization to the development of sexually abusive behavior

Scores on the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI) and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) were collected from two samples of incarcerated delinquent males: 74 adjudicated sexual abusers and 53 nonsexual abusers. In comparison to non-sexually abusive youths, a larger percentage of the sexually abusive youths indicated a history of childhood sexual victimization. The scores were then entered into a logistic regression to assess the contribution of personality characteristics to a social learning "victim-to-victimizer" etiological model. After controlling for time in treatment, the model correctly classified 76.6% of the youths. The variables that contributed significantly to the social learning model were the CTQ Sexual Abuse and Physical Neglect scales and the Submissive and Forceful scales on the MACI. Research and treatment implications of these findings are discussed.