Stereotyping Older Workers and Retirement: The Managers' Point of View

Employee perception of managers' attitudes towards older workers is associated with risk of loss of paid work before state pension age: prospective cohort study with register follow-up

It is increasingly urgent to retain older workers in the workforce. In the present study, we analysed the prospective associations between employees' perceptions of their managers' attitudes towards older workers, and of having experienced age discrimination in the labour market with the risk of loss of paid work before the state pension age. Questionnaire data from 10,320 currently employed workers aged 50 + on perceptions of managers' attitudes towards older workers and perceived age discrimination were collected at baseline in the SeniorWorkingLife study. Data on labour market affiliation were obtained from national registers at baseline and two-year follow-up. Results show that the perception of negative attitudes was prospectively associated with an increased risk of loss of paid work for three of the five negative attitudes "older workers create conflicts, their qualifications are outdated, and they cannot keep up with the pace and development". Perception of positive attitudes was prospectively associated with a reduced risk of loss of paid work. The perception of age discrimination was prospectively associated with an increased risk of loss of paid work. The results strengthen existing evidence on associations between ageism and labour market attachment, by applying a longitudinal design and including actual change in labour market participation. However, some negative attitudes may be more detrimental to the older workers' labour market participation. Employees' positive perceptions of managers' attitudes reduced the risk. Good relations between employees and managers appear to be important for retaining older workers in the labour market.

Psychosocial predictors of young male workers’ discrimination against older workers in Japan: comparison of four models

To create environments conducive to the wellbeing of workers, especially older workers, it is important to gain insight into ageism among young workers as a distinct segment in the workplace. However, this ageism remains unclear. This study explored the psychosocial predictors of discrimination against older Japanese workers by their younger male counterparts. Four models – Intergroup Contact Theory (ICT), Knowledge–Attitude–Behaviour Model (KABM), Terror Management Theory (TMT) and Frustration–Aggression Theory (FAT) – formed the basis of the study. All the models included positive and negative dimensions of stereotypes as mediators between predictors and discrimination. Data from 874 participants were obtained through a voluntary web survey for employees aged 25–39 years who lived in the Tokyo metropolitan area. A scale describing interactions with older workers (supportive, uncomfortable and avoidance), Facts on Ageing quiz, fears of being an older worker and a job dissatisfaction survey were employed to examine the hypotheses based on the above theories. The results supported the hypotheses based on ICT and FAT but not KABM. Higher supportive contacts were significantly related to lower discrimination mediated by a higher positive and lower negative dimension of stereotypes. Contacts characterised by higher discomfort were significantly related to higher discrimination mediated by a lower positive and higher negative dimension of stereotypes. Higher job dissatisfaction was related to higher discrimination mediated by lower positive stereotypes. Interestingly, higher fear of being an older worker was significantly related to lower discrimination mediated by higher positive stereotypes, contrary to the TMT-based hypotheses. Thus, ICT and FAT regarding ageism can explain young male workers’ discrimination against older workers in Japan, which differs culturally from Western countries. Furthermore, the results of the study suggest that boosting the quality of interactions as well as reducing bad interactions with older workers contribute to lower discrimination.

The Impact of Age Stereotypes and Age Norms on Employees' Retirement Choices: A Neglected Aspect of Research on Extended Working Lives

This article examines how older workers employ internalized age norms and perceptions when thinking about extending their working lives or retirement timing. It draws on semi-structured interviews with employees (n = 104) and line managers, human resource managers and occupational health specialists (n = 52) from four organisations in the United Kingdom. Previous research has demonstrated discrimination against older workers but this is a limiting view of the impact that ageism may have in the work setting. Individuals are likely to internalize age norms as older people have lived in social contexts in which negative images of what it means to be "old" are prevalent. These age perceptions are frequently normalized (taken for granted) in organisations and condition how people are managed and crucially how they manage themselves. How older workers and managers think and talk about age is another dynamic feature of decision making about retirement with implications for extending working lives. Amongst our respondents it was widely assumed that older age would come with worse health-what is more generally called the decline narrative - which served both as a motivation for individuals to leave employment to maximize enjoyment of their remaining years in good health as well as a motivation for some other individuals to stay employed in order to prevent health problems that might occur from an inactive retirement. Age norms also told some employees they were now "too old" for their job, to change job, for training and/or promotion and that they should leave that "to the younger ones"-what we call a sense of intergenerational disentitlement. The implications of these processes for the extending working lives agenda are discussed.

What Do the Managers Think of Us? The Older-Worker-Perspective of Managers' Attitudes

Background: Due to demographic changes, the need to prolong working life has become increasingly salient. Paradoxically, stereotyping and discrimination against workers based on their age can limit possibilities for a long working life. A large body of research has investigated attitudes towards older workers; however, less is known about differences across occupational groups as well gender differences. Aim: To compare perceptions of the managers’ perceptions of older workers between employees from mainly seated work and mainly physical work as well as men and women. Method: Data from 11,444 workers aged 50+ from the baseline questionnaire survey in the SeniorWorkingLife study were analyzed. Results: Across all groups, a larger proportion of the respondents indicated that their managers had more positive than negative perceptions of older workers. Respondents from the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) group 5–9 (mainly physical work) and women were less likely to point at both positive and negative perceptions than the ISCO group 14 (mainly seated work) and men, respectively. Conclusions: The results indicate that there are differences between those with mainly physical and mainly seated work as well as gender differences. More research is warranted to explore the nature of these differences and, in particular, attitudes towards older female and male workers, respectively.

‘We don't talk about age’: a study of human resources retirement narratives

At the societal and policy level, delaying retirement is generally agreed upon to solve the problem of the increasing proportion of older workers in Sweden, as in many other countries. At the same time, two co-existing narratives that create legitimacy for early versus delayed retirement were found in our study, among both societal- and organisational-level actors. Older workers are viewed as either representatives of productive ageing and a solution to labour shortage problems, or as a barrier to recruiting younger, more promising employees with new skills. Through inductive qualitative analysis, this study shows in what way human resources departments are taking part in the institutional work of maintaining retirement-timing narratives in Swedish workplaces. The existing general organisational narrative of ‘the business case’ is used to mute discussion about delaying the retirement age, except for a select few. Their maintenance of this narrative is supported by the way in which the societal-level narratives target the individual, often backgrounding the role of employers.

Prolonged or preserved working life? Intra-organisational institutions embedded in human resource routines

The purpose of this paper is to provide an understanding of why people are still retiring earlier than would have been expected, despite policies that increase the retirement age. This is a qualitative study in a large public-service organisation in Sweden focusing particularly on how human resource routines aimed at middle management tend to inhibit the promotion of a prolonged working life, despite government efforts aimed at changing these actions. The results highlight three key routines (development talks, salary talks and internal recruitment) that inhibit prolonged working life. These routines seem rational and appropriate to the organisation's managers, because the demands of the job must have priority over employees’ capabilities in recruitment routines. Furthermore, it could be considered economically rational to prioritise salary demands of younger employees over those of older employees, and it may appear economically rational to stop further training efforts for older employees. In general, then, it seems reasonable to managers to make decisions based on objective criteria like age. Nevertheless, our results suggest that these routines may need to be redesigned in order to support a prolonged working life and to avoid a discrepancy between accepted prolonged working-life policies and the actions of organisational actors. The study further reveals how intra-organisational institutions (e.g. taken-for-granted mind-sets and norms) embedded in human resource routines may promote or inhibit prolonged working life, suggesting a need for change in those institutions.

Implicit and Explicit Measurement of Work-Related Age Attitudes and Age Stereotypes

Age attitudes and age stereotypes in the workplace can lead to discrimination and impaired productivity. Previous studies have predominantly assessed age stereotypes with explicit measures. However, sole explicit measurement is insufficient because of social desirability and potential inaccessibility of stereotypical age evaluations to introspection. We aimed to advance the implicit and explicit assessment of work-related evaluations of age groups and age stereotypes and report data collected in three samples: students (n = 50), older adults (n = 53), and workers (n = 93). Evaluative age attitudes were measured implicitly with an Implicit Association Test. Regardless of group, age, and condition (neutral or semantically biased stimuli), the results confirm a stable, moderate implicitly measurable preference for younger over older workers. Whereas explicit measures of general age preferences showed no clear age preference, differentiated explicit measures of work-related age stereotypes also revealed stable preferences in all three samples: Younger workers were rated higher on performance and adaptability and older workers were rated higher on competence, reliability, and warmth. The explicit-implicit correlations were relatively low. Although explicit work-related age stereotypes are differentiated, the stable implicitly measured age bias raises concern. We suggest to apply implicit and explicit measures in the field of ageism in the workplace.

Educational differences in macro-level determinants of early exit from paid work: a multilevel analysis of 14 European countries

The aim of this study was to identify macro-level determinants of early work exit and investigate whether the effects of these determinants differ across educational groups. We used data from the Survey on Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) (2011–2013) and the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) (2010/2011–2012/2013) as well as macro-level data and included 10,584 participants in 14 European countries. We used logistic multilevel analyses to examine educational differences in macro-level determinants of early work exit. Macro-level determinants were: minimum unemployment replacement rates, expenditure on active labour market policies (aimed to help the unemployed find work) and passive labour market policies (unemployment and early retirement benefits), employment protection legislation (costs involved in dismissing individuals), unemployment rates, statutory pension age and implicit tax on continued work. We found low-educated workers to be more at risk of early work exit than higher educated workers. In low-educated men, higher unemployment replacement rates, higher expenditure on passive labour market policies, stricter employment protection legislation and a higher implicit tax on continued work were associated with a higher risk of early work exit, whereas no macro-level factors were associated with early work exit in highly educated men. In women, a higher expenditure on passive labour market policies and a higher implicit tax on continued work were determinants of early work exit, regardless of educational level. To conclude, low-educated men seem to be especially responsive to the effects of pull factors that make early retirement financially more attractive.

Perception versus Official Data: Employers' Knowledge about the Aging Workforce

The current study compared employers' perceptions and knowledge about older workers to official data, as well as employers' views of the ideal situation regarding older workers, to assess potential gaps. A questionnaire answered by a sample of 373 employers was used to examine possible gaps between employers' perceptions, views, and official statistical data regarding older workers. Statistical significance (T-Test) analyses suggested that gaps do exist, in issues like labor force participation rate, health status, and women's retirement age, which may explain obstacles faced by older workers. Logistic regression models revealed the effect of personal and organizational characteristics on employers' preferences regarding the ideal labor force participation rate of older workers, and the ideal retirement age according to their preference. Educational measures and policies aimed at increasing employers' awareness to the official data regarding the aging workforce should be tailored to specific organizations, sectors, and employers' characteristics.

Strong Labour Market Inequality of Opportunities at the Workplace for Supporting a Long and Healthy Work-Life: The SeniorWorkingLife Study

Most European countries are gradually increasing the state pension age, but this may run counter to the capabilities and wishes of older workers. The objective of this study is to identify opportunities in the workplace for supporting a prolonged working life in different groups in the labour market. A representative sample of 11,200 employed workers ≥ 50 years responded to 15 questions in random order about opportunities at their workplace for supporting a prolonged working life. Respondents were stratified based on the Danish version of the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO). Using frequency and logistic regression procedures combined with model-assisted weights based on national registers, results showed that the most common opportunities at the workplace were possibilities for more vacation, reduction of working hours, flexible working hours, access to treatment, further education and physical exercise. However, ISCO groups 5–9 (mainly physical work and shorter education) had in general poorer access to these opportunities than ISCO groups 1–4 (mainly seated work and longer education). Women had poorer access than men, and workers with reduced work ability had poorer access than those with full work ability. Thus, in contrast with actual needs, opportunities at the workplace were lower in occupations characterized by physical work and shorter education, among women and among workers with reduced work ability. This inequality poses a threat to prolonging working life in vulnerable groups in the labour market.

Coping With Negative Stereotypes Toward Older Workers: Organizational and Work-Related Outcomes

The current study aims to test a moderated-mediation model in which occupational self-efficacy determines the indirect effect of negative stereotypes about older workers in the organization both on psychological engagement in the work domain and on attitudes toward development opportunities through identification with the company. The survey involved 1,501 Italian subjects aged over 50 who were employed by a major large-scale retailer. Consistently with the Social Identity Theory and the Social Exchange Theory, results showed that the perception of negative stereotypes about older workers in the organization is associated with low identification with the company and, subsequently, with poor psychological engagement in the work domain and with attitudes indicating very little interest in development opportunities. In addition, this association was found to be stronger in older workers with higher and medium levels of occupational self-efficacy. These findings suggest that organizations should discourage the dissemination of negative stereotypes about older workers in the workplace because they may lead to older workers' disengagement from the work domain and their loss of interest in development opportunities.

Please Don't Look at Me That Way. An Empirical Study Into the Effects of Age-Based (Meta-)Stereotyping on Employability Enhancement Among Older Supermarket Workers

At present, individuals increasingly have to take ownership of their working lives. This situation requires them to self-manage and plan their careers. However, individuals’ career management does not happen in a vacuum. Studies have therefore stressed the importance of organizations introducing Sustainable Human Resource Management to share the responsibility for individuals’ employability. This is expected to motivate especially disadvantaged workers, such as older workers (≥ 50 years) and those working in lower-skilled jobs, to work longer across the life-span. In view of the growing scholarly and societal attention for Sustainable Career Development (SCD), the present study examines the relationships between workers’ chronological age (comparing older workers with younger and middle-aged groups, respectively) and dimensions of self-reported employability, and how perceptions of negative (meta-)stereotyping regarding older workers’ productivity, reliability, and personal adaptability moderate these relationships. To examine how possible underlying psychological mechanisms can affect individuals’ labor market decisions and behaviors, we developed hypotheses derived from socio-emotional selectivity and self-categorization theory, which we tested using data collected among supermarket workers in various age groups (N = 98). Moderated regression analyses showed that, in line with our hypotheses, perceptions of negative age-based (meta-)stereotyping amplifies the negative effect of older workers’ age on their self-perceived employability. In particular, we found that: (1) the older worker group reported lower levels of three of the distinguished employability dimensions (i.e., anticipation and optimization, corporate sense, and balance, but not occupational expertise and personal flexibility) and (2) perceptions of stronger negative (meta-)stereotypes regarding older workers in the organization had a moderating effect on the relationship between age group and four of the distinguished employability dimensions (i.e., occupational expertise, anticipation and optimization, corporate sense, and balance, but not personal flexibility). We conclude that age group membership as well as negative age-based (meta-)stereotypes deter older workers from enhancing their employability, which may potentially impact their career decisions and opportunities, especially in view of swift changing labor market demands. We argue, therefore, that Sustainable HR practices should focus on opposing negative age-based (meta-)stereotyping and on creating an inclusive work climate, meanwhile enhancing workers’ ambitions and career opportunities over the life cycle.

Retirement Expectations of Older Workers with Arthritis and Diabetes Compared with Those of Workers with No Chronic Diseases

Les plans de retraite des adultes atteints de maladies chroniques sont peu connus. Dans le cadre de cette étude, des travailleurs canadiens âgés de 50 à 67 ans provenant d’un regroupement national de 80 000 personnes (arthrite, n = 631 ; diabète, n = 286 ; arthrite et diabète, n = 111 ; aucune maladie chronique invalidante, n = 538) ont participé à une enquête transversale sur ce sujet. Les questions posées aux participants traitaient de l’âge prévu pour leur départ à la retraite, de leurs plans de travail futurs, de la possibilité d’un départ hâtif à la retraite et de la transition vers la retraite. Des analyses de khi-carré, de variance et des régressions ont permis d’évaluer les attentes et les facteurs qui y étaient associés. Les travailleurs souffrant d’arthrite et de diabète avaient des plans de retraite semblables à ceux des participants sains, malgré leurs problèmes de santé, et ces plans concordaient avec les attentes associées au fait de travailler jusqu’à un âge de retraite conventionnel. Toutefois, le nombre de répondants souffrant d’arthrite ou de diabète qui avaient prévu une retraite anticipée était plus élevé que celui des participants en bonne santé. Contrairement aux prévisions, la part de la variance associée aux facteurs liés à la santé était moindre que celle des autres facteurs en ce qui concerne les attentes en matière de retraite. Ces résultats mettent en lumière la complexité des attentes liées à la retraite et soulignent l’importance de l’adéquation personne-travail, malgré la présence de maladies.

Individual consequences of age stereotypes on older workers : A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The relevance of work participation of older persons is steadily increasing due to demographic changes; however, older workers are often confronted with negative age stereotypes such as being less flexible, adaptable and productive.

OBJECTIVE

Against this background this systematic review summarizes research evidence on individual consequences of age stereotypes on older workers. It further discusses potential processes behind those relationships and gives suggestions for future research and practice.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted in PsycINFO, Web of Science and Medline to identify relevant studies examining individual effects of age stereotypes on older workers. In addition, all included studies were evaluated with a standardized quality assessment tool.

RESULTS

A total of 25 studies could be included in this review; however, none of those studies met all quality criteria. Most studies found significant associations between negative age stereotypes and decreased self-efficacy, job satisfaction, performance as well as learning, development or increased retirement intentions of older employees.

CONCLUSION

The results of this review indicate a number of negative consequences that negative age stereotypes have on older workers and also serious flaws in the study quality of existing research. It thereby stresses the importance of more high-quality research but also the reduction of those age stereotypes to promote well-being and work participation of older persons.

Are There Differences in Workplace Accommodation Needs, Use and Unmet Needs Among Older Workers With Arthritis, Diabetes and No Chronic Conditions? Examining the Role of Health and Work Context

The aging of workforces combined with the prevalence of age-related chronic diseases has generated interest in whether large numbers of older workers will need workplace accommodations. This research applied work functioning theory to examine accommodation availability, need and use in workers with arthritis, diabetes, or no chronic disabling diseases; factors associated with accommodation needs; and the relationship of accommodation needs met, unmet or exceeded to job outcomes. Participants were aged 50-67 years, employed, and had arthritis (n = 631), diabetes (n = 286), both arthritis/diabetes (n = 111) or no chronic disabling conditions (healthy controls n = 538). They were recruited from a national panel of 80,000 individuals and a cross-sectional survey was administered online or by telephone. Questionnaires assessed demographics, health, work context, workplace accommodations, and job outcomes. Chi-square analyses, analyses of variance, and regression analyses compared groups. Respondents were similar in many demographic and work context factors. As expected, workers with arthritis and/or diabetes often reported poorer health and employment outcomes. Yet, there were few differences across health conditions in need for or use of accommodations with most participants reporting accommodations needs met. In keeping with work functioning theory, unmet accommodation needs were largely related to work context, not health. Workers whose accommodation needs were exceeded reported better job outcomes than those with accommodation needs met. Findings highlight both work context and health in understanding workplace accommodations and suggest that many older workers can meet accommodation needs with existing workplace practices. However, additional research aimed at workplace support and the timing of accommodation use is needed.

Work characteristics, motivational orientations, psychological work ability and job mobility intentions of older workers

Drawing on job design theories and a conceptual framework of work-related goals and motivation in later adulthood, the aim of this paper is to explore how work-related and individual factors are separately and jointly related to psychological work ability and bridge employment intentions via late job mobility. The cross-sectional study is based on a sample of 171 older Spanish workers aged 45–65 and beyond. We differentiated between groups of older workers in mid career (45–55 years of age) and in their later careers (56 years and beyond). Our results confirm that task characteristics and, secondarily, knowledge characteristics are the most relevant factors in perceptions of psychological work ability among aged workers. Both age groups display a very marked personal mastery trait, which mediates the relationships between job characteristics and both psychological work ability and late job mobility intentions. The paper concludes with a discussion of theoretical and practical implications and suggestions for future research on the issues implied in the psychological adjustment of older workers in their mid and late careers.

Understanding old-age adaptation policies in Europe: the influence of profit, principles and pressures

To cope with an increased proportion of older workers, organisations develop old-age adaptation policies. Two strategies underlie these policies: phasing out and activating. Although the existence of these strategies is widely recognised, the reasons for their presence have rarely been explored. We identify three arguments that explain the extent to which these strategies are present: profit, principles and pressures. We hypothesise that the intensity of the phasing out strategy is higher when it is profitable and easy to replace older workers, when employer's age norms support the principle of treating older workers differently, and when external pressures are high. We also hypothesise that the intensity of the activating strategy is higher when it is profitable but hard to replace older workers, when the employer's age norms reject the principle of treating older workers differently, and when external pressures are high. We use pooled regression analysis to study imputed managerial data from 5,410 organisations in seven European countries. Results confirm the importance of external pressures for the adaptation of both strategies, and of principles for activating. Although policy feasibility is important for the adaption of both strategies, the other profit variables showed mixed results. Net benefits of older workers to the organisation are only important for phasing out, and substitutability only for activating. This paper discusses the wider implications of the study.

Keep Up the Good Work! Age-Moderated Mediation Model on Intention to Retire

In European nations, the aging of the workforce is a major issue which is increasingly addressed both in national and organizational policies in order to sustain older workers' employability and to encourage longer working lives. Particularly older workers' employability can be viewed an important issue as this has the potential to motivate them for their work and change their intention to retire. Based on lifespan development theories and Van der Heijden's 'employability enhancement model', this paper develops and tests an age-moderated mediation model (which refers to the processes that we want to test in this model), linking older workers' (55 years old and over) perceptions of job support for learning (job-related factor) and perceptions of negative age stereotypes on productivity (organizational factor), on the one hand, and their intention to retire, on the other hand, via their participation in employability enhancing activities, being the mediator in our model. A total of 2,082 workers aged 55 years and above were included in the analyses. Results revealed that the two proposed relationships between the predictors and intention to retire were mediated by participation in employability enhancing activities, reflecting two mechanisms through which work context affects intention to retire (namely 'a gain spiral and a loss spiral'). Multi-Group SEM analyses, distinguishing between two age groups (55-60 and 61-65 years old), revealed different paths for the two distinguished groups of older workers. Employability mediated the relationship between perceptions of job support for learning and intention to retire in both age groups, whereas it only mediated the relationship between perceptions of negative age stereotypes and intention to retire in the 55-60 group. From our empirical study, we may conclude that employability is an important factor in the light of older workers' intention to retire. In order to motivate this category of workers to participate in employability enhancing activities and to work longer, negative age stereotypes need to be combated. In addition, creating job support for learning over the lifespan is also an important HR practice to be implemented in nowadays' working life.

Age Bias in the Workplace: Cultural Stereotypes and In-Group Favoritism

Two key theoretical frameworks that explain why people might hold biases for or against a specific age group-cultural stereotypes and in-group favoritism-yield distinct and sometimes contradictory predictions. This study proposes a combined framework drawing on these two theories and then tests hypotheses based on this framework in the workplace context. Using survey data from U.S. employees of two pharmaceutical companies, we evaluated the extent to which respondents attributed characteristics related to innovation or change and reliable performance to other workers based on perceived relative age (the age of the target relative to the age of the respondent). The hypotheses that our combined framework generated were supported, but the results varied by type of characteristic as well as by age of the respondent. We conclude that the combined framework is more predictive of age bias in the workplace than either individual framework alone.

Older workers and employer-provided training in the Netherlands: a vignette study

Older workers throughout Europe are increasingly expected to participate longer in the labour market. While training appears to increase workers’ employability, prior research indicates that employers are less prone to provide training with increasing age of the workers. In this study, we aim to provide a better understanding of what affects employers’ considerations. We conduct a vignette experiment among Dutch employers to investigate how the government and workers themselves can exert influence on employers’ willingness to provide training. Our analyses show that employers’ provision of training declines with workers’ age, and additionally reveal two mitigating mechanisms. First, government reimbursements appear to work as a buffer: when reimbursements are offered, the decline in employers’ willingness to offer training is less pronounced throughout workers’ careers. Second, workers’ interest in training has a delaying effect: when workers are interested in training, employers’ willingness to provide training remains rather stable until workers are aged about 55, and decreases only afterwards. This contrasts the constant decline with age when workers had no interest in training. Our findings emphasise that employers’ considerations cannot be understood without taking the context into account, because governments and workers can affect employers’ decisions through cost reduction and social exchange relations, respectively. More research is needed to disentangle other possible underlying mechanisms.

Are managers open to involvement in employee retirement? The influence of manager psycho-social characteristics, decision-making environment and older employee situational factors

The changing retirement landscape calls on employers to develop practices that respond to individuals’ retirement needs. Line managers are a key stakeholder in managing retirement and this study focuses on how they respond to employee retirement scenarios. This empirical work examines manager openness to involvement in retirement, focusing on three sets of explanatory variables: manager psycho-social characteristics (experience of managing older workers, intention to work past 65), their decision-making environment (influence, discretion and decision-making support) and older employee situational factors (performance, ease of replacement, retirement affect and attitude to work). Data were collected from 129 managers in the United Kingdom's university sector using survey items and a factorial vignette design. The multi-level analysis found support for each category of variables in predicting manager openness to involvement in employee retirement. Managers with more experience of managing older workers were more likely to be open to involvement although managers’ own retirement intentions were not significant as a predictor. Decision-making environment variables were significant predictors of manager openness to involvement. The only older employee situational factor that was associated with manager openness to involvement was employee performance. Practically, organisations need to recognise the potential influence that managers have on employee retirement decisions and this study's findings show that managers may need training to help them understand their own role in supporting older employee retirement.

Hard and soft age discrimination: the dual nature of workplace discrimination

The paper concentrates on the problem of age discrimination in the labour market and the way it can be conceptualised and measured in a multi-disciplinary way. The approach proposed here combines two understandings of age discrimination-a sociological and legal one, what allows for a fuller and expanded understanding of ageism in the workplace. At the heart of the study is a survey carried out in Poland with a sample of 1000 men and women aged 45-65 years. The study takes a deeper and innovative look into the issue of age discrimination in employment. Confirmatory factor analysis with WLSMV estimation and logistic regressions were used to test the hypotheses. The study shows that age discrimination in labour market can take on different forms: hard and soft, where the hard type of age discrimination mirrors the legally prohibited types of behaviours and those which relate to the actual decisions of employers which can impact on the employee's career development. The soft discrimination corresponds with those occurrences, which are not inscribed in the legal system per se, are occurring predominantly in the interpersonal sphere, but can nevertheless have negative consequences. Soft discrimination was experienced more often (28.6% of respondents) than hard discrimination (15.7%) with higher occurrences among women, persons in precarious job situation or residents of urban areas. The role of education was not confirmed to influence the levels of perceived age discrimination.

Interpersonal work context as a possible buffer against age-related stereotyping

This study deals with the impact of relational demography upon occupational expertise ratings, and possible moderating effects of interpersonal work context factors. The results revealed support for a decrease in supervisor ratings of occupational expertise of their subordinates as an effect of directional age difference (status-incongruence: a situation wherein a supervisor is younger than his or her subordinate). Moreover, it appeared that transformational leadership style could not moderate this effect. Dyadic tenure appeared to strengthen the negative effect of status-incongruence, yet, only in the case of a longer duration of the relationship between employee and supervisor. Both theoretical and practical implications of these outcomes are discussed.

Reliable and unproductive? Stereotypes of older employees in corporate and news media

Older employees face a severe employability problem, partly because of dominant stereotypes about them. This study investigates stereotypes of older employees in corporate and news media. Drawing on the Stereotype Content Model, we content analysed newspaper coverage and corporate media of 50 large-scale Dutch organisations, published between 2006 and 2013. The data revealed that stereotypical portrayals of older employees are more common in news media than in corporate media and mixed in terms of valence. Specifically, older employees were positively portrayed with regard to warmth stereotypes, such as trustworthiness, but negatively with regard to competence stereotypes, such as technological competence and adaptability. Additionally, stereotypical portrayals that do not clearly belong to warmth or competence dimensions are found, such as the mentoring role stereotype and the costly stereotype. Because competence stereotypes weigh more heavily in employers’ productivity perceptions, these media portrayals might contribute to the employability problem of older employees. We suggest that older employees could benefit from a more realistic media debate about their skills and capacities.

Older workers: stereotypes and occupational self-efficacy

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between organizational age stereotypes and occupational self-efficacy. First, the authors intend to test the measurement invariance of Henkens’s (2005) age stereotypes scale across two age group, respectively, under 50 and 50 years and older. Then, the moderator role of age groups in the relationship between age stereotypes and occupational self-efficacy is investigated.

Design/methodology/approach

The survey involved a large sample of 4,667 Italian bank sector’s employees.

Findings

The results show the invariance of the three dimensional structure of organizational stereotypes towards older workers scale: productivity, reliability and adaptability. Furthermore, the moderation is confirmed: the relationship between organizational age stereotypes and occupational self-efficacy is significant only for older respondents.

Research limitations/implications

Future studies should aim to replicate the findings with longitudinal designs.

Practical implications

The study suggests the importance to emphasize the positive characteristics of older workers and to reduce the presence of negative age stereotypes in the workplace, especially in order to foster the occupational self-efficacy of older workers.

Originality/value

The findings are especially relevant in view of the lack of evidence about the relationship between age stereotypes and occupational self-efficacy.

‘I know it exists … but I haven't experienced it personally’: older Canadian men's perceptions of ageism as a distant social problem

This paper examines how older men perceive, experience and internalise ageist prejudice in the context of their everyday lives. We draw on in-depth interviews with 29 community-dwelling Canadian men aged 65–89. Although one-third of our participants were unfamiliar with the term ageism, the majority felt that age-based discrimination was prevalent in Canadian society. Indicating that they themselves had not been personally subjected to ageism, the men considered age-based discrimination to be a socially distant problem. The men explained their perceived immunity to ageism in terms of their youthful attitudes and active lifestyles. The men identified three groups who they considered to be particularly vulnerable to age-based discrimination, namely women, older workers and frail elders residing in institutions. At the same time, the majority of our participants had internalised a variety of ageist and sexist stereotypes. Indeed, the men assumed that later life was inevitably a time of physical decline and dependence, and accepted as fact that older adults were grumpy, poor drivers, unable to learn new technologies and, in the case of older women, sexually unattractive. In this way, a tension existed between the men's assertion that ageism did not affect their lives and their own internalisation of ageist stereotypes. We consider our findings in relation to the theorising about ageism and hegemonic masculinity.

Hebl M, Singletary Walker S, Fa-Kaji N. Selection biases that emerge when age meets gender

Purpose

– The purpose of this paper is to examine the interactive effects of gender and age on evaluations of job applicants. Given the double jeopardy hypothesis, the authors might anticipate that older women would be denigrated most in hiring evaluations. However, given expectations of normative gender behavior, the authors might anticipate that older men would be penalized most for not already having stable employment. This study aims to examine which hypothesis best describes selection biases based on age and gender.

Design/methodology/approach

– Stimuli depicting male and female job applicants at the various ages were developed. The stimuli were standardized by collecting facial photos of older White men and women at ages 20, 40, and 60, and morphing these faces onto standardized bodies using Adobe Photoshop. Participants viewed six stimuli, one from each age by gender combination, and made evaluations across job relevant dimensions.

Findings

– Results showed an interaction between age and gender, such that older male applicants were evaluated more negatively than older female and younger male applicants. These findings support for the violation of gender normative behavior hypothesis.

Practical implications

– This study has implications for organizational leaders who can use this information to provide training for selection officers concerning biases against older workers and how to avoid them.

Originality/value

– Original, novel stimuli are used in an experimental design to examine the effects of age in employment in a standardized manner which controls for extraneous variables such as attractiveness across age.

Age as a moderator in the relationship between work-related characteristics, job dissatisfaction and need for recovery

Job dissatisfaction and need for recovery are associated with voluntary turnover, absenteeism and diminished health. In the light of encouraging working longer, this study investigated whether the relationships between various work characteristics and job dissatisfaction and need for recovery are dependent on age. Cross-sectional questionnaire data from 591 university employees were divided into four age groups: < 36, 36-44, 45-54 and ≥ 55 years. Multivariate regression analyses were used, including interaction variables to detect a moderating effect of age group. Limited age group effects were found: only the association of Feedback with job dissatisfaction and Task variety with need for recovery were influenced by age group. The salience of specific work characteristics within the age groups varied: for job dissatisfaction, Task variety ( < 55) and Changes in tasks ( ≥ 55) were most important. For need for recovery, this applied to Autonomy ( < 36) and Workload ( ≥ 45). To encourage working longer, age-specific measures could be considered, in addition to individual measures, to respond to individual needs.

PRACTITIONER SUMMARY

Demographic changes increase the importance to stimulate working longer. Using questionnaire data, we investigated the relationship between work characteristics, job dissatisfaction and need for recovery in four age groups. Although the moderating effect of age group was rather limited, the salience of specific work characteristics within the age groups varied.

Inclusion or exclusion? Exploring barriers to employment for low-income older adults

Faced with economic uncertainty and declining retirement security, older adults have increasingly tried to remain in, or return to, the workforce in recent years. Unfortunately, a host of factors, such as ageism and changing skill requirements, present challenges for older adults seeking employment. Low-income older adults, in particular, may lack necessary education and skills and have limited access to job opportunities and training. In this review, we examine factors that inhibit and support employment for low-income older adults and explore the role of social work in facilitating their inclusion in the workforce.

The impact of midlife educational, work, health, and family experiences on men's early retirement

OBJECTIVES

In empirical studies on predictors of retirement, midlife experiences have often remained implicit or been neglected. This study aims to improve our understanding of retirement by examining the impact of midlife educational, work, health, and family experiences on early retirement intentions and behavior. We distinguish theoretically and empirically between financial and nonfinancial preretirement factors through which midlife experiences could affect retirement.

METHODS

Using panel data of 1,229 Dutch male older workers, we estimated linear regression models to explain retirement intentions and logistic regression models to explain retirement behavior.

RESULTS

Midlife experiences in all studied life spheres are related to retirement intentions. Educational investments, job changes, late transitions into parenthood, and late divorces are associated with weaker intentions to retire early. Midlife health problems are related to stronger early retirement intentions. For midlife work and family experiences, the relationships are (partly) mediated by the preretirement financial opportunity structure. In the educational, work, and health spheres, the preretirement nonfinancial situation has a mediating effect. Only some of the predictors of retirement intentions also predicted retirement behavior.

DISCUSSION

Given the destandardization of life courses, information on distal life experiences might become even more important toward understanding retirement in the future.

Prevalence and correlates of perceived workplace discrimination among older workers in the United States of America

The workplace is one of the areas in which discrimination most frequently occurs. Despite increasing workforce participation among older adults and the adverse effects of workplace discrimination on the physical and psychological wellbeing of older adults, limited attention has been given to workplace discrimination against older workers. Based on a national survey of 420 older workers age 50 and above, this study first examined the prevalence of perceived workplace discrimination. Results indicated more than 81 per cent of the older workers encountered at least one workplace discriminatory treatment within a year. Prevalence of perceived workplace discrimination differed with age, gender, education, occupation and wage. The study further tested two competing hypotheses on the level of perceived workplace discrimination and found mixed support for both. As hypothesised (based on the social barriers theory), lower education and racial/ethnic minority status were positively associated with perceived workplace discrimination. As counter-hypothesised (based on the attribution-sensitivity theory), younger ages and being male were positively associated with perceived workplace discrimination. In examining the roles of supervisor and co-worker support, the study discovered that supervisor support was negatively associated with workplace discrimination. Finally, this study revealed a non-linear relationship between wages and perceived workplace discrimination, with the mid-range wage group experiencing the highest level of workplace discrimination.

Supervisor-subordinate age dissimilarity and performance ratings: the buffering effects of supervisory relationship and practice

Using 394 pairs of employees and their immediate supervisors working in the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector in three northern European countries, this study examined the effect of workplace moderators on the link between relational demography and supervisor ratings of performance. Directional age differences between superior and subordinate (i.e., status incongruence caused when the supervisor is older or younger than his/her subordinate) and non-directional age differences were used as predictors of supervisor ratings of occupational expertise. The quality of the supervisor-subordinate relationship and the existence of positive age-related supervisory practices were examined as moderators of this relationship. The results provide no support for a relationship between directional age differences and age-related stereotyping by supervisors in ratings of performance, neither for the effects of age-related supervisory practices. However, high quality supervisor-subordinate relationships did moderate the effects of age dissimilarity on supervisory ratings. The implications of these findings for performance appraisal methodologies and recommendations for further research are discussed.

The recruitment of early retirees: a vignette study of the factors that affect managers' decisions

Retirement is characterised as a dynamic process that has several different outcomes, from early retirement to re-entry to the labour force. Recent studies of the Dutch population show that a substantial number of early retirees re-enter the workforce after early retirement, but others do not succeed even though they want to return to paid work. An often-named reason for their failures is bias in the selection process. This raises the questions as to what restrictions do early retirees face in the labour market and what are the characteristics that enhance or limit their hiring chances? The aim of this study was to identify the individual and organisational characteristics that influence managers' hiring decisions, and for the purpose a vignette study among Dutch managers and business students was conducted. Profiles of hypothetical early retirees were presented to the respondents who were then asked to make decisions whether of not to employ the individual. The results show that hiring early retirees is of low priority to both managers and students, and depends to a large extent on organisational factors (such as personnel shortages) and the age of the retiree. The findings suggest that despite equal opportunities policies, age discrimination is still present on the Dutch labour market and that managers generally hinder the re-employment of workers approaching the retirement age.

Productivity of older workers: perceptions of employers and employees

What determines the perceived productivity of the older worker and how does this perception compare to the perception of the productivity of the younger worker? In this study we present evidence based on data from Dutch employers and employees. Productivity perceptions are affected by one's age and one's position in the hierarchy. The young favor the young, the old favor the old, and employers value the productivity of workers less than employees do. However, there are also remarkable similarities across employers and employees. By distinguishing the various dimensions that underlie the productivity of younger and older workers, we tested whether soft qualities and abilities-e.g., reliability and commitment-are just as important as hard qualities-cognitive and physically based skills-in the eyes of both employers and employees. It appears that both employers and employees, young and old, view hard skills as far more important than soft skills.

Work characteristics and determinants of job satisfaction in four age groups: university employees' point of view

Purpose

To investigate (a) differences in work characteristics and (b) determinants of job satisfaction among employees in different age groups.

Methods

A cross-sectional questionnaire was filled in by 1,112 university employees, classified into four age groups. (a) Work characteristics were analysed with ANOVA while adjusting for sex and job classification. (b) Job satisfaction was regressed against job demands and job resources adapted from the Job Demands-Resources model.

Results

Statistically significant differences concerning work characteristics between age groups are present, but rather small. Regression analyses revealed that negative association of the job demands workload and conflicts at work with job satisfaction faded by adding job resources. Job resources were most correlated with more job satisfaction, especially more skill discretion and more relations with colleagues.

Conclusions

Skill discretion and relations with colleagues are major determinants of job satisfaction. However, attention should also be given to conflicts at work, support from supervisor and opportunities for further education, because the mean scores of these work characteristics were disappointing in almost all age groups. The latter two characteristics were found to be associated significantly to job satisfaction in older workers.

Who supports delayed retirement? A study of older workers in Israel

Delayed retirement is a policy measure aimed at ensuring financial stability in many countries, but this particular pension reform mechanism still lacks public support. Using data from the Israeli sample of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement (SHARE) in Europe, this article examines factors which predict support for delayed retirement among older Israeli workers (n=556). Hierarchical regression analysis of agreement with recently instituted delayed retirement measures showed that the perceived societal consequences of the reform were the strongest predictors. Older and more educated respondents and those more confident in their present workplace were also more likely to support delayed retirement. Those who favour state responsibility for care of older people tended to support delayed retirement less. The findings suggest that information campaigns on the contribution of continued employment to health and family solidarity might diminish current fears regarding the delayed retirement-based pension reforms. They also imply that non-partisan leadership is needed in order to recruit broader public support for such reform.