1
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Rathbone E, Fu D. Quantitative Optical Imaging of Oxygen in Brain Vasculature. J Phys Chem B 2024; 128:6975-6989. [PMID: 38991095 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.4c01277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
The intimate relationship between neuronal activity and cerebral oxygenation underpins fundamental brain functions like cognition, sensation, and motor control. Optical imaging offers a noninvasive approach to assess brain oxygenation and often serves as an indirect proxy for neuronal activity. However, deciphering neurovascular coupling─the intricate interplay between neuronal activity, blood flow, and oxygen delivery─necessitates independent, high spatial resolution, and high temporal resolution measurements of both microvasculature oxygenation and neuronal activation. This Perspective examines the established optical techniques employed for brain oxygen imaging, specifically functional near-infrared spectroscopy, photoacoustic imaging, optical coherence tomography, and two-photon phosphorescent lifetime microscopy, highlighting their fundamental principles, strengths, and limitations. Several other emerging optical techniques are also introduced. Finally, we discuss key technological challenges and future directions for quantitative optical oxygen imaging, paving the way for a deeper understanding of oxygen metabolism in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Rathbone
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Dan Fu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
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2
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Alekseeva P, Makarov V, Efendiev K, Shiryaev A, Reshetov I, Loschenov V. Devices and Methods for Dosimetry of Personalized Photodynamic Therapy of Tumors: A Review on Recent Trends. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:2484. [PMID: 39001546 PMCID: PMC11240380 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16132484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Significance: Despite the widespread use of photodynamic therapy in clinical practice, there is a lack of personalized methods for assessing the sufficiency of photodynamic exposure on tumors, depending on tissue parameters that change during light irradiation. This can lead to different treatment results. Aim: The objective of this article was to conduct a comprehensive review of devices and methods employed for the implicit dosimetric monitoring of personalized photodynamic therapy for tumors. Methods: The review included 88 peer-reviewed research articles published between January 2010 and April 2024 that employed implicit monitoring methods, such as fluorescence imaging and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. Additionally, it encompassed computer modeling methods that are most often and successfully used in preclinical and clinical practice to predict treatment outcomes. The Internet search engine Google Scholar and the Scopus database were used to search the literature for relevant articles. Results: The review analyzed and compared the results of 88 peer-reviewed research articles presenting various methods of implicit dosimetry during photodynamic therapy. The most prominent wavelengths for PDT are in the visible and near-infrared spectral range such as 405, 630, 660, and 690 nm. Conclusions: The problem of developing an accurate, reliable, and easily implemented dosimetry method for photodynamic therapy remains a current problem, since determining the effective light dose for a specific tumor is a decisive factor in achieving a positive treatment outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Polina Alekseeva
- Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.M.)
| | - Vladimir Makarov
- Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.M.)
- Department of Laser Micro-Nano and Biotechnologies, Institute of Engineering Physics for Biomedicine, National Research Nuclear University MEPhI, 115409 Moscow, Russia
| | - Kanamat Efendiev
- Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.M.)
- Department of Laser Micro-Nano and Biotechnologies, Institute of Engineering Physics for Biomedicine, National Research Nuclear University MEPhI, 115409 Moscow, Russia
| | - Artem Shiryaev
- Department of Oncology and Radiotherapy, Levshin Institute of Cluster Oncology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia
| | - Igor Reshetov
- Department of Oncology and Radiotherapy, Levshin Institute of Cluster Oncology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia
| | - Victor Loschenov
- Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.M.)
- Department of Laser Micro-Nano and Biotechnologies, Institute of Engineering Physics for Biomedicine, National Research Nuclear University MEPhI, 115409 Moscow, Russia
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3
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Yang Q, Ye W, Luo D, Xing J, Xiao Q, Wu H, Yao Y, Wang G, Yang L, Guo D, Wang K, He Y, Ye X, Zhang J, Jin Z, Fan Z, Wen X, Mao J, Chen X, Zhao Q. Neuroprotective effects of anti-TRAIL-ICG nanoagent and its multimodal imaging evaluation in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Mater Today Bio 2024; 26:101094. [PMID: 38854952 PMCID: PMC11157279 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2024.101094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2024] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) is a major challenge to neuronal survival in acute ischemic stroke (AIS). However, effective neuroprotective agents remain to be developed for the treatment of CIRI. In this work, we have developed an Anti-TRAIL protein-modified and indocyanine green (ICG)-responsive nanoagent (Anti-TRAIL-ICG) to target ischemic areas and then reduce CIRI and rescue the ischemic penumbra. In vitro and in vivo experiments have demonstrated that the carrier-free nanoagent can enhance drug transport across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in stroke mice, exhibiting high targeting ability and good biocompatibility. Anti-TRAIL-ICG nanoagent played a better neuroprotective role by reducing apoptosis and ferroptosis, and significantly improved ischemia-reperfusion injury. Moreover, the multimodal imaging platform enables the dynamic in vivo examination of multiple morphofunctional information, so that the dynamic molecular events of nanoagent can be detected continuously and in real time for early treatment in transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) models. Furthermore, it has been found that Anti-TRAIL-ICG has great potential in the functional reconstruction of neurovascular networks through optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA). Taken together, our work effectively alleviates CIRI after stoke by blocking multiple cell death pathways, which offers an innovative strategy for harnessing the apoptosis and ferroptosis against CIRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Department of Vascular & Tumor Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Wenxuan Ye
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Doudou Luo
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Jiwei Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Department of Vascular & Tumor Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Qingqing Xiao
- Department of Vascular Intervention, Guilin Medical College Affiliated Hospital, Guilin Medical College, Guilin, 541000, China
| | - Huiling Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Department of Vascular & Tumor Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Youliang Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Department of Vascular & Tumor Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Guangxing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Department of Vascular & Tumor Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Luyao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Department of Vascular & Tumor Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Dongbei Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Department of Vascular & Tumor Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Kun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Science and Technology for Medicine of Ministry of Education, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350117, China
| | - Yaqin He
- Department of Oncology Surgery, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Xiaofeng Ye
- Department of Oncology Surgery, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Jinde Zhang
- Institute of Advanced Science Facilities, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518107, China
| | - Zhaokui Jin
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 511436, China
| | - Zhongxiong Fan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Institute of Materia Medica, Xinjiang University, Urumqi, 830017, China
| | - Xiaofei Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Department of Vascular & Tumor Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Jingsong Mao
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Department of Vascular & Tumor Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
- Department of Vascular Intervention, Guilin Medical College Affiliated Hospital, Guilin Medical College, Guilin, 541000, China
| | - Xiaoyuan Chen
- Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine and Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117597, Singapore
| | - Qingliang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Department of Vascular & Tumor Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
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Cai Z, Zhang Y, Fang RS, Brenner B, Kweon J, Sun C, Goldberg JL, Zhang HF. Multiscale imaging of corneal endothelium damage and Rho-kinase inhibitor application in mouse models of acute ocular hypertension. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2024; 15:1102-1114. [PMID: 38404323 PMCID: PMC10890882 DOI: 10.1364/boe.510432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 01/13/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
We developed a multiscale optical imaging workflow, integrating and correlating visible-light optical coherence tomography, confocal laser scanning microscopy, and single-molecule localization microscopy to investigate mouse cornea damage from the in-vivo tissue level to the nanoscopic single-molecule level. We used electron microscopy to validate the imaged nanoscopic structures. We imaged wild-type mice and mice with acute ocular hypertension and examined the effects of Rho-kinase inhibitor application. We defined four types of intercellular tight junction structures as healthy, compact, partially-distorted, and fully-distorted types by labeling the zonula occludens-1 protein in the corneal endothelial cell layer. We correlated the statistics of the four types of tight junction structures with cornea thickness and intraocular pressure. We found that the population of fully-distorted tight junctions correlated well with the level of corneal edema, and applying Rho-kinase inhibitor reduced the population of fully-distorted tight junctions under acute ocular hypertension. Together, these data point to the utility of multiscale optical imaging in revealing fundamental biology relevant to disease and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Cai
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Currently with Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Currently with Program of Polymer and Color Chemistry, Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
| | - Raymond S. Fang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Benjamin Brenner
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Junghun Kweon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Cheng Sun
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Jeffrey L. Goldberg
- Spencer Center for Vision Research, Byers Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94303, USA
| | - Hao F. Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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5
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Wang Y, Lowerison MR, You Q, Lin BZ, Llano DA, Song P. Longitudinal Awake Imaging of Deep Mouse Brain Microvasculature with Super-resolution Ultrasound Localization Microscopy. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.01.555789. [PMID: 37732191 PMCID: PMC10508721 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.01.555789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Super-resolution ultrasound localization microscopy (ULM) is an emerging imaging modality that resolves capillary-scale microvasculature in deep tissues. However, existing preclinical ULM applications are largely constrained to anesthetized animals, introducing confounding vascular effects such as vasodilation and altered hemodynamics. As such, ULM quantifications (e.g., vessel diameter, density, and flow velocity) may be confounded by the use of anesthesia, undermining the usefulness of ULM in practice. Here we introduce a method to address this limitation and achieve ULM imaging in awake mouse brain. Pupillary monitoring was used to confirm the awake state during ULM imaging. ULM revealed that veins showed a greater degree of vascularity reduction from anesthesia to awake states than did arteries. The reduction was most significant in the midbrain and least significant in the cortex. ULM also revealed a significant reduction in venous blood flow velocity across different brain regions under awake conditions. Serial in vivo imaging of the same animal brain at weekly intervals demonstrated the highly robust longitudinal imaging capability of the proposed technique. This is the first study demonstrating longitudinal ULM imaging in the awake mouse brain, which is essential for many ULM brain applications that require awake and behaving animals.
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6
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Cai Z, Zhang Y, Fang RS, Brenner B, Kweon J, Sun C, Goldberg J, Zhang HF. Multiscale imaging of corneal endothelium damage and effects of Rho Kinase inhibitor application in mouse models of acute ocular hypertension. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.18.541299. [PMID: 37292938 PMCID: PMC10245768 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.18.541299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We developed a multiscale optical imaging workflow, integrating and correlating visible-light optical coherence tomography, confocal laser scanning microscopy, and single-molecule localization microscopy to investigate the mouse cornea damages from the in-vivo tissue level to the nanoscopic single-molecule level. We used electron microscopy to validate the imaged nanoscopic structures. We imaged wild-type mice and mice with acute ocular hypertension and examined the effects of Rho Kinase inhibitor application. We defined four types of intercellular tight junction structures as healthy, compact, partially-distorted, and fully-distorted types by labeling the Zonula occludens-1 protein in the corneal endothelial cell layer. We correlated the statistics of the four types of tight junction structures with cornea thickness and intraocular pressure. We found that the population of fully-distorted tight junctions correlated well with the level of cornea edema, and applying Rho Kinase inhibitor reduced the population of fully-distorted tight junctions under acute ocular hypertension.
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7
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Lee JH, Stefan S, Walek K, Nie J, Min K, Yang TD, Lee J. Investigating the correlation between early vascular alterations and cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease in mice with SD-OCT. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 14:1494-1508. [PMID: 37078054 PMCID: PMC10110305 DOI: 10.1364/boe.481826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Vascular alterations have recently gained some attention with their strong association with Alzheimer's disease (AD). We conducted a label-free in vivo optical coherence tomography (OCT) longitudinal imaging using an AD mouse model. We achieved the tracking of the same individual vessels over time and conducted an in-depth analysis of temporal dynamics in vasculature and vasodynamics using OCT angiography and Doppler-OCT. The AD group showed an exponential decay in both vessel diameter and blood flow change with the critical timepoint before 20 weeks of age, which precedes cognitive decline observed at 40 weeks of age. Interestingly, for the AD group, the diameter change showed the dominance in arterioles over venules, but no such influence was found in blood flow change. Conversely, three mice groups with early vasodilatory intervention did not show any significant change in both vascular integrity and cognitive function compared to the wild-type group. We found early vascular alterations and confirmed their correlation with cognitive impairment in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jang-Hoon Lee
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA
| | - Sabina Stefan
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
| | - Konrad Walek
- Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
| | - Jiarui Nie
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA
| | - Kyounghee Min
- University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Taeseok Daniel Yang
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Jonghwan Lee
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA
- Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA
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8
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Nadkarni NA, Arias E, Fang R, Haynes ME, Zhang HF, Muller WA, Batra A, Sullivan DP. Platelet Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule (PECAM/CD31) Blockade Modulates Neutrophil Recruitment Patterns and Reduces Infarct Size in Experimental Ischemic Stroke. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2022; 192:1619-1632. [PMID: 35952762 PMCID: PMC9667712 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2022.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The infiltration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) in ischemia-reperfusion injury (I/RI) has been implicated as a critical component of inflammatory damage following ischemic stroke. However, successful blockade of PMN transendothelial migration (TEM) in preclinical studies has not translated to meaningful clinical outcomes. To investigate this further, leukocyte infiltration patterns were quantified, and these patterns were modulated by blocking platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM), a key regulator of TEM. LysM-eGFP mice and microscopy were used to visualize all myeloid leukocyte recruitment following ischemia/reperfusion. Visual examination showed heterogeneous leukocyte distribution across the infarct at both 24 and 72 hours after I/RI. A semiautomated process was designed to precisely map PMN position across brain sections. Treatment with PECAM function-blocking antibodies did not significantly affect total leukocyte recruitment but did alter their distribution, with more observed at the cortex at both early and later time points (24 hours: 89% PECAM blocked vs. 72% control; 72 hours: 69% PECAM blocked vs. 51% control). This correlated with a decrease in infarct volume. These findings suggest that TEM, in the setting of I/RI in the cerebrovasculature, occurs primarily at the cortical surface. The reduction of stroke size with PECAM blockade suggests that infiltrating PMNs may exacerbate I/RI and indicate the potential therapeutic benefit of regulating the timing and pattern of leukocyte infiltration after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil A Nadkarni
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Erika Arias
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Raymond Fang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Maureen E Haynes
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Hao F Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - William A Muller
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Ayush Batra
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois; Department of Pathology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - David P Sullivan
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois.
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Zhang R, Zhuang C, Wang Z, Xiao G, Chen K, Li H, Tong L, Mi W, Xie H, Cao J. Simultaneous Observation of Mouse Cortical and Hippocampal Neural Dynamics under Anesthesia through a Cranial Microprism Window. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:bios12080567. [PMID: 35892463 PMCID: PMC9332076 DOI: 10.3390/bios12080567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The fluorescence microscope has been widely used to explore dynamic processes in vivo in mouse brains, with advantages of a large field-of-view and high spatiotemporal resolution. However, owing to background light and tissue scattering, the single-photon wide-field microscope fails to record dynamic neural activities in the deep brain. To achieve simultaneous imaging of deep-brain regions and the superficial cortex, we combined the extended-field-of-view microscopy previously proposed with a novel prism-based cranial window to provide a longitudinal view. As well as a right-angle microprism for imaging above 1 mm, we also designed a new rectangular-trapezoidal microprism cranial window to extend the depth of observation to 1.5 mm and to reduce brain injury. We validated our method with structural imaging of microglia cells in the superficial cortex and deep-brain regions. We also recorded neuronal activity from the mouse brains in awake and anesthesitized states. The results highlight the great potential of our methods for simultaneous dynamic imaging in the superficial and deep layers of mouse brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rujin Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China; (R.Z.); (Z.W.); (K.C.); (H.L.); (L.T.); (W.M.)
| | - Chaowei Zhuang
- Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; (C.Z.); (G.X.)
| | - Zilin Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China; (R.Z.); (Z.W.); (K.C.); (H.L.); (L.T.); (W.M.)
| | - Guihua Xiao
- Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; (C.Z.); (G.X.)
| | - Kunsha Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China; (R.Z.); (Z.W.); (K.C.); (H.L.); (L.T.); (W.M.)
| | - Hao Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China; (R.Z.); (Z.W.); (K.C.); (H.L.); (L.T.); (W.M.)
| | - Li Tong
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China; (R.Z.); (Z.W.); (K.C.); (H.L.); (L.T.); (W.M.)
| | - Weidong Mi
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China; (R.Z.); (Z.W.); (K.C.); (H.L.); (L.T.); (W.M.)
| | - Hao Xie
- Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; (C.Z.); (G.X.)
- Correspondence: (H.X.); (J.C.)
| | - Jiangbei Cao
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China; (R.Z.); (Z.W.); (K.C.); (H.L.); (L.T.); (W.M.)
- Correspondence: (H.X.); (J.C.)
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10
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Rubinoff I, Miller DA, Kuranov R, Wang Y, Fang R, Volpe NJ, Zhang HF. High-Speed Balanced-Detection Visible-Light Optical Coherence Tomography in the Human Retina Using Subpixel Spectrometer Calibration. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MEDICAL IMAGING 2022; 41:1724-1734. [PMID: 35089857 PMCID: PMC9921460 DOI: 10.1109/tmi.2022.3147497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Increases in speed and sensitivity enabled rapid clinical adoption of optical coherence tomography (OCT) in ophthalmology. Recently, visible-light OCT (vis-OCT) achieved ultrahigh axial resolution, improved tissue contrast, and provided new functional imaging capabilities, demonstrating the potential to improve clinical care further. However, limited speed and sensitivity caused by the high relative intensity noise (RIN) in supercontinuum lasers impeded the clinical adoption of vis-OCT. To overcome these limitations, we developed balanced-detection vis-OCT (BD-vis-OCT), which uses two calibrated spectrometers to cancel RIN and other noises. We analyzed the RIN to achieve robust subpixel calibration between the two spectrometers and showed that BD-vis-OCT reduced the A-line noise floor by up to 20.5 dB. Metrics comparing signal-to-noise-ratios showed similar image qualities across multiple reference arm powers, a hallmark of operation near the shot-noise limit. We imaged healthy human retinas at an A-line rate of 125 kHz and a field-of-view up to 10 mm ×4 mm. We found that BD-vis-OCT revealed retinal anatomical features previously obscured by the noise floor.
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11
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Long-term in vivo two-photon imaging of the neuroinflammatory response to intracortical implants and micro-vessel disruptions in awake mice. Biomaterials 2021; 276:121060. [PMID: 34419839 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.121060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Our understanding of biomaterials in the brain have been greatly enhanced by advancements in in vivo imaging technologies such as two-photon microscopy. However, when applied to chronic studies, two-photon microscopy enables high-resolution imaging only in superficial regions due to inflammatory responses introduced by the craniotomy and insertion of foreign biomaterials. Microprisms provide a unique vertical view from brain surface to ~1 mm deep or more (depending on the size of the microprisms) which may break through this limitation on imaging depth. Although microprism has been used in the field of neuroscience, the in vivo foreign body responses to the microprism implant have yet to be fully elucidated. This is of important concern in broader applications of this approach, especially for neuroinflammation-sensitive studies. In this work, we first assessed the activation of microglia/macrophages for 16 weeks after microprism implantation using two-photon microscopy in awake CX3CR1-GFP mice. The imaging window became clear from bleedings after ~2 weeks and the maximum imaging distance (in the horizontal direction) stabilized at around 500 μm after ~5 weeks. We also quantified the microglial morphology from week 3 to week 16 post-implantation. Compared to non-implant controls, microglia near the microprism showed higher cell density, smaller soma, and shorter and less branched processes in the early-chronic phase. After week 5, microglial morphology further than 100 μm from the microprism was generally similar to microglia in the control group. In addition, time-lapse imaging confirmed that microglial processes were surveying normally from week 3, even for microglia as close as 50 μm away. These morphological analyses and dynamic imaging results suggest that microglia around chronically implanted microprism eventually exhibit inactive phenotypes. Next, we examined microglial/macrophage responses following laser induced micro-vessel disruptions as an example application of microprism implantation for neuroinflammation related studies. Through the microprism, we captured microglial/macrophage polarization and migration, as well as blood flow changes after the insult for additional 16 weeks. To our surprise, microglia/macrophage aggregation around the insult site was sustained over the 16-week observation period. This work demonstrates the feasibility of using microprisms for long-term characterizations of inflammatory responses to other injuries including implantable devices at deeper depths than that achievable by conventional two-photon microscopy.
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Qin W, Gan Q, Yang L, Wang Y, Qi W, Ke B, Xi L. High-resolution in vivo imaging of rhesus cerebral cortex with ultrafast portable photoacoustic microscopy. Neuroimage 2021; 238:118260. [PMID: 34118393 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Revealing the structural and functional change of microvasculature is essential to match vascular response with neuronal activities in the investigation of neurovascular coupling. The increasing use of rhesus models in fundamental and clinical studies of neurovascular coupling presents an emerging need for a new imaging modality. Here we report a structural and functional cerebral vascular study of rhesus monkeys using an ultrafast, portable, and high resolution photoacoustic microscopic system with a long working distance and a special scanning mechanism to eliminate the relative displacement between the imaging interface and samples. We derived the structural and functional response of the cerebral vasculature to the alternating normoxic and hypoxic conditions by calculating the vascular diameter and functional connectivity. Both vasodilatation and vasoconstriction were observed in hypoxia. In addition to the change of vascular diameter, the decrease of functional connectivity is also an important phenomenon induced by the reduction of oxygen ventilatory. These results suggest that photoacoustic microscopy is a promising method to study the neurovascular coupling and cerebral vascular diseases due to the advanced features of high spatiotemporal resolution, excellent sensitivity to hemoglobin, and label-free imaging capability of observing hemodynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Qin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, China
| | - Qi Gan
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital Sichuan University, Chengdu 610040, Sichuan, China
| | - Lei Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, West China Hospital Sichuan University, Chengdu 610040, Sichuan, China
| | - Yongchao Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, China
| | - Weizhi Qi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, China
| | - Bowen Ke
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, West China Hospital Sichuan University, Chengdu 610040, Sichuan, China.
| | - Lei Xi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, China.
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13
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Wang Y, Xi L. Chronic cranial window for photoacoustic imaging: a mini review. Vis Comput Ind Biomed Art 2021; 4:15. [PMID: 34037873 PMCID: PMC8155166 DOI: 10.1186/s42492-021-00081-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Photoacoustic (PA) microscopy is being increasingly used to visualize the microcirculation of the brain cortex at the micron level in living rodents. By combining it with long-term cranial window techniques, vasculature can be monitored over a period of days extending to months through a field of view. To fulfill the requirements of long-term in vivo PA imaging, the cranial window must involve a simple and rapid surgical procedure, biological compatibility, and sufficient optical-acoustic transparency, which are major challenges. Recently, several cranial window techniques have been reported for longitudinal PA imaging. Here, the development of chronic cranial windows for PA imaging is reviewed and its technical details are discussed, including window installation, imaging quality, and longitudinal stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongchao Wang
- School of Physics, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610054, Sichuan, China.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China
| | - Lei Xi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China.
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Cramer SW, Carter RE, Aronson JD, Kodandaramaiah SB, Ebner TJ, Chen CC. Through the looking glass: A review of cranial window technology for optical access to the brain. J Neurosci Methods 2021; 354:109100. [PMID: 33600850 PMCID: PMC8100903 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2021.109100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Deciphering neurologic function is a daunting task, requiring understanding the neuronal networks and emergent properties that arise from the interactions among single neurons. Mechanistic insights into neuronal networks require tools that simultaneously assess both single neuron activity and the consequent mesoscale output. The development of cranial window technologies, in which the skull is thinned or replaced with a synthetic optical interface, has enabled monitoring neuronal activity from subcellular to mesoscale resolution in awake, behaving animals when coupled with advanced microscopy techniques. Here we review recent achievements in cranial window technologies, appraise the relative merits of each design and discuss the future research in cranial window design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel W Cramer
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Minnesota, 420 Delaware St SE, Mayo D429, MMC 96, Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Russell E Carter
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, Room 421, 2001 Sixth Street S.E., Minneapolis, MN, 55455 MN, USA
| | - Justin D Aronson
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, Room 421, 2001 Sixth Street S.E., Minneapolis, MN, 55455 MN, USA
| | - Suhasa B Kodandaramaiah
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - Timothy J Ebner
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, Room 421, 2001 Sixth Street S.E., Minneapolis, MN, 55455 MN, USA.
| | - Clark C Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Minnesota, 420 Delaware St SE, Mayo D429, MMC 96, Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
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15
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Osiac E, Mitran SI, Manea CN, Cojocaru A, Rosu G, Osiac M, Pirici DN, Bălșeanu AT, Cătălin B. Optical coherence tomography microscopy in experimental traumatic brain injury. Microsc Res Tech 2021; 84:422-431. [PMID: 33009699 PMCID: PMC7891427 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.23599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Worldwide elderly traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients tend to become an increasing burden to the society. Thus, a faster and less expensive way of evaluating TBI victims is needed. In the present study we investigated if optical coherence tomography (OCT) could be used as such a method. By using an animal model, we established if OCT can detect cortical changes in the acute phase of a penetrating TBI, in young (5-7 months) and old (20-22 months) rats. Due to the long-term evolution of TBI's, we wanted to investigate to what extent OCT could detect changes within the cortex in the chronic phase. Adult (7-12 months) male rats were used. Surprisingly, OCT imaging of the normal hemisphere was able to discriminate age-related differences in the mean gray values (MGV) of recorded pixels (p = .032). Furthermore, in the acute phase of TBI, OCT images recorded at 24 hr after the injury showed differences between the apparent damaged area of young and aged animals. Changes of MGV and skewness were only recorded 48 hr after injury. Monitoring the chronical evolution of the TBI with OCT revealed changes over time exceeding the normal range recorded for MGV, skewness and kurtosis, 14 and 21 days after TBI. Although in the present study we still used an extremely invasive approach, as technology improves, less invasive and non-harmful ways of recording OCT may allow for an objective way to detect changes within the brain structure after brain injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugen Osiac
- Experimental Research Center for Normal and Pathological AgingUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
- Department of BiophysicsUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
| | - Smaranda Ioana Mitran
- Experimental Research Center for Normal and Pathological AgingUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
- Department of PhysiologyUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
| | - Cătălin Nicolae Manea
- Experimental Research Center for Normal and Pathological AgingUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
- Department of Informatics, Communication and StatisticsUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
| | - Alexandru Cojocaru
- Department of PhysiologyUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
| | - Gabriela‐Camelia Rosu
- Department of Research MethodologyUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
| | - Mariana Osiac
- Department of Physics, Faculty of ScienceUniversity of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
| | - Daniel Nicolae Pirici
- Department of Research MethodologyUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
| | - Adrian Tudor Bălșeanu
- Experimental Research Center for Normal and Pathological AgingUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
- Department of PhysiologyUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
| | - Bogdan Cătălin
- Experimental Research Center for Normal and Pathological AgingUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
- Department of PhysiologyUniversity of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaCraiovaRomania
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Chen TH, Wu YC, Tsai TY, Chueh CB, Huang BH, Huang YP, Tsai MT, Yasuno Y, Lee HC. Effect of A-scan rate and interscan interval on optical coherence angiography. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2021; 12:722-736. [PMID: 33680538 PMCID: PMC7901325 DOI: 10.1364/boe.409636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) can provide rapid, volumetric, and noninvasive imaging of tissue microvasculature without the requirement of exogenous contrast agents. To investigate how A-scan rate and interscan time affected the contrast and dynamic range of OCTA, we developed a 1.06-µm swept-source OCT system enabling 100-kHz or 200-kHz OCT using two light sources. After system settings were carefully adjusted, almost the same detection sensitivity was achieved between the 100-kHz and 200-kHz modalities. OCTA of ear skin was performed on five mice. We used the variable interscan time analysis algorithm (VISTA) and the designated scanning protocol with OCTA images reconstructed through the correlation mapping method. With a relatively long interscan time (e.g., 12.5 ms vs. 6.25 ms for 200-kHz OCT), OCTA can identify more intricate microvascular networks. OCTA image sets with the same interscan time (e.g., 12.5 ms) were compared. OCTA images acquired with a 100-kHz A-scan rate showed finer microvasculature than did other imaging modalities. We performed quantitative analysis on the contrast from OCTA images reconstructed with different A-scan rates and interscan time intervals in terms of vessel area, total vessel length, and junction density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Hao Chen
- Graduate Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chun Wu
- Graduate Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Yen Tsai
- Graduate Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Chuan-Bor Chueh
- Graduate Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Bo-Huei Huang
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Yin-Peng Huang
- Graduate Institute of Networking and Multimedia, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Meng-Tsan Tsai
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan 33306, Taiwan
| | - Yoshiaki Yasuno
- Computational Optics Group, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Hsiang-Chieh Lee
- Graduate Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
- Molecular Imaging Center, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
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17
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Rubinoff I, Kuranov RV, Zhang HF. Intrinsic spectrally-dependent background in spectroscopic visible-light optical coherence tomography. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2021; 12:110-124. [PMID: 33520380 PMCID: PMC7818955 DOI: 10.1364/boe.410011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 11/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Visible-light optical coherence tomography (vis-OCT) has enabled new spectroscopic applications, such as retinal oximetry, as a result of increased optical absorption and scattering contacts in biological tissue and improved axial resolution. Besides extracting tissue properties from back-scattered light, spectroscopic analyses must consider spectral alterations induced by image reconstruction itself. We investigated an intrinsic spectral bias in the background noise floor, which is hereby referred to as the spectrally-dependent background (SDBG). We developed an analytical model to predict the SDBG-induced bias and validated this model using numerically simulated and experimentally acquired data. We found that SDBG systemically altered the measured spectra of blood in human retinal vessels in vis-OCT, as compared to literature data. We provided solutions to quantify and compensate for SDBG in retinal oximetry. This work is particularly significant for clinical applications of vis-OCT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Rubinoff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Roman V. Kuranov
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Opticent Health, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
| | - Hao F. Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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18
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Chen D, Yuan W, Park HC, Li X. In vivo assessment of vascular-targeted photodynamic therapy effects on tumor microvasculature using ultrahigh-resolution functional optical coherence tomography. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 11:4316-4325. [PMID: 32923045 PMCID: PMC7449727 DOI: 10.1364/boe.397602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 07/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Vascular-targeted photodynamic therapy (VTP) is an emerging treatment for tumors. The change of tumor vasculatures, including a newly-formed microvascular, in response to VTP, is a key assessment parameter for optimizing the treatment effect. However, an accurate assessment of vasculature, particularly the microvasculature's changes in vivo, remains challenging due to the limited resolution afforded by existing imaging modalities. In this study, we demonstrated the in vivo imaging of VTP effects on an A431 tumor-bearing window chamber model of a mouse with an 800-nm ultrahigh-resolution functional optical coherence tomography (UHR-FOCT). We further quantitatively demonstrated the effects of VTP on the size and density of tumor microvasculature before, during, and after the treatment. Our results suggest the promising potential of UHR-FOCT for assessing the tumor treatment with VTP in vivo and in real time to achieve an optimal outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Defu Chen
- School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Wu Yuan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- These authors contributed equally to this work
- Current address: Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Hyeon-Cheol Park
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Xingde Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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