Volitional control of vocalizations in corvid songbirds

Crows "count" the number of self-generated vocalizations

Producing a specific number of vocalizations with purpose requires a sophisticated combination of numerical abilities and vocal control. Whether this capacity exists in animals other than humans is yet unknown. We show that crows can flexibly produce variable numbers of one to four vocalizations in response to arbitrary cues associated with numerical values. The acoustic features of the first vocalization of a sequence were predictive of the total number of vocalizations, indicating a planning process. Moreover, the acoustic features of vocal units predicted their order in the sequence and could be used to read out counting errors during vocal production.

Goal-directed and flexible modulation of syllable sequence within birdsong

Songs constitute a complex system of vocal signals for inter-individual communication in songbirds. Here, we elucidate the flexibility which songbirds exhibit in the organizing and sequencing of syllables within their songs. Utilizing a newly devised song decoder for quasi-real-time annotation, we execute an operant conditioning paradigm, with rewards contingent upon specific syllable syntax. Our analysis reveals that birds possess the capacity to modify the contents of their songs, adjust the repetition length of particular syllables and employing specific motifs. Notably, birds altered their syllable sequence in a goal-directed manner to obtain rewards. We demonstrate that such modulation occurs within a distinct song segment, with adjustments made within 10 minutes after cue presentation. Additionally, we identify the involvement of the parietal-basal ganglia pathway in orchestrating these flexible modulations of syllable sequences. Our findings unveil an unappreciated aspect of songbird communication, drawing parallels with human speech.

Neural correlates of cognitively controlled vocalizations in a corvid songbird

The neuronal basis of the songbird's song system is well understood. However, little is known about the neuronal correlates of the executive control of songbird vocalizations. Here, we record single-unit activity from the pallial endbrain region "nidopallium caudolaterale" (NCL) of crows that vocalize to the presentation of a visual go-cue but refrain from vocalizing during trials without a go-cue. We find that the preparatory activity of single vocalization-correlated neurons, but also of the entire population of NCL neurons, before vocal onset predicts whether or not the crows will produce an instructed vocalization. Fluctuations in baseline neuronal activity prior to the go-cue influence the premotor activity of such vocalization-correlated neurons and seemingly bias the crows' decision to vocalize. Neuronal response modulation significantly differs between volitional and task-unrelated vocalizations. This suggests that the NCL can take control over the vocal motor network during the production of volitional vocalizations in a corvid songbird.

Spontaneous vocal coordination of vocalizations to water noise in rooks (Corvus frugilegus): An exploratory study

The ability to control one's vocal production is a major advantage in acoustic communication. Yet, not all species have the same level of control over their vocal output. Several bird species can interrupt their song upon hearing an external stimulus, but there is no evidence how flexible this behavior is. Most research on corvids focuses on their cognitive abilities, but few studies explore their vocal aptitudes. Recent research shows that crows can be experimentally trained to vocalize in response to a brief visual stimulus. Our study investigated vocal control abilities with a more ecologically embedded approach in rooks. We show that two rooks could spontaneously coordinate their vocalizations to a long-lasting stimulus (the sound of their small bathing pool being filled with a water hose), one of them adjusting roughly (in the second range) its vocalizations as the stimuli began and stopped. This exploratory study adds to the literature showing that corvids, a group of species capable of cognitive prowess, are indeed able to display good vocal control abilities.

Recursive sequence generation in crows

Recursion, the process of embedding structures within similar structures, is often considered a foundation of symbolic competence and a uniquely human capability. To understand its evolution, we can study the recursive aptitudes of nonhuman animals. We adopted the behavioral protocol of a recent study demonstrating that humans and nonhuman primates grasp recursion. We presented sequences of bracket pair stimuli (e.g., [ ] and { }) to crows who were instructed to peck at training lists. They were then tested on their ability to transfer center-embedded structure to never-before-seen pairings of brackets. We reveal that crows have recursive capacities; they perform on par with children and even outperform macaques. The crows continued to produce recursive sequences after extending to longer and thus deeper embeddings. These results demonstrate that recursive capabilities are not limited to the primate genealogy and may have occurred separately from or before human symbolic competence in different animal taxa.

Cognitive control of song production by humpback whales

Singing humpback whales are highly versatile vocalizers, producing complex sequences of sounds that they vary throughout adulthood. Past analyses of humpback whale song have emphasized yearly variations in structural features of songs made collectively by singers within a population with comparatively little attention given to the ways that individual singers vary consecutive songs. As a result, many researchers describe singing by humpback whales as a process in which singers produce sequences of repeating sound patterns. Here, we show that such characterizations misrepresent the degree to which humpback whales flexibly and dynamically control the production of sounds and sound patterns within song sessions. Singers recorded off the coast of Hawaii continuously morphed units along multiple acoustic dimensions, with the degree and direction of morphing varying across parallel streams of successive units. Individual singers also produced multiple phrase variants (structurally similar, but acoustically distinctive sequences) within song sessions. The precision with which individual singers maintained some acoustic properties of phrases and morphing trajectories while flexibly changing others suggests that singing humpback whales actively select and adjust acoustic elements of their songs in real time rather than simply repeating stereotyped sound patterns within song sessions.

A brain atlas of the carrion crow (Corvus corone)

Corvidae, passerine songbirds such as jays, crows, and ravens known as corvids, have become model systems for the study of avian cognition. The superior cognitive capabilities of corvids mainly emerge from a disproportionally large telencephalon found in these species. However, a systematic mapping of the neuroanatomy of the corvid brain, and the telencephalon in particular, is lacking so far. Here, we present a brain atlas of the carrion crow, Corvus corone, with special emphasis on the telencephalic pallium. We applied four staining techniques to brain slices (Nissl, myelin, combination of Nissl and myelin, and tyrosine hydroxylase targeting catecholaminergic neurons). This allowed us to identify brain nuclei throughout the brain and delineate the known pallial subdivisions termed hyperpallium, entopallium, mesopallium, nidopallium, arcopallium, and hippocampal complex. The extent of these subdivisions and brain nuclei are described according to stereotaxic coordinates. In addition, 3D depictions of pallial regions were reconstructed from these slices. While the overall organization of the carrion crow's brain matches other songbird brains, the relative proportions and expansions of associative pallial areas differ considerably in agreement with enhanced cognitive skills found in corvids. The presented global organization of the crow brain in stereotaxic coordinates will help to guide future neurobiological studies in corvids.

A Theoretical Framework for Human and Nonhuman Vocal Interaction

Vocal communication is a critical feature of social interaction across species; however, the relation between such behavior in humans and nonhumans remains unclear. To enable comparative investigation of this topic, we review the literature pertinent to interactive language use and identify the superset of cognitive operations involved in generating communicative action. We posit these functions comprise three intersecting multistep pathways: (a) the Content Pathway, which selects the movements constituting a response; (b) the Timing Pathway, which temporally structures responses; and (c) the Affect Pathway, which modulates response parameters according to internal state. These processing streams form the basis of the Convergent Pathways for Interaction framework, which provides a conceptual model for investigating the cognitive and neural computations underlying vocal communication across species.

The multi-dimensional nature of vocal learning

How learning affects vocalizations is a key question in the study of animal communication and human language. Parallel efforts in birds and humans have taught us much about how vocal learning works on a behavioural and neurobiological level. Subsequent efforts have revealed a variety of cases among mammals in which experience also has a major influence on vocal repertoires. Janik and Slater (Anim. Behav.60, 1-11. (doi:10.1006/anbe.2000.1410)) introduced the distinction between vocal usage and production learning, providing a general framework to categorize how different types of learning influence vocalizations. This idea was built on by Petkov and Jarvis (Front. Evol. Neurosci.4, 12. (doi:10.3389/fnevo.2012.00012)) to emphasize a more continuous distribution between limited and more complex vocal production learners. Yet, with more studies providing empirical data, the limits of the initial frameworks become apparent. We build on these frameworks to refine the categorization of vocal learning in light of advances made since their publication and widespread agreement that vocal learning is not a binary trait. We propose a novel classification system, based on the definitions by Janik and Slater, that deconstructs vocal learning into key dimensions to aid in understanding the mechanisms involved in this complex behaviour. We consider how vocalizations can change without learning, and a usage learning framework that considers context specificity and timing. We identify dimensions of vocal production learning, including the copying of auditory models (convergence/divergence on model sounds, accuracy of copying), the degree of change (type and breadth of learning) and timing (when learning takes place, the length of time it takes and how long it is retained). We consider grey areas of classification and current mechanistic understanding of these behaviours. Our framework identifies research needs and will help to inform neurobiological and evolutionary studies endeavouring to uncover the multi-dimensional nature of vocal learning. This article is part of the theme issue 'Vocal learning in animals and humans'.

Songbirds can learn flexible contextual control over syllable sequencing

The flexible control of sequential behavior is a fundamental aspect of speech, enabling endless reordering of a limited set of learned vocal elements (syllables or words). Songbirds are phylogenetically distant from humans but share both the capacity for vocal learning and neural circuitry for vocal control that includes direct pallial-brainstem projections. Based on these similarities, we hypothesized that songbirds might likewise be able to learn flexible, moment-by-moment control over vocalizations. Here, we demonstrate that Bengalese finches (Lonchura striata domestica), which sing variable syllable sequences, can learn to rapidly modify the probability of specific sequences (e.g. ‘ab-c’ versus ‘ab-d’) in response to arbitrary visual cues. Moreover, once learned, this modulation of sequencing occurs immediately following changes in contextual cues and persists without external reinforcement. Our findings reveal a capacity in songbirds for learned contextual control over syllable sequencing that parallels human cognitive control over syllable sequencing in speech.

Human speech and birdsong share numerous parallels. Both humans and birds learn their vocalizations during critical phases early in life, and both learn by imitating adults. Moreover, both humans and songbirds possess specific circuits in the brain that connect the forebrain to midbrain vocal centers.

Humans can flexibly control what they say and how by reordering a fixed set of syllables into endless combinations, an ability critical to human speech and language. Birdsongs also vary depending on their context, and melodies to seduce a mate will be different from aggressive songs to warn other males to stay away. However, so far it was unclear whether songbirds are also capable of modifying songs independent of social or other naturally relevant contexts.

To test whether birds can control their songs in a purposeful way, Veit et al. trained adult male Bengalese finches to change the sequence of their songs in response to random colored lights that had no natural meaning to the birds. A specific computer program was used to detect different variations on a theme that the bird naturally produced (for example, “ab-c” versus “ab-d”), and rewarded birds for singing one sequence when the light was yellow, and the other when it was green. Gradually, the finches learned to modify their songs and were able to switch between the appropriate sequences as soon as the light cues changed. This ability persisted for days, even without any further training.

This suggests that songbirds can learn to flexibly and purposefully modify the way in which they sequence the notes in their songs, in a manner that parallels how humans control syllable sequencing in speech. Moreover, birds can learn to do this ‘on command’ in response to an arbitrarily chosen signal, even if it is not something that would impact their song in nature.

Songbirds are an important model to study brain circuits involved in vocal learning. They are one of the few animals that, like humans, learn their vocalizations by imitating conspecifics. The finding that they can also flexibly control vocalizations may help shed light on the interactions between cognitive processing and sophisticated vocal learning abilities.

Constraints on vocal production learning in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulates)

Budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) are small Australian parrots with a well-documented, learned vocal repertoire and a high degree of vocal production learning. These birds live in large, social flocks and they vocally interact with each other in a dynamic, reciprocal manner. We assume that budgerigars must process and integrate a wide variety of sensory stimuli when selecting appropriate vocal responses to conspecifics during vocal interactions, but the relative contributions of these different stimuli to that process are next to impossible to tease apart in a natural context. Here we show that budgerigars, under operant control, can learn to respond to specific stimuli with a specific vocal response. Budgerigars were trained to produce contact calls to a combination of auditory and visual cues. Birds learned to produce specific contact calls to stimuli that differed either in location (visual or auditory) or quality (visual). Interestingly, the birds could not learn to associate different vocal responses with different auditory stimuli coming from the same location. Surprisingly, this was so even when the auditory stimuli and the responses were the same (i.e., the bird's own contact call). These results show that even in a highly controlled operant context, acoustic cues alone were not sufficient to support vocal production learning in budgerigars. From a different perspective, these results highlight the significant role that social interaction likely plays in vocal production learning so elegantly shown by Irene Pepperberg's work in parrots.

Neural Code of Motor Planning and Execution during Goal-Directed Movements in Crows

The planning and execution of head-beak movements are vital components of bird behavior. They require integration of sensory input and internal processes with goal-directed motor output. Despite its relevance, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying action planning and execution outside of the song system are largely unknown. We recorded single-neuron activity from the associative endbrain area nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL) of two male carrion crows (Corvus corone) trained to plan and execute head-beak movements in a spatial delayed response task. The crows were instructed to plan an impending movement toward one of eight possible targets on the left or right side of a touchscreen. In a fraction of trials, the crows were prompted to plan a movement toward a self-chosen target. NCL neurons signaled the impending motion direction in instructed trials. Tuned neuronal activity during motor planning categorically represented the target side, but also specific target locations. As a marker of intentional movement preparation, neuronal activity reliably predicted both target side and specific target location when the crows were free to select a target. In addition, NCL neurons were tuned to specific target locations during movement execution. A subset of neurons was tuned during both planning and execution period; these neurons experienced a sharpening of spatial tuning with the transition from planning to execution. These results show that the avian NCL not only represents high-level sensory and cognitive task components, but also transforms behaviorally-relevant information into dynamic action plans and motor execution during the volitional perception-action cycle of birds.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Corvid songbirds have become exciting new models for understanding complex cognitive behavior. As a key neural underpinning, the endbrain area nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL) represents sensory and memory-related task components. How such representations are converted into goal-directed motor output remained unknown. In crows, we report that NCL neurons are involved in the planning and execution of goal-directed movements. NCL neurons prospectively signaled motion directions in instructed trials, but also when the crows were free to choose a target. NCL neurons showed a target-specific sharpening of tuning with the transition from the planning to the execution period. Thus, the avian NCL not only represents high-level sensory and cognitive task components, but also transforms relevant information into action plans and motor execution.

Distinct neural networks for the volitional control of vocal and manual actions in the monkey homologue of Broca's area

The ventrolateral frontal lobe (Broca's area) of the human brain is crucial in speech production. In macaques, neurons in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, the suggested monkey homologue of Broca's area, signal the volitional initiation of vocalizations. We explored whether this brain area became specialized for vocal initiation during primate evolution and trained macaques to alternate between a vocal and manual action in response to arbitrary cues. During task performance, single neurons recorded from the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and the rostroventral premotor cortex of the inferior frontal cortex predominantly signaled the impending vocal or, to a lesser extent, manual action, but not both. Neuronal activity was specific for volitional action plans and differed during spontaneous movement preparations. This implies that the primate inferior frontal cortex controls the initiation of volitional utterances via a dedicated network of vocal selective neurons that might have been exploited during the evolution of Broca's area.

Towards an interdisciplinary framework about intelligence

In recent years, advances in science, technology, and the way in which we view our world have led to an increasingly broad use of the term "intelligence". As we learn more about biological systems, we find more and more examples of complex and precise adaptive behavior in animals and plants. Similarly, as we build more complex computational systems, we recognize the emergence of highly sophisticated structures capable of solving increasingly complex problems. These behaviors show characteristics in common with the sort of complex behaviors and learning capabilities we find in humans, and therefore it is common to see them referred to as "intelligent". These analogies are problematic as the term intelligence is inextricably associated with human-like capabilities. While these issues have been discussed by leading researchers of AI and renowned psychologists and biologists highlighting the commonalities and differences between AI and biological intelligence, there have been few rigorous attempts to create an interdisciplinary approach to the modern problem of intelligence. This article proposes a comparative framework to discuss what we call "purposeful behavior", a characteristic shared by systems capable of gathering and processing information from their surroundings and modifying their actions in order to fulfill a series of implicit or explicit goals. Our aim is twofold: on the one hand, the term purposeful behavior allows us to describe the behavior of these systems without using the term "intelligence", avoiding the comparison with human capabilities. On the other hand, we hope that our framework encourages interdisciplinary discussion to help advance our understanding of the relationships among different systems and their capabilities.

A histological study of the song system of the carrion crow (Corvus corone)

The song system of songbirds (oscines) is one of the best studied neuroethological model systems. So far, it has been treated as a relatively constrained sensorimotor system. Songbirds such as crows, however, are also known for their capability to cognitively control their audio-vocal system. Yet, the neuroanatomy of the corvid song system has never been explored systematically. We aim to close this scientific gap by presenting a stereotactic investigation of the extended song system of the carrion crow (Corvus corone), an oscine songbird of the corvid family that has become an interesting model system for cognitive neuroscience. In order to identify and delineate the song nuclei, the ascending auditory nuclei, and the descending vocal-motor nuclei, four stains were applied. In addition to the classical Nissl-, myelin-, and a combination of Nissl-and-myelin staining, staining for tyrosine hydroxylase was used to reveal the distribution of catecholaminergic neurons (dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and adrenergic) in the song system. We show that the crow brain contains the important song-related nuclei, including auditory input and motor output structures, and map them throughout the brain. Fiber-stained sections reveal putative connection patterns between the crow's song nuclei comparable to other songbirds.

Categorical Auditory Working Memory in Crows

The ability to group sensory data into behaviorally meaningful classes and to maintain these perceptual categories active in working memory is key to intelligent behavior. Here, we show that carrion crows, highly vocal and cognitively advanced corvid songbirds, possess categorical auditory working memory. The crows were trained in a delayed match-to-category task that required them to flexibly match remembered sounds based on the upward or downward shift of the sounds' frequency modulation. After training, the crows instantaneously classified novel sounds into the correct auditory categories. The crows showed sharp category boundaries as a function of the relative frequency interval of the modulation. In addition, the crows generalized frequency-modulated sounds within a category and correctly classified novel sounds kept in working memory irrespective of other acoustic features of the sound. This suggests that crows can form and actively memorize auditory perceptual categories in the service of cognitive control of their goal-directed behaviors.

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Crows performed a delayed match-to-category task with frequency modulated sounds

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Crows classified novel sounds into upward or downward modulated sound categories

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Crows showed sharp category boundaries and within-category generalization

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Crows can actively memorize auditory perceptual categories for cognitive control

Parting self from others: Individual and self-recognition in birds

Individual recognition is the ability to differentiate between conspecifics based on their individual features. It forms the basis of many complex communicative and social behaviours. Here, we review studies investigating individual recognition in the auditory and visual domain in birds. It is well established that auditory signals are used by many birds to discriminate conspecifics. In songbirds, the neuronal structures underpinning auditory recognition are associated with the song system. Individual recognition in the visual domain has mainly been explored in chickens and pigeons, and is less well understood. Currently it is unknown which visual cues birds use to identify conspecifics, and whether they have cortical areas dedicated to processing individual features. Moreover, whether birds can recognise themselves visually, as evidenced by mirror self-recognition, remains controversial. In the auditory domain, the responses of neurons in the song system suggest identification of the bird's own song. The surveyed behavioural and neural findings can provide a framework for more controlled investigations of individual recognition in birds and other species.

The neurobiology of innate, volitional and learned vocalizations in mammals and birds

Vocalization is an ancient vertebrate trait essential to many forms of communication, ranging from courtship calls to free verse. Vocalizations may be entirely innate and evoked by sexual cues or emotional state, as with many types of calls made in primates, rodents and birds; volitional, as with innate calls that, following extensive training, can be evoked by arbitrary sensory cues in non-human primates and corvid songbirds; or learned, acoustically flexible and complex, as with human speech and the courtship songs of oscine songbirds. This review compares and contrasts the neural mechanisms underlying innate, volitional and learned vocalizations, with an emphasis on functional studies in primates, rodents and songbirds. This comparison reveals both highly conserved and convergent mechanisms of vocal production in these different groups, despite their often vast phylogenetic separation. This similarity of central mechanisms for different forms of vocal production presents experimentalists with useful avenues for gaining detailed mechanistic insight into how vocalizations are employed for social and sexual signalling, and how they can be modified through experience to yield new vocal repertoires customized to the individual's social group. This article is part of the theme issue 'What can animal communication teach us about human language?'