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Gattuso H, Nuñez K, de la Rea B, Ermentrout B, Victor J, Nagel K. Inhibitory control of locomotor statistics in walking Drosophila. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.15.589655. [PMID: 38659800 PMCID: PMC11042290 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.15.589655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
In order to forage for food, many animals regulate not only specific limb movements but the statistics of locomotor behavior over time, for example switching between long-range dispersal behaviors and more localized search depending on the availability of resources. How pre-motor circuits regulate such locomotor statistics is not clear. Here we took advantage of the robust changes in locomotor statistics evoked by attractive odors in walking Drosophila to investigate their neural control. We began by analyzing the statistics of ground speed and angular velocity during three well-defined motor regimes: baseline walking, upwind running during odor, and search behavior following odor offset. We find that during search behavior, flies adopt higher angular velocities and slower ground speeds, and tend to turn for longer periods of time in one direction. We further find that flies spontaneously adopt periods of different mean ground speed, and that these changes in state influence the length of odor-evoked runs. We next developed a simple physiologically-inspired computational model of locomotor control that can recapitulate these statistical features of fly locomotion. Our model suggests that contralateral inhibition plays a key role both in regulating the difference between baseline and search behavior, and in modulating the response to odor with ground speed. As the fly connectome predicts decussating inhibitory neurons in the lateral accessory lobe (LAL), a pre-motor structure, we generated genetic tools to target these neurons and test their role in behavior. Consistent with our model, we found that activation of neurons labeled in one line increased curvature. In a second line labeling distinct neurons, activation and inactivation strongly and reciprocally regulated ground speed and altered the length of the odor-evoked run. Additional targeted light activation experiments argue that these effects arise from the brain rather than from neurons in the ventral nerve cord, while sparse activation experiments argue that speed control in the second line arises from both LAL neurons and a population of neurons in the dorsal superior medial protocerebrum (SMP). Together, our work develops a biologically plausible computational architecture that captures the statistical features of fly locomotion across behavioral states and identifies potential neural substrates of these computations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Gattuso
- Department of Neuroscience, NYU School of Medicine, 435 E 30 St. New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Kavin Nuñez
- Department of Neuroscience, NYU School of Medicine, 435 E 30 St. New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Beatriz de la Rea
- Department of Neuroscience, NYU School of Medicine, 435 E 30 St. New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Bard Ermentrout
- Department of Mathematics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Jonathan Victor
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Katherine Nagel
- Department of Neuroscience, NYU School of Medicine, 435 E 30 St. New York, NY 10016, USA
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2
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Tao L, Wechsler SP, Bhandawat V. Sensorimotor transformation underlying odor-modulated locomotion in walking Drosophila. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6818. [PMID: 37884581 PMCID: PMC10603174 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42613-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Most real-world behaviors - such as odor-guided locomotion - are performed with incomplete information. Activity in olfactory receptor neuron (ORN) classes provides information about odor identity but not the location of its source. In this study, we investigate the sensorimotor transformation that relates ORN activation to locomotion changes in Drosophila by optogenetically activating different combinations of ORN classes and measuring the resulting changes in locomotion. Three features describe this sensorimotor transformation: First, locomotion depends on both the instantaneous firing frequency (f) and its change (df); the two together serve as a short-term memory that allows the fly to adapt its motor program to sensory context automatically. Second, the mapping between (f, df) and locomotor parameters such as speed or curvature is distinct for each pattern of activated ORNs. Finally, the sensorimotor mapping changes with time after odor exposure, allowing information integration over a longer timescale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangyu Tao
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Samuel P Wechsler
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Vikas Bhandawat
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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3
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Jayaram V, Sehdev A, Kadakia N, Brown EA, Emonet T. Temporal novelty detection and multiple timescale integration drive Drosophila orientation dynamics in temporally diverse olfactory environments. PLoS Comput Biol 2023; 19:e1010606. [PMID: 37167321 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
To survive, insects must effectively navigate odors plumes to their source. In natural plumes, turbulent winds break up smooth odor regions into disconnected patches, so navigators encounter brief bursts of odor interrupted by bouts of clean air. The timing of these encounters plays a critical role in navigation, determining the direction, rate, and magnitude of insects' orientation and speed dynamics. Disambiguating the specific role of odor timing from other cues, such as spatial structure, is challenging due to natural correlations between plumes' temporal and spatial features. Here, we use optogenetics to isolate temporal features of odor signals, examining how the frequency and duration of odor encounters shape the navigational decisions of freely-walking Drosophila. We find that fly angular velocity depends on signal frequency and intermittency-the fraction of time signal can be detected-but not directly on durations. Rather than switching strategies when signal statistics change, flies smoothly transition between signal regimes, by combining an odor offset response with a frequency-dependent novelty-like response. In the latter, flies are more likely to turn in response to each odor hit only when the hits are sparse. Finally, the upwind bias of individual turns relies on a filtering scheme with two distinct timescales, allowing rapid and sustained responses in a variety of signal statistics. A quantitative model incorporating these ingredients recapitulates fly orientation dynamics across a wide range of environments and shows that temporal novelty detection, when combined with odor motion detection, enhances odor plume navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viraaj Jayaram
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Quantitative Biology Institute, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Department of Physics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Aarti Sehdev
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Quantitative Biology Institute, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Nirag Kadakia
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Quantitative Biology Institute, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Swartz Foundation for Theoretical Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Ethan A Brown
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Quantitative Biology Institute, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Yale College, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Thierry Emonet
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Quantitative Biology Institute, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Department of Physics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
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4
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Wechsler SP, Bhandawat V. Behavioral algorithms and neural mechanisms underlying odor-modulated locomotion in insects. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:jeb200261. [PMID: 36637433 PMCID: PMC10086387 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.200261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Odors released from mates and resources such as a host and food are often the first sensory signals that an animal can detect. Changes in locomotion in response to odors are an important mechanism by which animals access resources important to their survival. Odor-modulated changes in locomotion in insects constitute a whole suite of flexible behaviors that allow insects to close in on these resources from long distances and perform local searches to locate and subsequently assess them. Here, we review changes in odor-mediated locomotion across many insect species. We emphasize that changes in locomotion induced by odors are diverse. In particular, the olfactory stimulus is sporadic at long distances and becomes more continuous at short distances. This distance-dependent change in temporal profile produces a corresponding change in an insect's locomotory strategy. We also discuss the neural circuits underlying odor modulation of locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel P. Wechsler
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Sciences and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Vikas Bhandawat
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Sciences and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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5
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Wosniack ME, Festa D, Hu N, Gjorgjieva J, Berni J. Adaptation of Drosophila larva foraging in response to changes in food resources. eLife 2022; 11:e75826. [PMID: 36458693 PMCID: PMC9822246 DOI: 10.7554/elife.75826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
All animals face the challenge of finding nutritious resources in a changing environment. To maximize lifetime fitness, the exploratory behavior has to be flexible, but which behavioral elements adapt and what triggers those changes remain elusive. Using experiments and modeling, we characterized extensively how Drosophila larvae foraging adapts to different food quality and distribution and how the foraging genetic background influences this adaptation. Our work shows that different food properties modulated specific motor programs. Food quality controls the traveled distance by modulating crawling speed and frequency of pauses and turns. Food distribution, and in particular the food-no food interface, controls turning behavior, stimulating turns toward the food when reaching the patch border and increasing the proportion of time spent within patches of food. Finally, the polymorphism in the foraging gene (rover-sitter) of the larvae adjusts the magnitude of the behavioral response to different food conditions. This study defines several levels of control of foraging and provides the basis for the systematic identification of the neuronal circuits and mechanisms controlling each behavioral response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina E Wosniack
- Computation in Neural Circuits Group, Max Planck Institute for Brain ResearchFrankfurtGermany
| | - Dylan Festa
- School of Life Sciences, Technical University of MunichMunichGermany
| | - Nan Hu
- Department of Zoology, University of CambridgeCambridgeUnited Kingdom
| | - Julijana Gjorgjieva
- Computation in Neural Circuits Group, Max Planck Institute for Brain ResearchFrankfurtGermany
- School of Life Sciences, Technical University of MunichMunichGermany
| | - Jimena Berni
- Department of Zoology, University of CambridgeCambridgeUnited Kingdom
- Brighton and Sussex Medical School,, University of SussexBrightonUnited Kingdom
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Kadakia N, Demir M, Michaelis BT, DeAngelis BD, Reidenbach MA, Clark DA, Emonet T. Odour motion sensing enhances navigation of complex plumes. Nature 2022; 611:754-761. [PMID: 36352224 PMCID: PMC10039482 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05423-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Odour plumes in the wild are spatially complex and rapidly fluctuating structures carried by turbulent airflows1-4. To successfully navigate plumes in search of food and mates, insects must extract and integrate multiple features of the odour signal, including odour identity5, intensity6 and timing6-12. Effective navigation requires balancing these multiple streams of olfactory information and integrating them with other sensory inputs, including mechanosensory and visual cues9,12,13. Studies dating back a century have indicated that, of these many sensory inputs, the wind provides the main directional cue in turbulent plumes, leading to the longstanding model of insect odour navigation as odour-elicited upwind motion6,8-12,14,15. Here we show that Drosophila melanogaster shape their navigational decisions using an additional directional cue-the direction of motion of odours-which they detect using temporal correlations in the odour signal between their two antennae. Using a high-resolution virtual-reality paradigm to deliver spatiotemporally complex fictive odours to freely walking flies, we demonstrate that such odour-direction sensing involves algorithms analogous to those in visual-direction sensing16. Combining simulations, theory and experiments, we show that odour motion contains valuable directional information that is absent from the airflow alone, and that both Drosophila and virtual agents are aided by that information in navigating naturalistic plumes. The generality of our findings suggests that odour-direction sensing may exist throughout the animal kingdom and could improve olfactory robot navigation in uncertain environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nirag Kadakia
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Quantitative Biology Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Swartz Foundation for Theoretical Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Mahmut Demir
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Quantitative Biology Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Brenden T Michaelis
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Brian D DeAngelis
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Quantitative Biology Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Matthew A Reidenbach
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Damon A Clark
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Quantitative Biology Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Department of Physics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Thierry Emonet
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Quantitative Biology Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Department of Physics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
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7
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Ryu TH, Subramanian M, Yeom E, Yu K. The prominin-like Gene Expressed in a Subset of Dopaminergic Neurons Regulates Locomotion in Drosophila. Mol Cells 2022; 45:640-648. [PMID: 35993164 PMCID: PMC9448647 DOI: 10.14348/molcells.2022.0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
CD133, also known as prominin-1, was first identified as a biomarker of mammalian cancer and neural stem cells. Previous studies have shown that the prominin-like (promL) gene, an orthologue of mammalian CD133 in Drosophila, plays a role in glucose and lipid metabolism, body growth, and longevity. Because locomotion is required for food sourcing and ultimately the regulation of metabolism, we examined the function of promL in Drosophila locomotion. Both promL mutants and pan-neuronal promL inhibition flies displayed reduced spontaneous locomotor activity. As dopamine is known to modulate locomotion, we also examined the effects of promL inhibition on the dopamine concentration and mRNA expression levels of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and DOPA decarboxylase (Ddc), the enzymes responsible for dopamine biosynthesis, in the heads of flies. Compared with those in control flies, the levels of dopamine and the mRNAs encoding TH and Ddc were lower in promL mutant and pan-neuronal promL inhibition flies. In addition, an immunostaining analysis revealed that, compared with control flies, promL mutant and pan-neuronal promL inhibition flies had lower levels of the TH protein in protocerebral anterior medial (PAM) neurons, a subset of dopaminergic neurons. Inhibition of promL in these PAM neurons reduced the locomotor activity of the flies. Overall, these findings indicate that promL expressed in PAM dopaminergic neurons regulates locomotion by controlling dopamine synthesis in Drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Hoon Ryu
- Metabolism and Neurophysiology Research Group, Disease Target Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea
- Department of Functional Genomics, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon 34113, Korea
| | - Manivannan Subramanian
- Metabolism and Neurophysiology Research Group, Disease Target Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Eunbyul Yeom
- Metabolism and Neurophysiology Research Group, Disease Target Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea
- School of Life Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
- School of Life Sciences, BK21 FOUR KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
| | - Kweon Yu
- Metabolism and Neurophysiology Research Group, Disease Target Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea
- Department of Functional Genomics, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon 34113, Korea
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8
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Tao L, Bhandawat V. Mechanisms of Variability Underlying Odor-Guided Locomotion. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:871884. [PMID: 35600988 PMCID: PMC9115574 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.871884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Changes in locomotion mediated by odors (odor-guided locomotion) are an important mechanism by which animals discover resources important to their survival. Odor-guided locomotion, like most other behaviors, is highly variable. Variability in behavior can arise at many nodes along the circuit that performs sensorimotor transformation. We review these sources of variability in the context of the Drosophila olfactory system. While these sources of variability are important, using a model for locomotion, we show that another important contributor to behavioral variability is the stochastic nature of decision-making during locomotion as well as the persistence of these decisions: Flies choose the speed and curvature stochastically from a distribution and locomote with the same speed and curvature for extended periods. This stochasticity in locomotion will result in variability in behavior even if there is no noise in sensorimotor transformation. Overall, the noise in sensorimotor transformation is amplified by mechanisms of locomotion making odor-guided locomotion in flies highly variable.
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Hulse BK, Haberkern H, Franconville R, Turner-Evans DB, Takemura SY, Wolff T, Noorman M, Dreher M, Dan C, Parekh R, Hermundstad AM, Rubin GM, Jayaraman V. A connectome of the Drosophila central complex reveals network motifs suitable for flexible navigation and context-dependent action selection. eLife 2021; 10:66039. [PMID: 34696823 PMCID: PMC9477501 DOI: 10.7554/elife.66039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Flexible behaviors over long timescales are thought to engage recurrent neural networks in deep brain regions, which are experimentally challenging to study. In insects, recurrent circuit dynamics in a brain region called the central complex (CX) enable directed locomotion, sleep, and context- and experience-dependent spatial navigation. We describe the first complete electron-microscopy-based connectome of the Drosophila CX, including all its neurons and circuits at synaptic resolution. We identified new CX neuron types, novel sensory and motor pathways, and network motifs that likely enable the CX to extract the fly's head-direction, maintain it with attractor dynamics, and combine it with other sensorimotor information to perform vector-based navigational computations. We also identified numerous pathways that may facilitate the selection of CX-driven behavioral patterns by context and internal state. The CX connectome provides a comprehensive blueprint necessary for a detailed understanding of network dynamics underlying sleep, flexible navigation, and state-dependent action selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad K Hulse
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Hannah Haberkern
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Romain Franconville
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | | | | | - Tanya Wolff
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Marcella Noorman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Marisa Dreher
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Chuntao Dan
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Ruchi Parekh
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | | | - Gerald M Rubin
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Vivek Jayaraman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
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Breugel FV. Correlated decision making across multiple phases of olfactory guided search in Drosophila improves search efficiency. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:271881. [PMID: 34286337 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Nearly all motile organisms must search for food, often requiring multiple phases of exploration across heterogeneous environments. The fruit fly, Drosophila, has emerged as an effective model system for studying this behavior, however, little is known about the extent to which experiences at one point in their search might influence decisions in another. To investigate whether prior experiences impact flies' search behavior after landing, I tracked individually labelled fruit flies as they explored three odor emitting but food-barren objects. I found two features of their behavior that are correlated with the distance they travel on foot. First, flies walked larger distances when they approached the odor source, which they were almost twice as likely to do when landing on the patch farthest downwind. Computational fluid dynamics simulations suggest this patch may have had a stronger baseline odor, but only ∼15% higher than the other two. This small increase, together with flies' high olfactory sensitivity, suggests that perhaps their flight trajectory used to approach the patches plays a role. Second, flies also walked larger distances when the time elapsed since their last visit was longer. However, the correlation is subtle and subject to a large degree of variability. Using agent-based models, I show that this small correlation can increase search efficiency by 25-50% across many scenarios. Furthermore, my models provide mechanistic hypotheses explaining the variability through either a noisy or straightforward decision-making process. Surprisingly, these stochastic decision-making algorithms enhance search efficiency in challenging but realistic search scenarios compared to deterministic strategies.
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