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Okella H, Tonooka K, Okello E. A Systematic Review of the Recent Techniques Commonly Used in the Diagnosis of Mycoplasma bovis in Dairy Cattle. Pathogens 2023; 12:1178. [PMID: 37764986 PMCID: PMC10535753 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Early detection of Mycoplasmal mastitis is greatly hampered by late seroconversion, slow growth of Mycoplasma organisms, intermittent shedding, and the high cost of diagnostic tests. To improve future diagnostic development, examining the available techniques is necessary. Accordingly, the present study systematically reviewed M. bovis diagnostic studies published between January 2000 and April 2023 utilizing the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) protocol. The protocol registration was performed according to the Open Science Framework (osf.io/ug79h), and the electronic search was conducted in the World Catalog, Mendeley, ProQuest, ScienceDirect, Semantic Scholar, PubMed, Google Scholar, Prime Scholar, and PubMed Central databases using a Boolean operator and inclusion and exclusion criteria. Of the 1194 pieces of literature retrieved, 67 studies were included. Four broad categories of up to 16 diagnostic approaches were reported: microbial culture, serological, DNA-based, and mass spectrometry. Overall, DNA-based techniques were the most published (48.0%), with recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) as the most promising user-friendly, equipment-free techniques. On the other hand, mass spectrometry was reported as the least utilized (2.9%) given the high equipment cost. Though costly and laboratory-allied, DNA-based techniques, particularly PCRs, were reported as the most rapid and specific approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hedmon Okella
- Veterinary Medicine Teaching and Research Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Tulare, CA 93274, USA
| | - Karen Tonooka
- Veterinary Medicine Teaching and Research Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Tulare, CA 93274, USA
| | - Emmanuel Okello
- Veterinary Medicine Teaching and Research Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Tulare, CA 93274, USA
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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2
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Ortiz-Ramírez JA, Cuéllar-Cruz M, Villagómez-Castro JC, López-Romero E. Fungal Glycosidases in Sporothrix Species and Candida albicans. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:919. [PMID: 37755027 PMCID: PMC10532485 DOI: 10.3390/jof9090919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycoside hydrolases (GHs) are enzymes that participate in many biological processes of fungi and other organisms by hydrolyzing glycosidic linkages in glycosides. They play fundamental roles in the degradation of carbohydrates and the assembly of glycoproteins and are important subjects of studies in molecular biology and biochemistry. Based on amino acid sequence similarities and 3-dimensional structures in the carbohydrate-active enzyme (CAZy), they have been classified in 171 families. Members of some of these families also exhibit the activity of trans-glycosydase or glycosyl transferase (GT), i.e., they create a new glycosidic bond in a substrate instead of breaking it. Fungal glycosidases are important for virulence by aiding tissue adhesion and colonization, nutrition, immune evasion, biofilm formation, toxin release, and antibiotic resistance. Here, we review fungal glycosidases with a particular emphasis on Sporothrix species and C. albicans, two well-recognized human pathogens. Covered issues include a brief account of Sporothrix, sporotrichosis, the different types of glycosidases, their substrates, and mechanism of action, recent advances in their identification and characterization, their potential biotechnological applications, and the limitations and challenges of their study given the rather poor available information.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Everardo López-Romero
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato 36050, Mexico
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3
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Procópio-Azevedo AC, de Abreu Almeida M, Almeida-Paes R, Zancopé-Oliveira RM, Gutierrez-Galhardo MC, de Macedo PM, Novaes E, Bailão AM, de Almeida Soares CM, Freitas DFS. The State of the Art in Transcriptomics and Proteomics of Clinically Relevant Sporothrix Species. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:790. [PMID: 37623561 PMCID: PMC10455387 DOI: 10.3390/jof9080790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteomics provide a robust approach to profile and quantify proteins within cells, organs, or tissues, providing comprehensive insights about the dynamics of cellular processes, modifications, and interactions. Similarly, understanding the transcriptome is essential to decipher functional elements of the genome, unraveling the mechanisms of disease development and the molecular constituents of cells and tissues. Some thermodimorphic fungi of the genus Sporothrix cause sporotrichosis, a subcutaneous mycosis of worldwide relevance. The transcriptome and proteome of the main Sporothrix species of clinical interest can elucidate the mechanisms underlying pathogenesis and host interactions. Studies of these techniques can contribute to the advancement of novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. A literature review was carried out, addressing all articles based on proteomics using mass spectrometry and transcriptomics of Sporothrix spp. Twenty-one studies were eligible for this review. The main findings include proteins and genes involved in dimorphism, cell differentiation, thermotolerance, virulence, immune evasion, metabolism, cell adhesion, cell transport, and biosynthesis. With the spread and emergence of sporotrichosis in different countries, ongoing research efforts and new discoveries are welcome to advance knowledge about this mycosis and its agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Carolina Procópio-Azevedo
- Laboratório de Micologia, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil
| | - Marcos de Abreu Almeida
- Laboratório de Micologia, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Almeida-Paes
- Laboratório de Micologia, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rosely Maria Zancopé-Oliveira
- Laboratório de Micologia, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil
| | - Maria Clara Gutierrez-Galhardo
- Laboratório de Pesquisa Clínica em Dermatologia Infecciosa, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil
| | - Priscila Marques de Macedo
- Laboratório de Pesquisa Clínica em Dermatologia Infecciosa, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil
| | - Evandro Novaes
- Setor de Genética, Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras 37203-202, MG, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Melo Bailão
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia 74690-900, GO, Brazil
| | - Célia Maria de Almeida Soares
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia 74690-900, GO, Brazil
| | - Dayvison Francis Saraiva Freitas
- Laboratório de Pesquisa Clínica em Dermatologia Infecciosa, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil
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4
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Araújo AA, Codeço C, F. S. Freitas D, M. de Macedo P, A. Pereira S, D. F. Gremião I, Coelho FC. Mathematical model of the dynamics of transmission and control of sporotrichosis in domestic cats. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0272672. [PMID: 36745585 PMCID: PMC9901803 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0272672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous mycosis with a global distribution, also known as "rose gardener's disease". Brazil is experiencing a rapid spread of the zoonotic transmission of of Sporothrix brasiliensis, the main etiological agent of this disease in this country, affecting domestic felines. Cost-effective interventions need to be developed to control this emergent public health problem. To allow for the comparison of alternative control strategies, we propose in this paper, a mathematical model representing the transmission of S. brasiliensis among cats, stratified by age and sex. Analytical properties of the model are derived and simulations show possible strategies for reducing the endemic levels of the disease in the cat population, with a positive impact on human health. The scenarios included mass treatment of infected cats and mass implementation of contact reduction practices, such as neutering. The results indicate that mass treatment can reduce substantially the disease prevalence, and this effect is potentialized when combined with neutering or other contact-reduction interventions. On the other hand, contact-reduction methods alone are not sufficient to reduce prevalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélio A. Araújo
- Computational and Systems Biology, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- * E-mail:
| | - Cláudia Codeço
- Scientific Computing Program, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Dayvison F. S. Freitas
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
| | - Priscila M. de Macedo
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
| | - Sandro A. Pereira
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
| | - Isabella D. F. Gremião
- Scientific Computing Program, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Flávio Codeço Coelho
- Computational and Systems Biology, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- School of Applied Mathematics, Fundação Getulio Vargas, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
- Institute of Global Health, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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5
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Chechi JL, da Costa FAC, Figueiredo JM, de Souza CM, Valdez AF, Zamith-Miranda D, Camara AC, Taborda CP, Nosanchuk JD. Vaccine development for pathogenic fungi: current status and future directions. Expert Rev Vaccines 2023; 22:1136-1153. [PMID: 37936254 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2023.2279570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Fungal infections are caused by a broad range of pathogenic fungi that are found worldwide with different geographic distributions, incidences, and mortality rates. Considering that there are relatively few approved medications available for combating fungal diseases and no vaccine formulation commercially available, multiple groups are searching for new antifungal drugs, examining drugs for repurposing and developing antifungal vaccines, in order to control deaths, sequels, and the spread of these complex infections. AREAS COVERED This review provides a summary of advances in fungal vaccine studies and the different approaches under development, such as subunit vaccines, whole organism vaccines, and DNA vaccines, as well as studies that optimize the use of adjuvants. We conducted a literature search of the PubMed with terms: fungal vaccines and genus of fungal pathogens (Cryptococcus spp. Candida spp. Coccidioides spp. Aspergillus spp. Sporothrix spp. Histoplasma spp. Paracoccidioides spp. Pneumocystis spp. and the Mucorales order), a total of 177 articles were collected from database. EXPERT OPINION Problems regarding the immune response development in an immunocompromised organism, the similarity between fungal and mammalian cells, and the lack of attention by health organizations to fungal infections are closely related to the fact that, at present, there are no fungal vaccines available for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica L Chechi
- Laboratório de Fungos Dimórficos Patogênicos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
| | - Felipe A C da Costa
- Laboratório de Fungos Dimórficos Patogênicos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
- Laboratório de Micologia Médica (LIM-53), Departamento de Dermatologia, Instituto de Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
| | - Julia M Figueiredo
- Laboratório de Fungos Dimórficos Patogênicos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
| | - Cássia M de Souza
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Biologia Molecular de Fungos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo, Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Alessandro F Valdez
- Departments of Medicine (Division of Infectious Diseases) and Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Daniel Zamith-Miranda
- Departments of Medicine (Division of Infectious Diseases) and Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Aline C Camara
- Laboratório de Fungos Dimórficos Patogênicos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
- Laboratório de Micologia Médica (LIM-53), Departamento de Dermatologia, Instituto de Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos P Taborda
- Laboratório de Fungos Dimórficos Patogênicos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
- Laboratório de Micologia Médica (LIM-53), Departamento de Dermatologia, Instituto de Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
| | - Joshua D Nosanchuk
- Departments of Medicine (Division of Infectious Diseases) and Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
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de Carvalho JA, Monteiro RC, Hagen F, de Camargo ZP, Rodrigues AM. Trends in Molecular Diagnostics and Genotyping Tools Applied for Emerging Sporothrix Species. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8080809. [PMID: 36012797 PMCID: PMC9409836 DOI: 10.3390/jof8080809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is the most important subcutaneous mycosis that affects humans and animals worldwide. The mycosis is caused after a traumatic inoculation of fungal propagules into the host and may follow an animal or environmental transmission route. The main culprits of sporotrichosis are thermodimorphic Sporothrix species embedded in a clinical clade, including S. brasiliensis, S. schenckii, S. globosa, and S. luriei. Although sporotrichosis occurs worldwide, the etiological agents are not evenly distributed, as exemplified by ongoing outbreaks in Brazil and China, caused by S. brasiliensis and S. globosa, respectively. The gold standard for diagnosing sporotrichosis has been the isolation of the fungus in vitro. However, with the advance in molecular techniques, molecular assays have complemented and gradually replaced the classical mycological tests to quickly and accurately detect and/or differentiate molecular siblings in Sporothrix. Nearly all techniques available for molecular diagnosis of sporotrichosis involve PCR amplification, which is currently moving towards detecting Sporothrix DNA directly from clinical samples in multiplex qPCR assays. From an epidemiological perspective, genotyping is key to tracing back sources of Sporothrix infections, detecting diversity in outbreak areas, and thus uncovering finer-scale epidemiological patterns. Over the past decades, molecular epidemiological studies have provided essential information to policymakers regarding outbreak management. From high-to-low throughput genotyping methods, MLSA, AFLP, SSR, RAPD, PCR-RFLP, and WGS are available to assess the transmission dynamics and sporotrichosis expansion. This review discusses the trends in the molecular diagnosis of sporotrichosis, genotyping techniques applied in molecular epidemiological studies, and perspectives for the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamile Ambrósio de Carvalho
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (R.C.M.); (Z.P.d.C.)
| | - Ruan Campos Monteiro
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (R.C.M.); (Z.P.d.C.)
| | - Ferry Hagen
- Department of Medical Mycology, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands;
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Sciencepark 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (R.C.M.); (Z.P.d.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil
| | - Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (R.C.M.); (Z.P.d.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-1155764551 (ext. 1540)
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Rodrigues AM, Gonçalves SS, de Carvalho JA, Borba-Santos LP, Rozental S, de Camargo ZP. Current Progress on Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Sporotrichosis and Their Future Trends. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8080776. [PMID: 35893145 PMCID: PMC9331723 DOI: 10.3390/jof8080776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis, a human and animal disease caused by Sporothrix species, is the most important implantation mycosis worldwide. Sporothrix taxonomy has improved in recent years, allowing important advances in diagnosis, epidemiology, and treatment. Molecular epidemiology reveals that S. brasiliensis remains highly prevalent during the cat-transmitted sporotrichosis outbreaks in South America and that the spread of S. brasiliensis occurs through founder effects. Sporothrix globosa and S. schenckii are cosmopolitan on the move, causing major sapronoses in Asia and the Americas, respectively. In this emerging scenario, one-health approaches are required to develop a creative, effective, and sustainable response to tackle the spread of sporotrichosis. In the 21st century, it has become vital to speciate Sporothrix, and PCR is the main pillar of molecular diagnosis, aiming at the detection of the pathogen DNA from clinical samples through multiplex assays, whose sensitivity reaches remarkably three copies of the target. The treatment of sporotrichosis can be challenging, especially after the emergence of resistance to azoles and polyenes. Alternative drugs arising from discoveries or repositioning have entered the radar of basic research over the last decade and point to several molecules with antifungal potential, especially the hydrazone derivatives with great in vitro and in vivo activities. There are many promising developments for the near future, and in this review, we discuss how these trends can be applied to the Sporothrix-sporotrichosis system to mitigate the advance of an emerging and re-emerging disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (Z.P.d.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-1155764551 (ext. 1540)
| | - Sarah Santos Gonçalves
- Infectious Diseases Postgraduate Program, Center for Research in Medical Mycology, Federal University of Espírito Santo (UFES), Vitoria 29043900, Brazil;
| | - Jamile Ambrósio de Carvalho
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (Z.P.d.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil
| | - Luana P. Borba-Santos
- Cell Biology and Parasitology Program, Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941902, Brazil; (L.P.B.-S.); (S.R.)
| | - Sonia Rozental
- Cell Biology and Parasitology Program, Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941902, Brazil; (L.P.B.-S.); (S.R.)
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (Z.P.d.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil
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García-Carnero LC, Martínez-Álvarez JA. Virulence Factors of Sporothrix schenckii. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8030318. [PMID: 35330320 PMCID: PMC8949611 DOI: 10.3390/jof8030318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporothrix schenckii is one of the etiological agents of sporotrichosis. In this review, we discuss the virulence factors that have been proven to participate in the S. schenckii-host interaction. Among these known factors, we can find cell wall glycoproteins, adhesins, melanin, extracellular vesicles, and dimorphism. Furthermore, the morphological transition of S. schenckii in response to environmental conditions such as pH and temperature represents a means by which the fungus is able to establish mycosis in mammals. One of the key features in the development of sporotrichosis is the adhesion of the fungus to the host extracellular matrix. This event represents the first step to developing the mycosis, which involves adhesins such as the glycoproteins Gp70, Hsp60, and Pap1, which play a key role during the infection. The production of melanin helps the fungus to survive longer in the tissues and to neutralize or diminish many of the host’s attacks, which is why it is also considered a key factor in pathogenesis. Today, the study of human fungal pathogens’ virulence factors is a thriving area of research. Although we know some of the virulence factors in S. schenckii, much remains to be understood about the complex process of sporotrichosis development and the factors involved during the infection.
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9
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Charles-Niño CL, Loera A, Medina-Guerrero EO, Sanroman-Loza EA, Toledo B, Pedroza-Roldan C. Sporotrichosis: an Overview in the Context of the One Health Approach. CURRENT TROPICAL MEDICINE REPORTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40475-022-00250-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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10
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Kischkel B, Boniche-Alfaro C, Menezes IDG, Rossi SA, Angeli CB, de Almeida SR, Palmisano G, Lopes-Bezerra L, Nosanchuk JD, Taborda CP. Immunoproteomic and Immunopeptidomic Analyses of Histoplasma capsulatum Reveal Promiscuous and Conserved Epitopes Among Fungi With Vaccine Potential. Front Immunol 2021; 12:764501. [PMID: 34880863 PMCID: PMC8645968 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.764501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
As there are more than 6 million human deaths due to mycoses each year, there is an urgent need to develop fungal vaccines. Moreover, given the similarities among pathogenic fungi, it may be possible to create a multi-fungi vaccine. In this study, we combined immunoproteomic and immunopeptidomic methods, for which we have adapted a technique based on co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) that made it possible to map Histoplasma capsulatum epitopes for the first time in a natural context using murine dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages (Mφ). Although polysaccharide epitopes exist, this research focused on mapping protein epitopes as these are more immunogenic. We used different algorithms to screen proteins and peptides identified by two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-D) and Co-IP. Seventeen proteins were revealed by 2-D gels, and 45 and 24 peptides from distinct proteins were presented by DCs and Mφ, respectively. We then determined which epitopes were restricted to MHC-I and II from humans and mice and showed high promiscuity, but lacked identity with human proteins. The 4 most promising peptides were synthesized, and the peptides with and without incorporation into glucan particles induced CD4+ and CD8+ T cell proliferation and produced a Th1 and Th17 response marked by the secretion of high levels of IFN-γ, IL-17 and IL-2. These epitopes were from heat shock protein 60, enolase, and the ATP-dependent molecular chaperone HSC82, and they each have a high degree of identity with proteins expressed by other medically important pathogenic fungi. Thus, the epitopes described in this study have the potential for use in the development of vaccines that could result in cross-protection among fungal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda Kischkel
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedical Sciences Institute, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Camila Boniche-Alfaro
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedical Sciences Institute, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Isabela de Godoy Menezes
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Suelen Andreia Rossi
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedical Sciences Institute, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Dermatology, Tropical Medicine Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Claudia Blanes Angeli
- Department of Parasitology, Biomedical Sciences Institute, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sandro Rogério de Almeida
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Giuseppe Palmisano
- Department of Parasitology, Biomedical Sciences Institute, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Leila Lopes-Bezerra
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedical Sciences Institute, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Joshua D Nosanchuk
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Carlos Pelleschi Taborda
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedical Sciences Institute, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Dermatology, Tropical Medicine Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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11
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Della Terra PP, Gonsales FF, de Carvalho JA, Hagen F, Kano R, Bonifaz A, Camargo ZPD, Rodrigues AM. Development and evaluation of a multiplex qPCR assay for rapid diagnostics of emerging sporotrichosis. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:e704-e716. [PMID: 34687495 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Sporothrix schenckii and related species are the agents of human and animal sporotrichosis. Routine diagnoses using classical mycological approaches are unspecific due to overlapping phenotypes. As the frequency and prevalence of sporotrichosis increases worldwide, developing specific, sensitive and cost-effective diagnostic tools is essential to understand the distribution patterns, map-affected areas and promote specific public health strategies to mitigate future outbreaks. Polymorphisms among the β-tubulin gene were exploited to speciate S. brasiliensis, S. schenckii and S. globosa in a one-tube multiplex probe-based qPCR assay. A panel of 84 Sporothrix revealed 100% specificity (AUC = 1.000, 95% CI = 0.971-1.000, p < .0001) without cross-reacting with other medically relevant fungi, human, feline or murine DNA. Speciation via multiplex qPCR matched phylogenetic identification (Kappa = 1.0; 95% CI = 1.0-1.0; very good agreement), supporting its use as a reliable alternative to DNA sequencing. Remarkably, the lower limit of detection was 3 copies of the target for all species. As a proof of concept, we used swabs of wound exudate of 70 cats suspected of sporotrichosis to reveal an overwhelming occurrence of S. brasiliensis in 69 specimens (sensitivity = 98.57%; 95%CI: 92.3-100.0 and specificity = 100%; 95% CI = 78.2-100). In comparison to culture, qPCR showed a larger area under the curve (AUC = 0.993±0.007; 95% CI = 0.944-1.000; p < .0001; Youden's index = 0.9857), supporting that qPCR is an essential tool for accurately detect Sporothrix DNA directly from clinical samples, thus accelerating the diagnosis of sporotrichosis. Moreover, our multiplex qPCR system has the potential to increase diagnostic capacity in Sporothrix-affected areas, helping the local animal health agent or veterinarian to quickly identify and isolate new cases, which will likely benefit thousands of patients infected every year worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Portella Della Terra
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Jamile Ambrósio de Carvalho
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ferry Hagen
- Department of Medical Mycology, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Laboratory of Medical Mycology, Jining No. 1 People's Hospital, Jining, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Rui Kano
- Department of Veterinary Dermatology, Nihon University College of Bioresource Sciences, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Alexandro Bonifaz
- Dermatology Service, Mycology Department, Hospital General de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
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12
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Gremião IDF, Martins da Silva da Rocha E, Montenegro H, Carneiro AJB, Xavier MO, de Farias MR, Monti F, Mansho W, de Macedo Assunção Pereira RH, Pereira SA, Lopes-Bezerra LM. Guideline for the management of feline sporotrichosis caused by Sporothrix brasiliensis and literature revision. Braz J Microbiol 2021; 52:107-124. [PMID: 32990922 PMCID: PMC7966609 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-020-00365-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We herein present a Brazilian guideline for the management of feline sporotrichosis, a mycosis caused by Sporothrix brasiliensis. This guideline is an effort of a national technical group organized by the Working Group on Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis of the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology (ISHAM). This publication intends to provide information on clinical-epidemiological aspects of this zoonosis, as well as a literature revision. Moreover, it gives some practical information on diagnosis and treatment of feline sporotrichosis. It also contains information that can be helpful for the prevention and control of S. brasiliensis transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Dib Ferreira Gremião
- Laboratório de Pesquisa Clínica em Dermatozoonoses em Animais Domésticos, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro. Av. Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21040-900, Brazil.
| | | | - Hildebrando Montenegro
- Laboratório de Diagnóstico de Zoonoses, Divisão de Vigilância de Zoonoses (COVISA/SMS/PMSP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Aroldo José Borges Carneiro
- Secretaria Municipal da Saúde de Salvador (SMS), Salvador, Brazil
- Instituto de Saúde Coletiva (ISC), Universidade Federal da Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Melissa Orzechowski Xavier
- Laboratório de Micologia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | | | - Fabiana Monti
- Pós-graduação em Ciência Animal, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Wilson Mansho
- Centro de Controle de Zoonoses (CCZ), Secretaria Municipal de Saúde de Guarulhos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Sandro Antonio Pereira
- Laboratório de Pesquisa Clínica em Dermatozoonoses em Animais Domésticos, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro. Av. Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21040-900, Brazil
| | - Leila M Lopes-Bezerra
- BIDiagnostics, Centro de Inovação, Empreendedorismo e Tecnologia (CIETEC)/Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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13
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Etchecopaz A, Toscanini MA, Gisbert A, Mas J, Scarpa M, Iovannitti CA, Bendezú K, Nusblat AD, Iachini R, Cuestas ML. Sporothrix Brasiliensis: A Review of an Emerging South American Fungal Pathogen, Its Related Disease, Presentation and Spread in Argentina. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7030170. [PMID: 33652625 PMCID: PMC7996880 DOI: 10.3390/jof7030170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis, caused by Sporothrix schenckii and related species, is the most frequent implantation mycosis in Latin America. In Argentina, over the last 8 years, there have been 0.16 new cases per month of feline sporotrichosis in 2011, increasing to 0.75 cases per month in 2019 and involving zoonotic transmission to humans. Molecular identification by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detected Sporothrix brasiliensis in these feline and zoonotic outbreaks. This study will focus on different feline and human sporotrichosis outbreaks caused by S. brasiliensis in Argentina during 2011–2019. We will address the sources of infection and environmental hotspots, as well as the application of several treatment strategies for improving the pharmacotherapy of the different clinical forms of the disease. Finally, we will provide a detailed summary of the clinical aspects and new advances in host–pathogen interactions, virulence factors and immune response, focusing on state-of-the-art diagnostic tools and potential vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Etchecopaz
- Cátedra de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1427 CWN, Argentina; (A.E.); (M.S.)
| | - María A. Toscanini
- Instituto de Nanobiotecnología (Nanobiotec), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1113 AAD, Argentina; (M.A.T.); (A.D.N.)
| | - Amelia Gisbert
- Cátedra de Clínica Médica, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1427 CWN, Argentina; (A.G.); (J.M.)
| | - Javier Mas
- Cátedra de Clínica Médica, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1427 CWN, Argentina; (A.G.); (J.M.)
| | - Miguel Scarpa
- Cátedra de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1427 CWN, Argentina; (A.E.); (M.S.)
| | - Cristina A. Iovannitti
- Centro de Micología, Instituto de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Médica (IMPaM), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1121ABG, Argentina; (C.A.I.); (K.B.)
| | - Karla Bendezú
- Centro de Micología, Instituto de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Médica (IMPaM), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1121ABG, Argentina; (C.A.I.); (K.B.)
| | - Alejandro D. Nusblat
- Instituto de Nanobiotecnología (Nanobiotec), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1113 AAD, Argentina; (M.A.T.); (A.D.N.)
| | - Ricardo Iachini
- Instituto de Zoonosis «Luis Pasteur», Buenos Aires C1405 DCD, Argentina;
| | - María L. Cuestas
- Cátedra de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1427 CWN, Argentina; (A.E.); (M.S.)
- Centro de Micología, Instituto de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Médica (IMPaM), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1121ABG, Argentina; (C.A.I.); (K.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +54-11-59509500 (ext. 2176/77)
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Silva-Bailão MG, Lima PDS, Oliveira MME, Oliveira LC, Almeida-Paes R, Borges CL, Bailão AM, Coelho ASG, Soares CMDA, Zancopé-Oliveira RM. Comparative proteomics in the three major human pathogenic species of the genus Sporothrix. Microbes Infect 2020; 23:104762. [PMID: 32992009 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2020.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2018] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous mycosis of humans and other mammals, caused by dimorphic species of the genus Sporothrix. In Brazil, human disease is broadly linked to transmission by infected cats and is mainly caused by Sporothrix brasiliensis, Sporothrix schenckii and Sporothrix globosa. In this study, we used a nanoscale liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry approach to provide the yeast proteomic profiles of S. brasiliensis, S. schenckii and S. globosa. From a total of 247 identified proteins, 137 were found as differentially expressed. Functional classification revealed that most are related to carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism as well as stress response. Our data indicate that S. brasiliensis metabolism is distinct of that of S. schenckii and S. globosa, mainly regarding amino acid metabolism and cell wall remodeling, which are induced in the former. Enzymes belonging to glycolytic pathway are, on the other hand, up-regulated in S. schenckii and S. globosa. These findings may explain the previously described more virulent character of S. brasiliensis. Besides complementing genomic comparisons already published, this first comparative proteomic study provided information that indicates new aspects of Sporothrix species metabolism as well as offers information that may be useful in the development of prospective functional studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirelle Garcia Silva-Bailão
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Patrícia de Sousa Lima
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Clayton Luiz Borges
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Melo Bailão
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | | | - Célia Maria de Almeida Soares
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil.
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15
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Ocular and cutaneous sporotrichosis. Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep 2020; 20:100885. [PMID: 32875162 PMCID: PMC7452058 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajoc.2020.100885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Sporotrichosis is the most common subcutaneous mycosis in the world and it is presented usually in the lymphocutaneous form. When the eye is involved, it typically includes the conjunctival and periorbital tissues or even the intraocular tissues. Observations We present a case of a 13-year-old girl complaining about nodules in the left malar region and in both the outer nasal corner and the lower eyelid of the left eye, which had appeared one month earlier. Conclusions and significance: Sporotrichosis is a hyperendemic disease in Brazil and its diagnosis is based on clinical aspects, epidemiological history, and culture. Ophthalmologists and other professionals should be aware of this condition.
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16
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Parreiras de Jesus AC, Grossi de Oliveira AL, Sernizon Guimarães N, Mendoza L, Toshio Fujiwara R, Alves da Silva Menezes C, Rocha Vilela RV. Serological tests using Sporothrix species antigens for the accurate diagnosis of sporotrichosis: a meta-analysis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2020; 98:115131. [PMID: 32805583 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2020.115131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Some species of the fungus Sporothrix cause a chronic granulomatous infection in humans and animals called sporotrichosis. In the last decades, some research into serological tests has been carried out by different groups for the rapid detection of this infection. We performed a systematic review of the literature with meta-analysis to evaluate studies using Sporothrix spp. antigens and to evaluate their accuracy for sporotrichosis diagnostic. We searched Scopus, MEDLINE, Web of Science, GALE, Technology Research Database, DOA, Elsevier, SciELO, and Google Scholar Databases. The united results of sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative likelihood ratios, and diagnostic odds ratio with their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI) were assessed. A total of 15 assays from 8 studies using 7 different serological methods and 8 different antigens were analyzed. The studies were performed in the USA, Brazil, and Venezuela from 1973 until 2015 and presented good quality. A high heterogeneity for sensitivity [I2 = 90.7%; 87% CI = (84-89), P < 0.001] and specificity [I2 = 89.2%; 93% CI = (92-95), P < 0.001] was observed. The performance of diagnostic tests was 0.93. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was the main tool used, and the ConA-binding fraction antigen of the strain 1099-18 appears as a promising diagnostic biomarker candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Augusto César Parreiras de Jesus
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Prof. Alfredo Balena, 190, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, 30130-10.
| | - Ana Laura Grossi de Oliveira
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Prof. Alfredo Balena, 190, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, 30130-10.
| | - Nathalia Sernizon Guimarães
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Prof. Alfredo Balena, 190, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, 30130-10.
| | - Leonel Mendoza
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, 322 North Kedzie Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA, 48824.
| | - Ricardo Toshio Fujiwara
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Prof. Alfredo Balena, 190, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, 30130-10; Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627 Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, 31270-901.
| | - Cristiane Alves da Silva Menezes
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627 Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, 31270-901.
| | - Raquel Virginia Rocha Vilela
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Prof. Alfredo Balena, 190, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, 30130-10; Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627 Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, 31270-901.
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17
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Rodrigues AM, Della Terra PP, Gremião ID, Pereira SA, Orofino-Costa R, de Camargo ZP. The threat of emerging and re-emerging pathogenic Sporothrix species. Mycopathologia 2020; 185:813-842. [PMID: 32052359 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-020-00425-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a neglected subcutaneous mycosis of humans and animals acquired by traumatic inoculation of soil and plant material (classical route) contaminated with infectious propagules of the pathogen or being bitten/scratched by infected cats (alternative route). Within a genus composed of 53 species displaying an essentially environmental core, there are only a few members which have considerable impacts on human or animal health. Infections are typically caused by S. brasiliensis, S. schenckii or S. globosa. Rare mammal pathogens include members of the S. pallida and S. stenocereus complexes. To illustrate the tremendous impact of emerging zoonotic sporotrichosis on public health, we discuss the main features of the expanding epidemics driven by S. brasiliensis in cats and humans. The cat entry in the transmission chain of sporotrichosis, causing epizooties (cat-cat) or zoonosis (cat-human), has contributed to the definition of new paradigms in Sporothrix transmission, reaching epidemic levels, making the disease a serious public health problem. Indeed, S. brasiliensis infection in humans and animals is likely to become even more important in the future, with projections of its expansion in biogeographic domains and host range, as well as greater virulence in mammals. Therefore, lessons from a long-standing outbreak in the state of Rio de Janeiro about the source and distribution of the etiological agents among outbreak areas can be used to create better control and prevention plans and increase awareness of sporotrichosis as a serious emerging zoonotic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Paulista School of Medicine, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 04023-062, Brazil.
| | - Paula Portella Della Terra
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Paulista School of Medicine, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 04023-062, Brazil
| | - Isabella Dib Gremião
- Laboratory of Clinical Research on Dermatozoonoses in Domestic Animals, Evandro Chagas National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Sandro Antonio Pereira
- Laboratory of Clinical Research on Dermatozoonoses in Domestic Animals, Evandro Chagas National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rosane Orofino-Costa
- Dermatology Department, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FCM-UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Paulista School of Medicine, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 04023-062, Brazil
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18
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Téllez-Martínez D, Batista-Duharte A, Portuondo DL, Carlos IZ. Prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines against sporotrichosis. Feasibility and prospects. Microbes Infect 2019; 21:432-440. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2019.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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19
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Hay R, Denning DW, Bonifaz A, Queiroz-Telles F, Beer K, Bustamante B, Chakrabarti A, Chavez-Lopez MDG, Chiller T, Cornet M, Estrada R, Estrada-Chavez G, Fahal A, Gomez BL, Li R, Mahabeer Y, Mosam A, Soavina Ramarozatovo L, Rakoto Andrianarivelo M, Rapelanoro Rabenja F, van de Sande W, Zijlstra EE. The Diagnosis of Fungal Neglected Tropical Diseases (Fungal NTDs) and the Role of Investigation and Laboratory Tests: An Expert Consensus Report. Trop Med Infect Dis 2019; 4:E122. [PMID: 31554262 PMCID: PMC6958312 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed4040122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The diagnosis of fungal Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD) is primarily based on initial visual recognition of a suspected case followed by confirmatory laboratory testing, which is often limited to specialized facilities. Although molecular and serodiagnostic tools have advanced, a substantial gap remains between the desirable and the practical in endemic settings. To explore this issue further, we conducted a survey of subject matter experts on the optimal diagnostic methods sufficient to initiate treatment in well-equipped versus basic healthcare settings, as well as optimal sampling methods, for three fungal NTDs: mycetoma, chromoblastomycosis, and sporotrichosis. A survey of 23 centres found consensus on the key role of semi-invasive sampling methods such as biopsy diagnosis as compared with swabs or impression smears, and on the importance of histopathology, direct microscopy, and culture for mycetoma and chromoblastomycosis confirmation in well-equipped laboratories. In basic healthcare settings, direct microscopy combined with clinical signs were reported to be the most useful diagnostic indicators to prompt referral for treatment. The survey identified that the diagnosis of sporotrichosis is the most problematic with poor sensitivity across the most widely available laboratory tests except fungal culture, highlighting the need to improve mycological diagnostic capacity and to develop innovative diagnostic solutions. Fungal microscopy and culture are now recognized as WHO essential diagnostic tests and better training in their application will help improve the situation. For mycetoma and sporotrichosis, in particular, advances in identifying specific marker antigens or genomic sequences may pave the way for new laboratory-based or point-of-care tests, although this is a formidable task given the large number of different organisms that can cause fungal NTDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roderick Hay
- The International Foundation for Dermatology, London W1T 5HQ, UK.
| | - David W Denning
- The Global Fund for Fungal Infections, 1208 Geneva, Switzerland, and the University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.
| | - Alexandro Bonifaz
- Hospital General de México, "Dr. Eduardo Liceaga", CP 06720, Mexico.
| | - Flavio Queiroz-Telles
- Department of Public Health, Hospital de Clinicas, Federal University of Parana, 80060-900 Curriba, Parana, Brazil.
| | - Karlyn Beer
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.
| | - Beatriz Bustamante
- Tropical Medicine, Infectious Diseases and Dermatology Department at the Hospital Cayetano Heredia, Lima 15102, Peru.
| | | | | | - Tom Chiller
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.
| | - Muriel Cornet
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Grenoble Alpes University, CNRS, Grenoble INP, CHU Grenoble Alpes, F-38000, France.
| | - Roberto Estrada
- Community Dermatology Mexico C.A., Acapulco 39850, Guerrero, Mexico.
| | | | - Ahmed Fahal
- The Mycetoma Research Centre, Khartoum, Soba University Hospital, P.O. Box 102, Sudan.
| | - Beatriz L Gomez
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universidad del Rosario, Bogota 111211, Colombia.
| | - Ruoyu Li
- Peking University First Hospital, Research Centre for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing 100034, China.
| | - Yesholata Mahabeer
- Department of Medical Microbiology, National Health Laboratory Services and School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Berea, Durban 4001, South Africa.
| | - Anisa Mosam
- Nelson R Mandela School of Medicine, University of Kwazulu Natal, Berea, Durban 4001, South Africa.
| | | | | | | | - Wendy van de Sande
- Erasmus MC, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Chen F, Jiang R, Dong S, Yan B. Efficient Treatment of Sporothrix globosa Infection Using the Antibody Elicited by Recombinant Phage Nanofibers. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:160. [PMID: 30873031 PMCID: PMC6400886 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Antifungal therapy is used to treat sporotrichosis. However, there are several limitations in this therapy, such as development of drug resistance and potential health risks including liver injury. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the antifungal efficacy of antibody against the hybrid phage nanofibers displaying KPVQHALLTPLGLDR (phage-KR) in a fungal-infected mouse model. In this study, we extracte an antibody against hybrid phage nanofibers (phage-KR) from immunized mice and passively inoculate Sporothrix globosa (S. globosa) infected mice. The study shows that the antibody exhibits efficient inhibition efficacy of the S. globosa infection, including reduction of the progressive fungi colonizing, increase of animal survival rate and relief of organ inflammation in the mice. The results indicate that antibody against phage-KR may act as a potential strategy for safe and efficient treatment of S. globosa infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Chen
- Department of Dermatology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Rihua Jiang
- Department of Dermatology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Shuai Dong
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Bailing Yan
- Department of Emergency, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
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Coelho LML, Grisolia JC, Lúcia M, Boczar M, Ferreira EB, Nogueira DA, Chavasco JK, de Camargo ZP, Lopes-Bezerra LM, Bezerra LML, Coelho LFL, Malaquias LCC. Effects of metaperiodate and urea solutions on the serological diagnosis of human sporotrichosis using an indirect ELISA test. Braz J Microbiol 2019; 50:139-145. [PMID: 30637654 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-018-0005-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is an infection of the skin caused by traumatic inoculation of the fungus Sporothrix schenckii. Definitive diagnosis relies on direct visualization of the fungus or its isolation on culture medium, although both have low sensitivity. Alternatively, the detection of the antibody response offers a more rapid alternative for diagnosis. Although the available immunoassays possess good sensitivity and specificity, cross-reactivity is still a problem. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of sodium metaperiodate and 6 M urea solutions on the serological diagnosis of sporotrichosis using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test. Ninety-six-well plates were sensitized with exoantigens from the yeast phase of S. schenckii. Sera of patients with confirmed sporotrichosis, sera of patients with paracoccidioidomycosis, and sera of individuals with a sporotrichin-negative skin test were tested. Two strategies were used; the first consisted of treating the antigen with sodium metaperiodate solution for different incubation times, and the second consisted of treating the serum with 6 M urea solution for different incubation times. ROC curve analysis revealed that the best discrimination parameters were obtained using 6 M urea solution incubated for 5 min and serum dilution at 1/600. The use of 6 M urea solution improves the performance of the ELISA test in the diagnosis of sporotrichosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Letícia Maria Leomil Coelho
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva, 700 - Centro, Alfenas, MG, CEP 37130-001, Brazil
| | - Julianne Caravita Grisolia
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva, 700 - Centro, Alfenas, MG, CEP 37130-001, Brazil
| | - Maria Lúcia
- Universidade José do Rosário Vellano, Alfenas, MG, Brazil
| | - Míriam Boczar
- Universidade José do Rosário Vellano, Alfenas, MG, Brazil
| | | | | | - Jorge Kleber Chavasco
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva, 700 - Centro, Alfenas, MG, CEP 37130-001, Brazil
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Leila Maria Lopes Bezerra
- Laboratório de Micologia Celular e Proteômica, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Luiz Felipe Leomil Coelho
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva, 700 - Centro, Alfenas, MG, CEP 37130-001, Brazil
| | - Luiz Cosme Cotta Malaquias
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva, 700 - Centro, Alfenas, MG, CEP 37130-001, Brazil.
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García Carnero LC, Lozoya Pérez NE, González Hernández SE, Martínez Álvarez JA. Immunity and Treatment of Sporotrichosis. J Fungi (Basel) 2018; 4:jof4030100. [PMID: 30127270 PMCID: PMC6162376 DOI: 10.3390/jof4030100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 08/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Species of the Sporothrix complex are the etiological agents of sporotrichosis, an important subcutaneous mycosis with several clinical forms and an increasing incidence around the world that affects humans and other mammals. The immunological mechanisms involved in the prevention and control of this mycosis are not entirely understood. Many reports have suggested that cell-mediated immunity has an essential role in the development of the disease, being the primary response controlling it, while only recent data supports that the humoral response is essential for the appropriate control. This mycosis is a challenge for diagnosis since the culture and isolation of the organism are time-consuming and complicated; reasons that have led to the study of fungus antigenic molecules capable of generating a detectable humoral response. The treatment for this disease includes the use of several antifungal drugs like itraconazole, amphotericin B, caspofungin, fluconazole, and the combination between them among others such as the extract of Vismia guianensis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Cristina García Carnero
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta s/n, col. Noria Alta, C.P., Guanajuato Gto. 36050, Mexico.
| | - Nancy Edith Lozoya Pérez
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta s/n, col. Noria Alta, C.P., Guanajuato Gto. 36050, Mexico.
| | - Sandra Elizabeth González Hernández
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta s/n, col. Noria Alta, C.P., Guanajuato Gto. 36050, Mexico.
| | - José Ascención Martínez Álvarez
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta s/n, col. Noria Alta, C.P., Guanajuato Gto. 36050, Mexico.
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García-Carnero LC, Pérez-García LA, Martínez-Álvarez JA, Reyes-Martínez JE, Mora-Montes HM. Current trends to control fungal pathogens: exploiting our knowledge in the host-pathogen interaction. Infect Drug Resist 2018; 11:903-913. [PMID: 30013373 PMCID: PMC6037146 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s170337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Human fungal infections remain a major challenge in medicine. Only a limited number of antifungal drugs are available, which are often related to severe adverse effects. In addition, there is an increased emergence related to resistant strains, which makes imperative to understand the host-pathogen interactions as well as to develop alternative treatments. Host innate and adaptive immunity play a crucial role controlling fungal infections; therefore, vaccines are a viable tool to prevent and treat fungal pathogens. Innate immunity is triggered by the interaction between the cell surface pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Such an initial immunological response is yet little understood in fungal infections, in part due to the complexity and plasticity of the fungal cell walls. Described host cell-fungus interactions and antigenic molecules are addressed in this paper. Furthermore, antigens found in the cell wall and capsule, including peptides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, and glycans, have been used to trigger specific immune responses, and an increased production of antibodies has been observed when attached to immunogenic molecules. The recent biotechnological advances have allowed the development of vaccines against viral and bacterial pathogens with positive results; therefore, this technology has been applied to develop anti-fungal vaccines. Passive immunization has also emerged as an appealing alternative to treat disseminated mycosis, especially in immunocompromised patients. Those approaches have a long way to be seen in clinical cases. However, all studies discussed here open the possibility to have access to new therapies to be applied alone or in combination with current antifungal drugs. Herein, the state of the art of fungal vaccine developments is discussed in this review, highlighting new advances against Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus neoformans, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, and Sporothrix spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura C García-Carnero
- Department of Biology, Division of Exact and Natural Sciences, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato,
| | - Luis A Pérez-García
- Multidisciplinay Academic Unit, Zona Huasteca, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Ciudad Valles, México
| | - José A Martínez-Álvarez
- Department of Biology, Division of Exact and Natural Sciences, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato,
| | - Juana E Reyes-Martínez
- Department of Biology, Division of Exact and Natural Sciences, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato,
| | - Héctor M Mora-Montes
- Department of Biology, Division of Exact and Natural Sciences, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato,
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Proteins Potentially Involved in Immune Evasion Strategies in Sporothrix brasiliensis Elucidated by Ultra-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. mSphere 2018; 3:3/3/e00514-17. [PMID: 29898987 PMCID: PMC6001607 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00514-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is an important disease in Brazil that is caused by fungi of the genus Sporothrix and affects cats and humans. Our work investigated the proteins differentially expressed by S. brasiliensis in order to find out why this species is more virulent and pathogenic than S. schenckii. We verified a set of proteins that may be related to immune escape and that can explain the high virulence. Sporothrix brasiliensis is the prevalent agent of a large zoonotic outbreak in Brazil. With the involvement of several thousands of cases, this is the largest cohort of human and animal sporotrichosis on record in the world. Infections are characterized by local cutaneous dissemination in humans without underlying disease. S. brasiliensis has shown a high degree of virulence in a mouse model compared to the remaining Sporothrix species, including the ancestral species, Sporothrix schenckii. The present paper investigates a genomic and expressed-proteome comparison of S. brasiliensis to S. schenckii. Using bottom-up proteomics, we found 60 proteins exclusively expressed in S. brasiliensis. No significant genomic differences were found among the genes coding for this protein set. A comparison with literature data identified nine proteins that are known to be involved in virulence and immune evasion in other species, several of which had not yet been reported for the Sporothrix species analyzed. IMPORTANCE Sporotrichosis is an important disease in Brazil that is caused by fungi of the genus Sporothrix and affects cats and humans. Our work investigated the proteins differentially expressed by S. brasiliensis in order to find out why this species is more virulent and pathogenic than S. schenckii. We verified a set of proteins that may be related to immune escape and that can explain the high virulence.
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Lopes-Bezerra LM, Mora-Montes HM, Zhang Y, Nino-Vega G, Rodrigues AM, de Camargo ZP, de Hoog S. Sporotrichosis between 1898 and 2017: The evolution of knowledge on a changeable disease and on emerging etiological agents. Med Mycol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Leila M Lopes-Bezerra
- Laboratory of Cellular Mycology and Proteomics, Department of Cell Biology, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Hector M Mora-Montes
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, Tianjin Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Gustavo Nino-Vega
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sybren de Hoog
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, and Center of Expertise in Mycology of Radboudumc/CWZ, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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26
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Clinical veterinary proteomics: Techniques and approaches to decipher the animal plasma proteome. Vet J 2017; 230:6-12. [PMID: 29208216 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2017.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Revised: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Over the last two decades, technological advancements in the field of proteomics have advanced our understanding of the complex biological systems of living organisms. Techniques based on mass spectrometry (MS) have emerged as powerful tools to contextualise existing genomic information and to create quantitative protein profiles from plasma, tissues or cell lines of various species. Proteomic approaches have been used increasingly in veterinary science to investigate biological processes responsible for growth, reproduction and pathological events. However, the adoption of proteomic approaches by veterinary investigators lags behind that of researchers in the human medical field. Furthermore, in contrast to human proteomics studies, interpretation of veterinary proteomic data is difficult due to the limited protein databases available for many animal species. This review article examines the current use of advanced proteomics techniques for evaluation of animal health and welfare and covers the current status of clinical veterinary proteomics research, including successful protein identification and data interpretation studies. It includes a description of an emerging tool, sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment ion mass spectra (SWATH-MS), available on selected mass spectrometry instruments. This newly developed data acquisition technique combines advantages of discovery and targeted proteomics approaches, and thus has the potential to advance the veterinary proteomics field by enhancing identification and reproducibility of proteomics data.
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27
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Della Terra PP, Rodrigues AM, Fernandes GF, Nishikaku AS, Burger E, de Camargo ZP. Exploring virulence and immunogenicity in the emerging pathogen Sporothrix brasiliensis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005903. [PMID: 28854184 PMCID: PMC5595342 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a polymorphic chronic infection of humans and animals classically acquired after traumatic inoculation with soil and plant material contaminated with Sporothrix spp. propagules. An alternative and successful route of transmission is bites and scratches from diseased cats, through which Sporothrix yeasts are inoculated into mammalian tissue. The development of a murine model of subcutaneous sporotrichosis mimicking the alternative route of transmission is essential to understanding disease pathogenesis and the development of novel therapeutic strategies. To explore the impact of horizontal transmission in animals (e.g., cat-cat) and zoonotic transmission on Sporothrix fitness, the left hind footpads of BALB/c mice were inoculated with 5×106 yeasts (n = 11 S. brasiliensis, n = 2 S. schenckii, or n = 1 S. globosa). Twenty days post-infection, our model reproduced both the pathophysiology and symptomology of sporotrichosis with suppurating subcutaneous nodules that progressed proximally along lymphatic channels. Across the main pathogenic members of the S. schenckii clade, S. brasiliensis was usually more virulent than S. schenckii and S. globosa. However, the virulence in S. brasiliensis was strain-dependent, and we demonstrated that highly virulent isolates disseminate from the left hind footpad to the liver, spleen, kidneys, lungs, heart, and brain of infected animals, inducing significant and chronic weight loss (losing up to 15% of their body weight). The weight loss correlated with host death between 2 and 16 weeks post-infection. Histopathological features included necrosis, suppurative inflammation, and polymorphonuclear and mononuclear inflammatory infiltrates. Immunoblot using specific antisera and homologous exoantigen investigated the humoral response. Antigenic profiles were isolate-specific, supporting the hypothesis that different Sporothrix species can elicit a heterogeneous humoral response over time, but cross reaction was observed between S. brasiliensis and S. schenckii proteomes. Despite great diversity in the immunoblot profiles, antibodies were mainly derived against 3-carboxymuconate cyclase, a glycoprotein oscillating between 60 and 70 kDa (gp60-gp70) and a 100-kDa molecule in nearly 100% of the assays. Thus, our data broaden the current view of virulence and immunogenicity in the Sporothrix-sporotrichosis system, substantially expanding the possibilities for comparative genomic with isolates bearing divergent virulence traits and helping uncover the molecular mechanisms and evolutionary pressures underpinning the emergence of Sporothrix virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Portella Della Terra
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Geisa Ferreira Fernandes
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Angela Satie Nishikaku
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eva Burger
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL-MG), Alfenas, Brazil
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
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Gremião IDF, Miranda LHM, Reis EG, Rodrigues AM, Pereira SA. Zoonotic Epidemic of Sporotrichosis: Cat to Human Transmission. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006077. [PMID: 28103311 PMCID: PMC5245785 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Dib Ferreira Gremião
- Laboratory of Clinical Research on Dermatozoonosis in Domestic Animals, Evandro Chagas National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Luisa Helena Monteiro Miranda
- Laboratory of Clinical Research on Dermatozoonosis in Domestic Animals, Evandro Chagas National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Erica Guerino Reis
- Laboratory of Clinical Research on Dermatozoonosis in Domestic Animals, Evandro Chagas National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sandro Antonio Pereira
- Laboratory of Clinical Research on Dermatozoonosis in Domestic Animals, Evandro Chagas National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Rodrigues AM, de Hoog GS, de Camargo ZP. Sporothrix Species Causing Outbreaks in Animals and Humans Driven by Animal-Animal Transmission. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005638. [PMID: 27415796 PMCID: PMC4945023 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail:
| | - G. Sybren de Hoog
- Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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30
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Alba-Fierro CA, Pérez-Torres A, Toriello C, Romo-Lozano Y, López-Romero E, Ruiz-Baca E. Molecular Components of the Sporothrix schenckii Complex that Induce Immune Response. Curr Microbiol 2016; 73:292-300. [PMID: 27117164 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-016-1045-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a fungal disease caused by the Sporothrix schenckii complex that includes species such as S. brasiliensis, S. schenckii sensu stricto, S. globosa, S. luriei, S. mexicana, and S. pallida, which exhibit different potentially antigenic molecular components. The immune response of susceptible hosts to control infection and disease caused by these fungi has been little studied. Besides, the fungus-host interaction induces the activation of different types of immune response. This mini-review analyzes and discusses existing reports on the identification and functional characterization of molecules from species of the S. schenckii complex with clinical relevance, and the mechanisms that mediate the type and magnitude of the immune response in experimental models in vivo and in vitro. This knowledge is expected to contribute to the development of protective and therapeutic strategies against sporotrichosis and other mycoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Alba-Fierro
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Veterinaria S/N, 34120, Durango, Dgo., Mexico
| | - Armando Pérez-Torres
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Tisular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, Mexico, D.F., Mexico
| | - Conchita Toriello
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, Mexico, D.F., Mexico
| | - Yolanda Romo-Lozano
- Departamento de Microbiología, Centro de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Av. Universidad # 940, 20131, Aguascalientes, Ags., Mexico
| | - Everardo López-Romero
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta S/N, C.P. 36050, Guanajuato, Gto., Mexico
| | - Estela Ruiz-Baca
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Veterinaria S/N, 34120, Durango, Dgo., Mexico.
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Fischman Gompertz O, Rodrigues AM, Fernandes GF, Bentubo HDL, de Camargo ZP, Petri V. Atypical Clinical Presentation of Sporotrichosis Caused by Sporothrix globosa Resistant to Itraconazole. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2016; 94:1218-22. [PMID: 27114300 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.15-0267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Accepted: 01/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a polymorphic disease of humans and animals, which is acquired via traumatic inoculation of Sporothrix propagules into cutaneous or subcutaneous tissue. The etiological agents are in a clinical complex, which includes Sporothrix brasiliensis, Sporothrix schenckii, Sporothrix globosa, and Sporothrix luriei, each of which has specific epidemiological and virulence characteristics. Classical manifestation in humans includes a fixed localized lesion at the site of trauma plus lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis with fungal spreading along the lymphatic channels. Atypical sporotrichosis is a challenge to diagnosis because it can mimic many other dermatological diseases. We report an unusual, itraconazole-resistant cutaneous lesion of sporotrichosis in a 66-year-old Brazilian man. Histopathological examination of the skin revealed vascular and fibroblastic proliferation with chronic granulomatous infiltrate composed of multinucleated giant cells. Sporothrix were isolated from the skin lesion, and phylogenetic analyses confirmed it to be sporotrichosis due to S. globosa, a widespread pathogen. Immunoblotting analysis showed several IgG-reactive molecules in autochthonous preparations of the whole cellular proteins (160, 80, 60, 55, 46, 38, 35, and 30 kDa) and exoantigen (35 and 33 kDa). The patient was first unsuccessfully treated with daily itraconazole, and then successfully treated with potassium iodide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Fischman Gompertz
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Dermatology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Anderson M Rodrigues
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Dermatology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Geisa F Fernandes
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Dermatology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Henri D L Bentubo
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Dermatology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Dermatology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Valéria Petri
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Dermatology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Immune Response Induced by an Immunodominant 60 kDa Glycoprotein of the Cell Wall of Sporothrix schenckii in Two Mice Strains with Experimental Sporotrichosis. J Immunol Res 2016; 2016:6525831. [PMID: 27051673 PMCID: PMC4808653 DOI: 10.1155/2016/6525831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell wall (CW) components of fungus Sporothrix schenckii are the major inductors antigens of immune responses. The immunodominant 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) has been shown to be associated with the virulence of this fungus but its role in experimental sporotrichosis is unknown. In this work, the immunological effects of CW-purified gp60 were investigated in a model of experimental subcutaneous sporotrichosis in normal and gp60-preimmunized C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice strains which were then infected with S. schenckii conidia. Results showed that both mice strains use different cytokine profiles in order to fight S. schenckii infection; C57BL/6 mice seem to use a Th17 response while BALB/c mice tend to depend on a Th1 profile. Preimmunization with gp60 showed a downregulatory effect on the immune response since cytokines levels were diminished in both strains. There were no significant differences in the magnitude of dorsoplantar inflammation between gp60-preimmunized and nonimmunized mice of both strains. However, skin lesions due to the infection in gp60-preimmunized mice were more severe in BALB/c than in C57BL/6 mice, suggesting that the antigen exerts a higher downregulatory effect on the Th1 response.
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Rodrigues AM, Najafzadeh MJ, de Hoog GS, de Camargo ZP. Rapid Identification of Emerging Human-Pathogenic Sporothrix Species with Rolling Circle Amplification. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:1385. [PMID: 26696992 PMCID: PMC4672047 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Sporothrix infections are emerging as an important human and animal threat among otherwise healthy patients, especially in Brazil and China. Correct identification of sporotrichosis agents is beneficial for epidemiological surveillance, enabling implementation of adequate public-health policies and guiding antifungal therapy. In areas of limited resources where sporotrichosis is endemic, high-throughput detection methods that are specific and sensitive are preferred over phenotypic methods that usually result in misidentification of closely related Sporothrix species. We sought to establish rolling circle amplification (RCA) as a low-cost screening tool for species-specific identification of human-pathogenic Sporothrix. We developed six species-specific padlock probes targeting polymorphisms in the gene encoding calmodulin. BLAST-searches revealed candidate probes that were conserved intraspecifically; no significant homology with sequences from humans, mice, plants or microorganisms outside members of Sporothrix were found. The accuracy of our RCA-based assay was demonstrated through the specificity of probe-template binding to 25 S. brasiliensis, 58 S. schenckii, 5 S. globosa, 1 S. luriei, 4 S. mexicana, and 3 S. pallida samples. No cross reactivity between closely related species was evident in vitro, and padlock probes yielded 100% specificity and sensitivity down to 3 × 106 copies of the target sequence. RCA-based speciation matched identifications via phylogenetic analysis of the gene encoding calmodulin and the rDNA operon (kappa 1.0; 95% confidence interval 1.0-1.0), supporting its use as a reliable alternative to DNA sequencing. This method is a powerful tool for rapid identification and specific detection of medically relevant Sporothrix, and due to its robustness has potential for ecological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson M Rodrigues
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mohammad J Najafzadeh
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, Ghaem Hospital, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences Mashhad, Iran
| | - G Sybren de Hoog
- Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Zoilo P de Camargo
- Cell Biology Division, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
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Rodrigues AM, de Hoog GS, de Camargo ZP. Molecular Diagnosis of Pathogenic Sporothrix Species. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0004190. [PMID: 26623643 PMCID: PMC4666615 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Sporotrichosis is a chronic (sub)cutaneous infection caused by thermodimorphic fungi in the order, Ophiostomatales. These fungi are characterized by major differences in routes of transmission, host predilections, species virulence, and susceptibilities to antifungals. Sporothrix species emerge in the form of outbreaks. Large zoonoses and sapronoses are ongoing in Brazil and China, respectively. Current diagnostic methods based on morphology and physiology are inaccurate due to closely related phenotypes with overlapping components between pathogenic and non-pathogenic Sporothrix. There is a critical need for new diagnostic tools that are specific, sensitive, and cost-effective. Methodology We developed a panel of novel markers, based on calmodulin (CAL) gene sequences, for the large-scale diagnosis and epidemiology of clinically relevant members of the Sporothrix genus, and its relative, Ophiostoma. We identified specific PCR-based markers for S. brasiliensis, S. schenckii, S. globosa, S. mexicana, S. pallida, and O. stenoceras. We employed a murine model of disseminated sporotrichosis to optimize a PCR assay for detecting Sporothrix in clinical specimens. Results Primer-BLAST searches revealed candidate sequences that were conserved within a single species. Species-specific primers showed no significant homology with human, mouse, or microorganisms outside the Sporothrix genus. The detection limit was 10–100 fg of DNA in a single round of PCR for identifying S. brasiliensis, S. schenckii, S. globosa, S. mexicana, and S. pallida. A simple, direct PCR assay, with conidia as a source of DNA, was effective for rapid, low-cost genotyping. Samples from a murine model of disseminated sporotrichosis confirmed the feasibility of detecting S. brasiliensis and S. schenckii DNA in spleen, liver, lungs, heart, brain, kidney, tail, and feces of infected animals. Conclusions This PCR-based method could successfully detect and identify a single species in samples from cultures and from clinical specimens. The method proved to be simple, high throughput, sensitive, and accurate for diagnosing sporotrichosis. Sporotrichosis, a disease caused by infections from Sporothrix species, primarily affects warm-blooded animals, particularly humans and cats. Sporotrichosis is emerging as a global threat, with high incidences in Brazil and China. The gold standard for diagnosing sporotrichosis is microscopic characterization of the pathogen isolated in culture. This methodology is tedious and time-consuming. Moreover, closely related Sporothrix species are often misidentified, due to similar phenotypic characteristics. The introduction of dissimilar species with specific geographic distributions, host predilections, virulence, and antifungal susceptibilities, has made species-level identification of Sporothrix mandatory. To facilitate meeting this requirement, we developed a PCR-based method for detecting and identifying Sporothrix species. We designed species-specific primers for identifying S. brasiliensis, S. schenckii, S. globosa, S. mexicana, S. pallida, and Ophiostoma stenoceras. With this method, we could detect as little as 1 pg and 10 fg (depending on the species) of Sporothrix DNA derived from isolated cultures. Furthermore, we successfully detected S. brasiliensis and S. schenckii DNA in tissue samples derived from a murine model of disseminated sporotrichosis. These species-specific primers can be applied in epidemiology, clinical diagnosis, and experimental studies of sporotrichosis. Improvements in early diagnosis and surveillance systems may facilitate rapid identification and control of future outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Disciplina de Biologia Celular, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail: (AMR); (ZPC)
| | | | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Disciplina de Biologia Celular, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail: (AMR); (ZPC)
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