1
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Duy PQ, Mehta NH, Kahle KT. The "microcephalic hydrocephalus" paradox as a paradigm of altered neural stem cell biology. Cereb Cortex 2024; 34:bhad432. [PMID: 37991277 PMCID: PMC10793578 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhad432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Characterized by enlarged brain ventricles, hydrocephalus is a common neurological disorder classically attributed to a primary defect in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) homeostasis. Microcephaly ("small head") and hydrocephalus are typically viewed as two mutually exclusive phenomenon, since hydrocephalus is thought of as a fluid "plumbing" disorder leading to CSF accumulation, ventricular dilatation, and resultant macrocephaly. However, some cases of hydrocephalus can be associated with microcephaly. Recent work in the genomics of congenital hydrocephalus (CH) and an improved understanding of the tropism of certain viruses such as Zika and cytomegalovirus are beginning to shed light into the paradox "microcephalic hydrocephalus" by defining prenatal neural stem cells (NSC) as the spatiotemporal "scene of the crime." In some forms of CH and viral brain infections, impaired fetal NSC proliferation leads to decreased neurogenesis, cortical hypoplasia and impaired biomechanical interactions at the CSF-brain interface that collectively engender ventriculomegaly despite an overall and often striking decrease in head circumference. The coexistence of microcephaly and hydrocephalus suggests that these two phenotypes may overlap more than previously appreciated. Continued study of both conditions may be unexpectedly fertile ground for providing new insights into human NSC biology and our understanding of neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phan Q Duy
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States
| | - Neel H Mehta
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, United States
| | - Kristopher T Kahle
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, United States
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, United States
- Harvard Center for Hydrocephalus and Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, United States
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2
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Illi C, Koenigbauer J, Henrich W, Fangmann L, Reinhardt C, Ossmann S, Weichert A. Fetal de novo heterozygous variant in the isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 gene associated with growth restriction, skeletal, cerebral and vascular anomalies. Prenat Diagn 2023; 43:1459-1462. [PMID: 37706548 DOI: 10.1002/pd.6433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
Germline pathogenic variants in isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) can lead to a rare neurodevelopmental disorder called metaphyseal chondromatosis with D-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria, including severe skeletal and cerebral anomalies. To the best of our knowledge, no prenatal case of an IDH1 pathogenic variant has been reported in literature. Somatic sequence variants in IDH1/2 genes are described in distinct cancers, premalignant diseases and rare inherited metabolic disorders. Amniocentesis and further genetic testing including trio exome sequencing were performed due to suspicious findings on a second trimester routine prenatal ultrasound examination. The fetus was found to have growth restriction, cerebral abnormalities (ex vacuo hydrocephalus, cerebellar and vermian hypoplasia, corpus callosum dysgenesis), brachycephaly, narrow chest, persistent left superior vena cava, liver calcifications, hyperechogenic bowel, short tubular bones and joint contractures. A de novo heterozygous variant in the IDH1 gene was detected via trio exome sequencing. The prenatal diagnosis of a de novo pathogenic variant in IDH1 in a fetus with the described phenotype, obtained through trio exome sequencing, helped parents and providers with an informed decision making about pregnancy management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Illi
- Department of Obstetrics of Charité University Hospital, Berlin, Germany
| | - Josefine Koenigbauer
- Department of Obstetrics of Charité University Hospital, Berlin, Germany
- Prenatal Diagnosis Bergmannstrasse, Berlin, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Henrich
- Department of Obstetrics of Charité University Hospital, Berlin, Germany
| | - Laura Fangmann
- Department of Obstetrics of Charité University Hospital, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Sophia Ossmann
- Department of Obstetrics of Charité University Hospital, Berlin, Germany
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3
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Christoff RR, Nani JV, Lessa G, Rabello T, Rossi AD, Krenn V, Higa LM, Tanuri A, Garcez PP, Hayashi MAF. Assessing the role of Ndel1 oligopeptidase activity in congenital Zika syndrome: Potential predictor of congenital syndrome endophenotype and treatment response. J Neurochem 2023; 166:763-776. [PMID: 37497817 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
Maternal infections are among the main risk factors for cognitive impairments in the offspring. Zika virus (ZIKV) can be transmitted vertically, causing a set of heterogeneous birth defects, such as microcephaly, ventriculomegaly and corpus callosum dysgenesis. Nuclear distribution element like-1 (Ndel1) oligopeptidase controls crucial aspects of cerebral cortex development underlying cortical malformations. Here, we examine Ndel1 activity in an animal model for ZIKV infection, which was associated with deregulated corticogenesis. We observed here a reduction in Ndel1 activity in the forebrain associated with the congenital syndrome induced by ZIKV isolates, in an in utero and postnatal injections of different inoculum doses in mice models. In addition, we observed a strong correlation between Ndel1 activity and brain size of animals infected by ZIKV, suggesting the potential of this measure as a biomarker for microcephaly. More importantly, the increase of interferon (IFN)-beta signaling, which was used to rescue the ZIKV infection outcomes, also recovered Ndel1 activity to levels similar to those of uninfected healthy control mice, but with no influence on Ndel1 activity in uninfected healthy control animals. Taken together, we demonstrate for the first time here an association of corticogenesis impairments determined by ZIKV infection and the modulation of Ndel1 activity. Although further studies are still necessary to clarify the possible role(s) of Ndel1 activity in the molecular mechanism(s) underlying the congenital syndrome induced by ZIKV, we suggest here the potential of monitoring the Ndel1 activity to predict this pathological condition at early stages of embryos or offspring development, during while the currently employed methods are unable to detect impaired corticogenesis leading to microcephaly. Ndel1 activity may also be possibly used to follow up the positive response to the treatment, such as that employing the IFN-beta that is able to rescue the ZIKV-induced brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raissa R Christoff
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - João V Nani
- Department of Pharmacology, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
- National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM, CNPq/FAPESP/CAPES), Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Lessa
- Department of Pharmacology, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Tailene Rabello
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Atila D Rossi
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Veronica Krenn
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioscience, University of Milan-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Luiza M Higa
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Amilcar Tanuri
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Patricia P Garcez
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Mirian A F Hayashi
- Department of Pharmacology, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil
- National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM, CNPq/FAPESP/CAPES), Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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4
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Fialho EMS, Veras EM, Jesus CMD, Gomes LN, Khouri R, Sousa PS, Ribeiro MRC, Batista RFL, Costa LC, Nascimento FRF, Silva AAM, Soeiro-Pereira PV. Maternal Th17 Profile after Zika Virus Infection Is Involved in Congenital Zika Syndrome Development in Children. Viruses 2023; 15:1320. [PMID: 37376620 DOI: 10.3390/v15061320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Brazil is one of the countries that experienced an epidemic of microcephaly and other congenital manifestations related to maternal Zika virus infection which can result in Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS). Since the Zika virus can modulate the immune system, studying mothers' and children's immune profiles become essential to better understanding CZS development. Therefore, we investigated the lymphocyte population profile of children who developed CZS and their mothers' immune response in this study. The study groups were formed from the Plaque Reduction Neutralization Test (PRNT) (CZS+ group) result. To evaluate the lymphocyte population profile, we performed phenotyping of peripheral lymphocytes and quantification of serum cytokine levels. The immunophenotyping and cytokine profile was correlated between CSZ+ children and their mothers. Both groups exhibited increased interleukin-17 levels and a reduction in the subpopulation of CD4+ T lymphocytes. In contrast, the maternal group showed a reduction in the population of B lymphocytes. Thus, the development of CZS is related to the presence of an inflammatory immune profile in children and their mothers characterized by Th17 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eder M S Fialho
- Health Sciences Graduate Program, Biological and Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís 65080-805, MA, Brazil
| | - Emanoel M Veras
- Medical School, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís 65080-805, MA, Brazil
| | - Caroline M de Jesus
- Health and Technology Graduate Program, Biological and Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís 65080-805, MA, Brazil
| | - Líllian N Gomes
- Department of Immunology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, SP, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Khouri
- Gonçalo Moniz Research Institute, FIOCRUZ-Bahia, Salvador 40296-710, BA, Brazil
| | - Patrícia S Sousa
- Reference Center on Neurodevelopment, Assistance and Rehabilitation of Children/NINAR-State Department of Health of the State of Maranhão, São Luís 65077-357, MA, Brazil
| | - Marizélia R C Ribeiro
- Department of Medicine III, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís 65020-240, MA, Brazil
| | - Rosângela F L Batista
- Department of Public Health, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís 65020-060, MA, Brazil
| | - Luciana C Costa
- Department of Public Health, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís 65020-060, MA, Brazil
| | - Flávia R F Nascimento
- Health Sciences Graduate Program, Biological and Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís 65080-805, MA, Brazil
- Department of Pathology, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís 65065-545, MA, Brazil
| | - Antônio A M Silva
- Department of Public Health, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís 65020-060, MA, Brazil
| | - Paulo V Soeiro-Pereira
- Health Sciences Graduate Program, Biological and Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís 65080-805, MA, Brazil
- Department of Pathology, Federal University of Maranhão, São Luís 65065-545, MA, Brazil
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5
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Rocha RF, Del Sarto JL, Gomes GF, Gonçalves MP, Rachid MA, Smetana JHC, Souza DG, Teixeira MM, Marques RE. Type I interferons are essential while type II interferon is dispensable for protection against St. Louis encephalitis virus infection in the mouse brain. Virulence 2021; 12:244-259. [PMID: 33410731 PMCID: PMC7808420 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2020.1869392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) is a neglected mosquito-borne flavivirus that causes severe neurological disease in humans. SLEV replication in the central nervous system (CNS) induces the local production of interferons (IFNs), which are attributed to host protection. The antiviral response to SLEV infection in the CNS is not completely understood, which led us to characterize the roles of IFNs using mouse models of St. Louis encephalitis. We infected mice deficient in type I IFN receptor (ABR-/-) or deficient in Type II IFN (IFNγ-/-) and assessed the contribution of each pathway to disease development. We found that type I and II IFNs play different roles in SLEV infection. Deficiency in type I IFN signaling was associated to an early and increased mortality, uncontrolled SLEV replication and impaired ISG expression, leading to increased proinflammatory cytokine production and brain pathology. Conversely, IFNγ-/- mice were moderately resistant to SLEV infection. IFNγ deficiency caused no changes to viral load or SLEV-induced encephalitis and did not change the expression of ISGs in the brain. We found that type I IFN is essential for the control of SLEV replication whereas type II IFN was not associated with protection in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Froes Rocha
- Brazilian Biosciences National Laboratory (LNBio), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil
- Immunopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Juliana L. Del Sarto
- Immunopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Giovanni F. Gomes
- Laboratório de Neurofarmacologia, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Mariana P. Gonçalves
- Brazilian Biosciences National Laboratory (LNBio), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil
| | - Milene A. Rachid
- Laboratório de Apoptose, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Juliana H. C. Smetana
- Brazilian Biosciences National Laboratory (LNBio), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, Brazil
| | - Daniele G. Souza
- Laboratório de Interação Microrganismo-Hospedeiro, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Mauro Martins Teixeira
- Immunopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Rafael Elias Marques
- Brazilian Biosciences National Laboratory (LNBio), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, Brazil
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6
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Contreras-Capetillo SN, Palma-Baquedano JR, Valadéz-González N, Manrique-Saide P, Barrera-Pérez HAM, Pinto-Escalante D, Pavía-Ruz N. Case Report: Congenital Arthrogryposis and Unilateral Absences of Distal Arm in Congenital Zika Syndrome. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:499016. [PMID: 33928096 PMCID: PMC8076683 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.499016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Zika virus was recognized as a teratogen in 2015, when prenatal Zika infection was associated with neonatal microcephaly. The transmission, virulence, tropism, and consequences of Zika virus infection during pregnancy are currently studied. Decreased neural progenitor cells, arrest in neuronal migration and/or disruption of the maturation process of the fetus central nervous system have been associated. Congenital Zika Syndrome produces a fetal brain disruption sequence resulting in structural brain abnormalities, microcephaly, intracranial calcifications, fetal akinesia and arthrogryposis. Vascular abnormalities like unique umbilical artery and decreased cerebral vascular flow have been described in some patients. This article reports a Zika positive patient with sequence of fetal brain disruption, arthrogryposis and absence of distal third of the right forearm. This report expands the clinical observations of congenital Zika syndrome that may be related to disruptive vascular events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvina Noemí Contreras-Capetillo
- Hospital General Agustín O'Horán, Secretaría de Salud de Yucatán, Yucatan, Mexico.,Centro de Investigaciones Regionales Dr. Hideyo Noguchi, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Yucatan, Mexico
| | - José Rafael Palma-Baquedano
- Hospital General Agustín O'Horán, Secretaría de Salud de Yucatán, Yucatan, Mexico.,Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Anáhuac Mayab, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Nina Valadéz-González
- Centro de Investigaciones Regionales Dr. Hideyo Noguchi, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Yucatan, Mexico
| | - Pablo Manrique-Saide
- Campus de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Yucatan, Mexico
| | | | - Doris Pinto-Escalante
- Centro de Investigaciones Regionales Dr. Hideyo Noguchi, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Yucatan, Mexico
| | - Norma Pavía-Ruz
- Centro de Investigaciones Regionales Dr. Hideyo Noguchi, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Yucatan, Mexico
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7
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Ribeiro IM, Souto PCS, Borbely AU, Tanabe ELL, Cadavid A, Alvarez AM, Bueno J, Agudelo O, Robles RG, Ayala-Ramírez P, Sacerdoti F, Szasz T, Damiano AE, Ibarra C, Escudero C, Lima VV, Giachini FR. The limited knowledge of placental damage due to neglected infections: ongoing problems in Latin America. Syst Biol Reprod Med 2021; 66:151-169. [PMID: 32482148 DOI: 10.1080/19396368.2020.1753850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The placenta works as a selective barrier, protecting the fetus from potential infections that may affect the maternal organism during pregnancy. In this review, we will discuss several challenging infections that are common within Latin American countries and that may affect the maternal-fetal interface and pose risks to fetal development. Specifically, we will focus on emerging infectious diseases including the arboviruses, malaria, leishmaniasis, and the bacterial foodborne disease caused by Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli. We will also highlight some topics of interest currently being studied by research groups that comprise an international effort aimed at filling the knowledge gaps in this field. These topics address the relationship between exposure to microorganisms and placental abnormalities, congenital anomalies, and complications of pregnancy. ABBREVIATIONS ADE: antibody-dependent enhancement; CCL2: monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; CCL3: macrophage inflammatory protein-1 α; CCL5: chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 5; CHIKV: chikungunya virus; DCL: diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis; DENV: dengue virus; Gb3: glycolipid globotriaosylceramyde; HIF: hypoxia-inducible factor; HUS: hemolytic uremic syndrome; IFN: interferon; Ig: immunoglobulins; IL: interleukin; IUGR: intrauterine growth restriction; LCL: localized cutaneous leishmaniasis; LPS: lipopolysaccharid; MCL: mucocutaneous leishmaniasis; NO: nitric oxide; PCR: polymerase chain reaction; PGF: placental growth factor; PM: placental malaria; RIVATREM: Red Iberoamericana de Alteraciones Vasculares em transtornos del Embarazo; sVEGFR: soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor; STEC: shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli; stx: shiga toxin protein; TNF: tumor necrosis factor; TOAS: T cell original antigenic sin; Var2CSA: variant surface antigen 2-CSA; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; VL: visceral leishmaniasis; WHO: world health organization; YFV: yellow fever virus; ZIKV: Zika virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabela Moreti Ribeiro
- Laboratory of Vascular Biology and Histopathology, Institute of Health Sciences and Health, Federal University of Mato Grosso , Barra Do Garcas, Brazil
| | - Paula Cristina Souza Souto
- Laboratory of Vascular Biology and Histopathology, Institute of Health Sciences and Health, Federal University of Mato Grosso , Barra Do Garcas, Brazil
| | - Alexandre U Borbely
- Cell Biology Laboratory, Institute of Health and Biological Sciences, Federal University of Alagoas , Alagoas, Brazil
| | - Eloiza Lopes Lira Tanabe
- Cell Biology Laboratory, Institute of Health and Biological Sciences, Federal University of Alagoas , Alagoas, Brazil
| | - Angela Cadavid
- Grupo Reproducción, Facultad De Medicina Universidad De Antioquia , Medellin, Colombia
| | - Angela M Alvarez
- Grupo Reproducción, Facultad De Medicina Universidad De Antioquia , Medellin, Colombia
| | - Julio Bueno
- Grupo Reproducción, Facultad De Medicina Universidad De Antioquia , Medellin, Colombia
| | - Olga Agudelo
- Grupo Salud Y Comunidad, Facultad De Medicina Universidad De Antioquia , Medellin, Colombia
| | - Reggie García Robles
- Physiological Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana , Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Paola Ayala-Ramírez
- Human Genetics Institute, Facultad De Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana , Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Flavia Sacerdoti
- Laboratorio De Fisiopatogenia, Instituto De Fisiología Y Biofísica Bernardo Houssay (IFIBIO)- CONICET- Departamento De Fisiología, Facultad De Medicina, Universidad De Buenos Aires . Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Theodora Szasz
- Departamento of Physiology, Augusta University , Augusta, USA
| | - Alicia E Damiano
- Cátedra De Biología Celular Y Molecular, Departamento De Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad De Farmacia Y Bioquímica, Universidad De Buenos Aires . Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Laboratorio De Biología De La Reproducción, Instituto De Fisiología Y Biofísica Bernardo Houssay (IFIBIO)- CONICET- Facultad De Medicina, Universidad De Buenos Aires . Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Cristina Ibarra
- Cátedra De Biología Celular Y Molecular, Departamento De Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad De Farmacia Y Bioquímica, Universidad De Buenos Aires . Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carlos Escudero
- Vascular Physiology Laboratory, Group of Research and Innovation in Vascular Health (GRIVAS Health), Basic Sciences Department Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Del Bio-Bio , Chillan, Chile
| | - Victor V Lima
- Laboratory of Vascular Biology and Histopathology, Institute of Health Sciences and Health, Federal University of Mato Grosso , Barra Do Garcas, Brazil
| | - Fernanda R Giachini
- Laboratory of Vascular Biology and Histopathology, Institute of Health Sciences and Health, Federal University of Mato Grosso , Barra Do Garcas, Brazil
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8
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Wachholz GE, Varela APM, Teixeira TF, de Matos SMS, Rigon da Luz Soster P, Vianna FSL, de Souza DOG, Roehe PM, Schuler-Faccini L, Fraga LR. Zika virus-induced brain malformations in chicken embryos. Birth Defects Res 2020; 113:22-31. [PMID: 33009728 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Zika virus (ZIKV) was confirmed to be related to microcephaly in 2016. However, there is still a need for understanding the embryonic morphological changes induced by ZIKV and when they occur. Here, chicken embryos were chosen as experimental model of ZIKV to evaluate virus-associated morphological alterations that might take place during embryonic development. METHODS A screening with different viral doses was conducted in embryos at HH Stage 10-12 (E1.5) as well as a follow up of the first 5 days postinfection (dpi) was performed to observe the main morphologic changes post ZIKV infection. RESULTS ZIKV exposed embryos presented a higher prevalence of mortality and defects such as brain malformation when compared to controls. Moreover, we observed that the phenotypes become more evident at 4dpi, when the viral load quantification reaches a peak. CONCLUSIONS We found that ZIKV exposed embryos presented a high prevalence of mortality and central nervous system (CNS) abnormalities in a dose-dependent manner. The phenotype was more evident 4 days postinfection, when the viral load quantification reached a peak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Elis Wachholz
- Postgraduate Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Teratogen Information Service, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Laboratory of Genomic Medicine, Experimental Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Muterle Varela
- Postgraduate Program in Biosciences, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Thais Fumaco Teixeira
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Institute of Health Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Sophia Martins Simon de Matos
- Laboratory of Genomic Medicine, Experimental Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Paula Rigon da Luz Soster
- Department of Morphological Sciences, Institute of Health Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Sales Luiz Vianna
- Postgraduate Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Teratogen Information Service, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Laboratory of Genomic Medicine, Experimental Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Diogo Onofre Gomes de Souza
- Postgraduate Program in Biochemistry, Departamento f Biochemistry, Institute of Health Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Paulo Michel Roehe
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Institute of Health Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Lavínia Schuler-Faccini
- Postgraduate Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Teratogen Information Service, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Lucas Rosa Fraga
- Teratogen Information Service, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Laboratory of Genomic Medicine, Experimental Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Department of Morphological Sciences, Institute of Health Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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9
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Barbeito-Andrés J, Pezzuto P, Higa LM, Dias AA, Vasconcelos JM, Santos TMP, Ferreira JCCG, Ferreira RO, Dutra FF, Rossi AD, Barbosa RV, Amorim CKN, De Souza MPC, Chimelli L, Aguiar RS, Gonzalez PN, Lara FA, Castro MC, Molnár Z, Lopes RT, Bozza MT, Vianez JLSG, Barbeito CG, Cuervo P, Bellio M, Tanuri A, Garcez PP. Congenital Zika syndrome is associated with maternal protein malnutrition. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaaw6284. [PMID: 31950075 PMCID: PMC6954064 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aaw6284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during pregnancy is associated with a spectrum of developmental impairments known as congenital Zika syndrome (CZS). The prevalence of this syndrome varies across ZIKV endemic regions, suggesting that its occurrence could depend on cofactors. Here, we evaluate the relevance of protein malnutrition for the emergence of CZS. Epidemiological data from the ZIKV outbreak in the Americas suggest a relationship between undernutrition and cases of microcephaly. To experimentally examine this relationship, we use immunocompetent pregnant mice, which were subjected to protein malnutrition and infected with a Brazilian ZIKV strain. We found that the combination of protein restriction and ZIKV infection leads to severe alterations of placental structure and embryonic body growth, with offspring displaying a reduction in neurogenesis and postnatal brain size. RNA-seq analysis reveals gene expression deregulation required for brain development in infected low-protein progeny. These results suggest that maternal protein malnutrition increases susceptibility to CZS.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Barbeito-Andrés
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Institute for Studies in Neuroscience and Complex Systems (ENyS) CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - P. Pezzuto
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - L. M. Higa
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - A. A. Dias
- Microbiology Institute Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - J. M. Vasconcelos
- Biological Science Institute, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Brazil
| | - T. M. P. Santos
- Nuclear Instrumentation Laboratory, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - J. C. C. G. Ferreira
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - R. O. Ferreira
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - F. F. Dutra
- Microbiology Institute Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - A. D. Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - R. V. Barbosa
- CENABIO (National Center of Structural Biology and Bioimaging), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - C. K. N. Amorim
- Technological Innovations Centre, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua, Brazil
| | - M. P. C. De Souza
- Technological Innovations Centre, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua, Brazil
| | - L. Chimelli
- State Institute of Brain Paulo Niemeyer, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - R. S. Aguiar
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - P. N. Gonzalez
- Institute for Studies in Neuroscience and Complex Systems (ENyS) CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - F. A. Lara
- Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - M. C. Castro
- Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Z. Molnár
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - R. T. Lopes
- Nuclear Instrumentation Laboratory, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - M. T. Bozza
- Microbiology Institute Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - J. L. S. G. Vianez
- Technological Innovations Centre, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua, Brazil
| | - C. G. Barbeito
- Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, National University of La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - P. Cuervo
- Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - M. Bellio
- Microbiology Institute Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - A. Tanuri
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - P. P. Garcez
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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10
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Pre- and peri-implantation Zika virus infection impairs fetal development by targeting trophectoderm cells. Nat Commun 2019; 10:4155. [PMID: 31519912 PMCID: PMC6744420 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-12063-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection results in an increased risk of spontaneous abortion and poor intrauterine growth although the underlying mechanisms remain undetermined. Little is known about the impact of ZIKV infection during the earliest stages of pregnancy, at pre- and peri-implantation, because most current ZIKV pregnancy studies have focused on post-implantation stages. Here, we demonstrate that trophectoderm cells of pre-implantation human and mouse embryos can be infected with ZIKV, and propagate virus causing neural progenitor cell death. These findings are corroborated by the dose-dependent nature of ZIKV susceptibility of hESC-derived trophectoderm cells. Single blastocyst RNA-seq reveals key transcriptional changes upon ZIKV infection, including nervous system development, prior to commitment to the neural lineage. The pregnancy rate of mice is >50% lower in pre-implantation infection than infection at E4.5, demonstrating that pre-implantation ZIKV infection leads to miscarriage. Cumulatively, these data elucidate a previously unappreciated association of pre- and peri-implantation ZIKV infection and microcephaly.
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11
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Chesnut M, Muñoz LS, Harris G, Freeman D, Gama L, Pardo CA, Pamies D. In vitro and in silico Models to Study Mosquito-Borne Flavivirus Neuropathogenesis, Prevention, and Treatment. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:223. [PMID: 31338335 PMCID: PMC6629778 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mosquito-borne flaviviruses can cause disease in the nervous system, resulting in a significant burden of morbidity and mortality. Disease models are necessary to understand neuropathogenesis and identify potential therapeutics and vaccines. Non-human primates have been used extensively but present major challenges. Advances have also been made toward the development of humanized mouse models, but these models still do not fully represent human pathophysiology. Recent developments in stem cell technology and cell culture techniques have allowed the development of more physiologically relevant human cell-based models. In silico modeling has also allowed researchers to identify and predict transmission patterns and discover potential vaccine and therapeutic candidates. This review summarizes the research on in vitro and in silico models used to study three mosquito-borne flaviviruses that cause neurological disease in humans: West Nile, Dengue, and Zika. We also propose a roadmap for 21st century research on mosquito-borne flavivirus neuropathogenesis, prevention, and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Chesnut
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Laura S. Muñoz
- Division of Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States,Neuroviruses Emerging in the Americas Study, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Georgina Harris
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Dana Freeman
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Lucio Gama
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States,Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Carlos A. Pardo
- Division of Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States,Neuroviruses Emerging in the Americas Study, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - David Pamies
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States,Department of Physiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland,*Correspondence: David Pamies
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12
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Host Immune Response to ZIKV in an Immunocompetent Embryonic Mouse Model of Intravaginal Infection. Viruses 2019; 11:v11060558. [PMID: 31212905 PMCID: PMC6631669 DOI: 10.3390/v11060558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) only induces mild symptoms in adults; however, it can cause congenital Zika syndrome (CZS), including microcephaly. Most of the knowledge on ZIKV pathogenesis was gained using immunocompromised mouse models, which do not fully recapitulate human pathology. Moreover, the study of the host immune response to ZIKV becomes challenging in these animals. Thus, the main goal of this study was to develop an immunocompetent mouse model to study the ZIKV spread and teratogeny. FVB/NJ immune competent dams were infected intravaginally with ZIKV during the early stage of pregnancy. We found that the placentae of most fetuses were positive for ZIKV, while the virus was detected in the brain of only about 42% of the embryos. To investigate the host immune response, we measured the expression of several inflammatory factors. Embryos from ZIKV-infected dams had an increased level of inflammatory factors, as compared to Mock. Next, we compared the gene expression levels in embryos from ZIKV-infected dams that were either negative or positive for ZIKV in the brain. The mRNA levels of viral response genes and cytokines were increased in both ZIKV-positive and negative brains. Interestingly, the levels of chemokines associated with microcephaly in humans, including CCL2 and CXCL10, specifically increased in embryos harboring ZIKV in the embryo brains.
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13
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Xu D, Li C, Qin CF, Xu Z. Update on the Animal Models and Underlying Mechanisms for ZIKV-Induced Microcephaly. Annu Rev Virol 2019; 6:459-479. [PMID: 31206355 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-virology-092818-015740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The circulation of Zika virus (ZIKV) in nearly 80 countries and territories poses a significant global threat to public health. ZIKV is causally linked to severe developmental defects in the brain, recognized as congenital Zika syndrome (CZS), which includes microcephaly and other serious congenital neurological complications. Since the World Health Organization declared the ZIKV outbreak a public health emergency of international concern, remarkable progress has been made in the generation of different ZIKV infection animal models to gain insight into cellular targets and pathogenesis and to explore the associated underlying mechanisms. Here we focus on summarizing our current understanding of the effects of ZIKV on mammalian brain development in different developmental stages and discuss the potential underlying mechanisms of ZIKV-induced CZS, as well as future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Xu
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China;
| | - Cui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China;
| | - Cheng-Feng Qin
- Department of Virology, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China;
| | - Zhiheng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; .,Parkinson's Disease Center, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing 100069, China
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14
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Camargos VN, Foureaux G, Medeiros DC, da Silveira VT, Queiroz-Junior CM, Matosinhos ALB, Figueiredo AFA, Sousa CDF, Moreira TP, Queiroz VF, Dias ACF, Santana KTO, Passos I, Real ALCV, Silva LC, Mourão FAG, Wnuk NT, Oliveira MAP, Macari S, Silva T, Garlet GP, Jackman JA, Soriani FM, Moraes MFD, Mendes EMAM, Ribeiro FM, Costa GMJ, Teixeira AL, Cho NJ, Oliveira ACP, Teixeira MM, Costa VV, Souza DG. In-depth characterization of congenital Zika syndrome in immunocompetent mice: Antibody-dependent enhancement and an antiviral peptide therapy. EBioMedicine 2019; 44:516-529. [PMID: 31130472 PMCID: PMC6604363 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 04/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during pregnancy may cause major congenital defects, including microcephaly, ocular, articular and muscle abnormalities, which are collectively defined as Congenital Zika Syndrome. Here, we performed an in-depth characterization of the effects of congenital ZIKV infection (CZI) in immunocompetent mice. METHODS Pregnant dams were inoculated with ZIKV on embryonic day 5.5 in the presence or absence of a sub-neutralizing dose of a pan-flavivirus monoclonal antibody (4G2) to evaluate the potential role of antibody-dependent enhancement phenomenon (ADE) during short and long outcomes of CZI. FINDINGS ZIKV infection induced maternal immune activation (MIA), which was associated with occurrence of foetal abnormalities and death. Therapeutic administration of AH-D antiviral peptide during the early stages of pregnancy prevented ZIKV replication and death of offspring. In the post-natal period, CZI was associated with a decrease in whole brain volume, ophthalmologic abnormalities, changes in testicular morphology, and disruption in bone microarchitecture. Some alterations were enhanced in the presence of 4G2 antibody. INTERPRETATION Our results reveal that early maternal ZIKV infection causes several birth defects in immunocompetent mice, which can be potentiated by ADE phenomenon and are associated with MIA. Additionally, antiviral treatment with AH-D peptide may be beneficial during early maternal ZIKV infection. FUND: This work was supported by the Brazilian National Science Council (CNPq, Brazil), Minas Gerais Foundation for Science (FAPEMIG), Funding Authority for Studies and Projects (FINEP), Coordination of Superior Level Staff Improvement (CAPES), National Research Foundation of Singapore and Centre for Precision Biology at Nanyang Technological University.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vidyleison N Camargos
- Host-Microorganism Interaction Lab, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Giselle Foureaux
- Transversal Biology Lab, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Daniel C Medeiros
- Centre for Technology and Research in Magnetic-Resonance, Graduate Program in Electrical Engineering, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Vivian T da Silveira
- Neuropharmacology Lab, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Celso M Queiroz-Junior
- Transversal Biology Lab, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Ana Luisa B Matosinhos
- Neuropharmacology Lab, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - André F A Figueiredo
- Cellular Biology Lab, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Carla D F Sousa
- Host-Microorganism Interaction Lab, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Thaiane P Moreira
- Host-Microorganism Interaction Lab, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Victória F Queiroz
- Host-Microorganism Interaction Lab, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina F Dias
- Host-Microorganism Interaction Lab, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Karina T O Santana
- Centre for Drug Research and Development of Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, MG, Brazil
| | - Ingredy Passos
- Centre for Drug Research and Development of Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, MG, Brazil; Research Group in Arboviral Diseases, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, MG, Brazil
| | - Ana Luíza C V Real
- Neurobiochemistry Lab, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Ludmila C Silva
- Transversal Biology Lab, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Flávio A G Mourão
- Centre for Technology and Research in Magnetic-Resonance, Graduate Program in Electrical Engineering, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Natália T Wnuk
- Cellular Biology Lab, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Milton A P Oliveira
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, Parasitology and Pathology, Tropical Pathology and Public Health Institute, Federal University of Goiás, Goiania, GO, Brazil
| | - Soraia Macari
- Department of Paediatric Dentistry and Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Tarcília Silva
- Department of Oral Pathology and Surgery, Faculty of Dentistry, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Gustavo P Garlet
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry of Bauru, São Paulo University, Bauru, SP, Brazil
| | - Joshua A Jackman
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Frederico M Soriani
- Centre for Drug Research and Development of Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, MG, Brazil
| | - Márcio F D Moraes
- Centre for Technology and Research in Magnetic-Resonance, Graduate Program in Electrical Engineering, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Eduardo M A M Mendes
- Centre for Technology and Research in Magnetic-Resonance, Graduate Program in Electrical Engineering, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Fabíola M Ribeiro
- Neurobiochemistry Lab, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Guilherme M J Costa
- Cellular Biology Lab, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Antônio L Teixeira
- Neuropsychiatry Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences, McGovern Medical Houston, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Nam-Joon Cho
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Antônio C P Oliveira
- Neuropharmacology Lab, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Mauro M Teixeira
- Immunopharmacology Lab, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, MG, Brazil; Centre for Drug Research and Development of Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, MG, Brazil
| | - Vivian V Costa
- Centre for Drug Research and Development of Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, MG, Brazil; Research Group in Arboviral Diseases, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, MG, Brazil.
| | - Danielle G Souza
- Host-Microorganism Interaction Lab, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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15
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Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection can result in serious consequences, including severe congenital manifestations, persistent infection in the testes, and neurologic sequelae. After a pandemic emergence, the virus has spread to much of North and South America and has been introduced to many countries outside of ZIKV-endemic areas as infected travelers return to their home countries. Rodent models have been important in gaining a better understanding of the wide range of disease etiologies associated with ZIKV infection and for the initial phase of developing countermeasures to prevent or treat viral infections. We discuss herein the advantages and disadvantages of small-animal models that have been developed to replicate various aspects of disease associated with ZIKV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin G Julander
- Institute for Antiviral Research, ADVS Department, Utah State University, Logan
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16
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Pre-Clinical Pregnancy Models for Evaluating Zika Vaccines. Trop Med Infect Dis 2019; 4:tropicalmed4020058. [PMID: 30959955 PMCID: PMC6630727 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed4020058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during pregnancy can result in a variety of developmental abnormalities in the fetus, referred to as Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS). The effects of CZS can range from the loss of the viable fetus to a variety of neurological defects in full-term infants, including microcephaly. The clinical importance of ZIKV-induced CZS has driven an intense effort to develop effective vaccines. Consequently, there are approximately 45 different ZIKV vaccine candidates at various stages of development with several undergoing phase I and II clinical trials. These vaccine candidates have been shown to effectively prevent infection in adult animal models, however, there has been less extensive testing for their ability to block vertical transmission to the fetus during pregnancy or prevent the development of CZS. In addition, it is becoming increasingly difficult to test vaccines in the field as the intensity of the ZIKV epidemic has declined precipitously, making clinical endpoint studies difficult. These ethical and practical challenges in determining efficacy of ZIKV vaccine candidates in preventing CZS have led to increased emphasis on pre-clinical testing in animal pregnancy models. Here we review the current status of pre-clinical pregnancy models for testing the ability of ZIKV vaccines to prevent CZS.
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17
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Pena LJ, Miranda Guarines K, Duarte Silva AJ, Sales Leal LR, Mendes Félix D, Silva A, de Oliveira SA, Junqueira Ayres CF, Júnior AS, de Freitas AC. In vitro and in vivo models for studying Zika virus biology. J Gen Virol 2018; 99:1529-1550. [DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lindomar José Pena
- 1Department of Virology, Aggeu Magalhaes Institute (IAM), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Klarissa Miranda Guarines
- 1Department of Virology, Aggeu Magalhaes Institute (IAM), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Anna Jéssica Duarte Silva
- 2Department of Genetics, Laboratory of Molecular Studies and Experimental Therapy (LEMTE), Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Lígia Rosa Sales Leal
- 2Department of Genetics, Laboratory of Molecular Studies and Experimental Therapy (LEMTE), Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Daniele Mendes Félix
- 1Department of Virology, Aggeu Magalhaes Institute (IAM), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Adalúcia Silva
- 1Department of Virology, Aggeu Magalhaes Institute (IAM), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Sheilla Andrade de Oliveira
- 3Department of Immunology, Aggeu Magalhaes Institute (IAM), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | | | - Abelardo Silva Júnior
- 5Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Viçosa (UFV), Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Antonio Carlos de Freitas
- 2Department of Genetics, Laboratory of Molecular Studies and Experimental Therapy (LEMTE), Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
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18
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Animal Models of Zika Virus Infection during Pregnancy. Viruses 2018; 10:v10110598. [PMID: 30384472 PMCID: PMC6266710 DOI: 10.3390/v10110598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Revised: 10/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) emerged suddenly in the Americas in 2015 and was associated with a widespread outbreak of microcephaly and other severe congenital abnormalities in infants born to mothers infected during pregnancy. Vertical transmission of ZIKV in humans was confirmed when viral RNA was detected in fetal and placental tissues, and this outcome has been recapitulated experimentally in animals. Unlike other flaviviruses, ZIKV is both arthropod- and sexually-transmitted, and has a broad tissue tropism in humans, including multiple tissues of the reproductive tract. The threats posed by ZIKV have prompted the development of multiple in vivo models to better understand the pathogenesis of ZIKV, particularly during pregnancy. Here, we review the progress on animal models of ZIKV infection during pregnancy. These studies have generated a foundation of insights into the biology of ZIKV, and provide a means for evaluating vaccines and therapeutics.
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19
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The emergence of Zika virus and its new clinical syndromes. Nature 2018; 560:573-581. [PMID: 30158602 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-018-0446-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is a mosquito-transmitted flavivirus that has emerged as a global health threat because of its potential to generate explosive epidemics and ability to cause congenital disease in the context of infection during pregnancy. Whereas much is known about the biology of related flaviviruses, the unique features of ZIKV pathogenesis, including infection of the fetus, persistence in immune-privileged sites and sexual transmission, have presented new challenges. The rapid development of cell culture and animal models has facilitated a new appreciation of ZIKV biology. This knowledge has created opportunities for the development of countermeasures, including multiple ZIKV vaccine candidates, which are advancing through clinical trials. Here we describe the recent advances that have led to a new understanding of the causes and consequences of the ZIKV epidemic.
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20
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Zanotto PMDA, Leite LCDC. The Challenges Imposed by Dengue, Zika, and Chikungunya to Brazil. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1964. [PMID: 30210503 PMCID: PMC6121005 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Brazil has a well-established immunization program in which vaccines are provided through the Public Health System free of charge to the whole population, obtaining high coverage and reducing the incidence of important infectious diseases in children and adults. However, the environmental changes and high mobility rates of the population occurring in the last decades have triggered the sequential introduction of a series of vector-borne emerging infectious diseases, such as Dengue, Zika, and Chikungunya, that have imposed a considerable burden on the population, with yet unmet solutions. The first to be introduced in Brazil was the Dengue virus, reaching epidemic levels in 2010, with over 1 million cases annually, maintaining high infection rates until 2016. Brazil has invested in vaccine development. The Zika virus infection, initially assumed to have appeared during the World Cup in 2014, was later shown to have arrived earlier in 2013. Its emergence mobilized the Brazilian scientific community to define priorities and strategies, that rapidly investigated mechanisms of pathogenesis, differential diagnostics, and determined that Zika virus infection per se causes relatively mild symptoms, however, in pregnant women can cause microcephaly in the newborns. The diagnostics of Zika infection is confusing given its similar symptoms and cross-reactivity with Dengue, which also hindered the appraisal of the extent of the epidemics, which peaked in 2015 and finished in 2016. Another complicating factor was the overlap with Chikungunya virus infection, which arrived in Brazil in 2014, being prevalent in the same regions, with similar symptoms to both Dengue and Zika. Although Dengue infection can be fatal and Zika infection in pregnant woman can lead to newborns with microcephaly or an array of neurodegenerative manifestations, the Chikungunya infection is a debilitating disease leaving chronic sequelae, which unfortunately has received less attention. Precise differential diagnostics of Dengue, Zika, and Chikungunya will be necessary to evaluate the actual extent of each of these diseases during this overlapping period. Here we review the impact of these emerging infections on public health and how the scientific community was mobilized to deal with them in Brazil.
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Sheridan MA, Balaraman V, Schust DJ, Ezashi T, Roberts RM, Franz AWE. African and Asian strains of Zika virus differ in their ability to infect and lyse primitive human placental trophoblast. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0200086. [PMID: 29985932 PMCID: PMC6037361 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) drew worldwide attention when a recent epidemic was linked to fetal microcephaly. Here we used human embryonic stem cell derived trophoblasts as a model for primitive placental trophoblast to test the hypothesis that there are differences in how the two genetically distinct ZIKV lineages, African (AF) and Asian (AS), target the human placenta. Upon infection with three AF (ib-H30656, SEN/1984/41525-DAK, and MR-766) and three AS (FSS13025, MexI-44, and PANcdc259249) ZIKV strains, we observed that severe placental cell lysis was only induced after infection with AF strains, while viral replication rates remained similar between both lineages. Differences in cytopathic effects (CPE) were not observed in Vero cells, indicating that the AF strains were not inherently superior at cell lysis. Taken together, we propose that infection with AF strains of ZIKV early in pregnancy would likely result in pregnancy loss, rather than allow further fetal development with accompanying brain damage. Our results also suggest that the long term laboratory-adapted MR-766 strain does not behave aberrantly in cell culture relative to other AF lineage strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan A. Sheridan
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Velmurugan Balaraman
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Danny J. Schust
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Toshihiko Ezashi
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - R. Michael Roberts
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Alexander W. E. Franz
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
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22
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Coffey LL, Keesler RI, Pesavento PA, Woolard K, Singapuri A, Watanabe J, Cruzen C, Christe KL, Usachenko J, Yee J, Heng VA, Bliss-Moreau E, Reader JR, von Morgenland W, Gibbons AM, Jackson K, Ardeshir A, Heimsath H, Permar S, Senthamaraikannan P, Presicce P, Kallapur SG, Linnen JM, Gao K, Orr R, MacGill T, McClure M, McFarland R, Morrison JH, Van Rompay KKA. Intraamniotic Zika virus inoculation of pregnant rhesus macaques produces fetal neurologic disease. Nat Commun 2018; 9:2414. [PMID: 29925843 PMCID: PMC6010452 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-04777-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection of pregnant women can cause fetal microcephaly and other neurologic defects. We describe the development of a non-human primate model to better understand fetal pathogenesis. To reliably induce fetal infection at defined times, four pregnant rhesus macaques are inoculated intravenously and intraamniotically with ZIKV at gestational day (GD) 41, 50, 64, or 90, corresponding to first and second trimester of gestation. The GD41-inoculated animal, experiencing fetal death 7 days later, has high virus levels in fetal and placental tissues, implicating ZIKV as cause of death. The other three fetuses are carried to near term and euthanized; while none display gross microcephaly, all show ZIKV RNA in many tissues, especially in the brain, which exhibits calcifications and reduced neural precursor cells. Given that this model consistently recapitulates neurologic defects of human congenital Zika syndrome, it is highly relevant to unravel determinants of fetal neuropathogenesis and to explore interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lark L Coffey
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Rebekah I Keesler
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Patricia A Pesavento
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Kevin Woolard
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Anil Singapuri
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Jennifer Watanabe
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Christina Cruzen
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Kari L Christe
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Jodie Usachenko
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - JoAnn Yee
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Victoria A Heng
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.,Donders Institute, Radboud University, Montessorilaan 3, 6525 HR, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Eliza Bliss-Moreau
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - J Rachel Reader
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Wilhelm von Morgenland
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Anne M Gibbons
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Kenneth Jackson
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Amir Ardeshir
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Holly Heimsath
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, 103020, 2 Genome Court MSRBII, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - Sallie Permar
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, 103020, 2 Genome Court MSRBII, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - Paranthaman Senthamaraikannan
- Division of Neonatology and Pulmonary Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Research Foundation, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Pietro Presicce
- Divisions of Neonatology and Developmental Biology, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California, 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Suhas G Kallapur
- Divisions of Neonatology and Developmental Biology, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California, 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Linnen
- Grifols Diagnostic Solutions, Inc., 10808 Willow Court, San Diego, CA, 92127, USA
| | - Kui Gao
- Grifols Diagnostic Solutions, Inc., 10808 Willow Court, San Diego, CA, 92127, USA
| | - Robert Orr
- Office of Counterterrorism and Emerging Threats, Office of the Chief Scientist, Food and Drug Administration, 25 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, 20903, USA
| | - Tracy MacGill
- Office of Counterterrorism and Emerging Threats, Office of the Chief Scientist, Food and Drug Administration, 25 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, 20903, USA
| | - Michelle McClure
- Office of Tissues and Advanced Therapies, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, 20903, USA
| | - Richard McFarland
- The Advanced Regenerative Manufacturing Institute, 400 Commercial Street, Manchester, NH, 03101, USA
| | - John H Morrison
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Koen K A Van Rompay
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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Zika virus infection in immunocompetent pregnant mice causes fetal damage and placental pathology in the absence of fetal infection. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1006994. [PMID: 29634758 PMCID: PMC5909921 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during human pregnancy may cause diverse and serious congenital defects in the developing fetus. Previous efforts to generate animal models of human ZIKV infection and clinical symptoms often involved manipulating mice to impair their Type I interferon (IFN) signaling, thereby allowing enhanced infection and vertical transmission of virus to the embryo. Here, we show that even pregnant mice competent to generate Type I IFN responses that can limit ZIKV infection nonetheless develop profound placental pathology and high frequency of fetal demise. We consistently found that maternal ZIKV exposure led to placental pathology and that ZIKV RNA levels measured in maternal, placental or embryonic tissues were not predictive of the pathological effects seen in the embryos. Placental pathology included trophoblast hyperplasia in the labyrinth, trophoblast giant cell necrosis in the junctional zone, and loss of embryonic vessels. Our findings suggest that, in this context of limited infection, placental pathology rather than embryonic/fetal viral infection may be a stronger contributor to adverse pregnancy outcomes in mice. Our finding demonstrates that in immunocompetent mice, direct viral infection of the embryo is not essential for fetal demise. Our immunologically unmanipulated pregnancy mouse model provides a consistent and easily measurable congenital abnormality readout to assess fetal outcome, and may serve as an additional model to test prophylactic and therapeutic interventions to protect the fetus during pregnancy, and for studying the mechanisms of ZIKV congenital immunopathogenesis. Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during human pregnancy may cause severe congenital abnormalities and fetal death. There is currently no licensed vaccine or anti-ZIKV therapeutic to prevent or treat infection and/or disease. To generate an animal model that mimics human ZIKV infections, others have manipulated mice to impair their innate immunity, which allows ZIKV to develop high levels of infection. Here, we present an experimental model using immunologically unmanipulated pregnant mice and show that even limited maternal ZIKV infection nonetheless resulted in profound placental pathology and high frequency of fetal demise. However, neither viral RNA level in the dam, placenta or embryo reliably predicted fetal abnormalities. Our studies suggest that, in this model, placental pathology including trophoblast hyperplasia, focal regions of necrosis, and loss of embryonic blood vessels in the placenta likely promote adverse fetal outcomes. This immunocompetent pregnant mouse model provides clear in vivo phenotypic readouts (e.g. embryonic viability and gross uterine and embryonic morphology) to assess the potential for clinical benefit of candidate vaccines and therapeutics in a model not dependent on vertical transmission of virus.
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Abstract
The spread of Zika virus to the Americas was accompanied by surge in the number of infants with CNS abnormalities leading to a declaration of a health emergency by the WHO. This was accompanied by significant responses from governmental health agencies in the United States and Europe that resulted in significant new information described in the natural history of this perinatal infection in a very short period of time. Although much has been learned about Zika virus infection during pregnancy, limitations of current diagnostics and the challenges for accurate serologic diagnosis of acute Zika virus infection has restricted our understanding of the natural history of this perinatal infection to infants born to women with clinical disease during pregnancy and to Zika exposed infants with obvious clinical stigmata of disease. Thus, the spectrum of disease in infants exposed to Zika virus during pregnancy remains to be defined. In contrast, observations in informative animal models of Zika virus infections have provided rational pathways for vaccine development and existing antiviral drug development programs for other flaviviruses have resulted in accelerated development for potential antiviral therapies. This brief review will highlight some of the current concepts of the natural history of Zika virus during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Britt
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama School of Medicine, Childrens Hospital Harbor Bldg 160, Birmingham, AL 35233.
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25
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Cheng F, Ramos da Silva S, Huang IC, Jung JU, Gao SJ. Suppression of Zika Virus Infection and Replication in Endothelial Cells and Astrocytes by PKA Inhibitor PKI 14-22. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.02019-17. [PMID: 29212931 PMCID: PMC5790943 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02019-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The recent outbreak of Zika virus (ZIKV), a reemerging flavivirus, and its associated neurological disorders, such as Guillain-Barré (GB) syndrome and microcephaly, have generated an urgent need to develop effective ZIKV vaccines and therapeutic agents. Here, we used human endothelial cells and astrocytes, both of which represent key cell types for ZIKV infection, to identify potential inhibitors of ZIKV replication. Because several pathways, including the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), protein kinase A (PKA), and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways, have been reported to play important roles in flavivirus replication, we tested inhibitors and agonists of these pathways for their effects on ZIKV replication. We identified the PKA inhibitor PKI 14-22 (PKI) to be a potent inhibitor of ZIKV replication. PKI effectively suppressed the replication of ZIKV from both the African and Asian/American lineages with a high efficiency and minimal cytotoxicity. While ZIKV infection does not induce PKA activation, endogenous PKA activity is essential for supporting ZIKV replication. Interestingly, in addition to PKA, PKI also inhibited another unknown target(s) to block ZIKV replication. PKI inhibited ZIKV replication at the postentry stage by preferentially affecting negative-sense RNA synthesis as well as viral protein translation. Together, these results have identified a potential inhibitor of ZIKV replication which could be further explored for future therapeutic application.IMPORTANCE There is an urgent need to develop effective vaccines and therapeutic agents against Zika virus (ZIKV) infection, a reemerging flavivirus associated with neurological disorders, including Guillain-Barré (GB) syndrome and microcephaly. By screening for inhibitors of several cellular pathways, we have identified the PKA inhibitor PKI 14-22 (PKI) to be a potent inhibitor of ZIKV replication. We show that PKI effectively suppresses the replication of all ZIKV strains tested with minimal cytotoxicity to human endothelial cells and astrocytes, two key cell types for ZIKV infection. Furthermore, we show that PKI inhibits ZIKV negative-sense RNA synthesis and viral protein translation. This study has identified a potent inhibitor of ZIKV infection which could be further explored for future therapeutic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Cheng
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Suzane Ramos da Silva
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - I-Chueh Huang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Jae U Jung
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Shou-Jiang Gao
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Laboratory of Human Virology and Oncology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
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26
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Winkler CW, Peterson KE. Using immunocompromised mice to identify mechanisms of Zika virus transmission and pathogenesis. Immunology 2018; 153:443-454. [PMID: 29266213 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is responsible for a recent global epidemic that has been associated with congenital brain malformations in fetuses and with Guillain-Barré syndrome in adults. Within the last 2 years, a major effort has been made to develop murine models to study the mechanism of viral transmission, pathogenesis and the host immune response. Here, we discuss the findings from these models regarding the role that the innate and adaptive immune responses have in controlling ZIKV infection and pathogenesis. Additionally, we examine how innate and adaptive immune responses influence sexual and vertical transmission of ZIKV infection as well as how these responses can influence the ability of ZIKV to cross the placenta and to induce damage in the developing brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clayton W Winkler
- Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Karin E Peterson
- Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Hamilton, MT, USA
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27
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Yockey LJ, Jurado KA, Arora N, Millet A, Rakib T, Milano KM, Hastings AK, Fikrig E, Kong Y, Horvath TL, Weatherbee S, Kliman HJ, Coyne CB, Iwasaki A. Type I interferons instigate fetal demise after Zika virus infection. Sci Immunol 2018; 3:eaao1680. [PMID: 29305462 PMCID: PMC6049088 DOI: 10.1126/sciimmunol.aao1680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during pregnancy is associated with adverse fetal outcomes, including microcephaly, growth restriction, and fetal demise. Type I interferons (IFNs) are essential for host resistance against ZIKV, and IFN-α/β receptor (IFNAR)-deficient mice are highly susceptible to ZIKV infection. Severe fetal growth restriction with placental damage and fetal resorption is observed after ZIKV infection of type I IFN receptor knockout (Ifnar1-/-) dams mated with wild-type sires, resulting in fetuses with functional type I IFN signaling. The role of type I IFNs in limiting or mediating ZIKV disease within this congenital infection model remains unknown. In this study, we challenged Ifnar1-/- dams mated with Ifnar1+/- sires with ZIKV. This breeding scheme enabled us to examine pregnant dams that carry a mixture of fetuses that express (Ifnar1+/-) or do not express IFNAR (Ifnar1-/-) within the same uterus. Virus replicated to a higher titer in the placenta of Ifnar1-/- than within the Ifnar1+/- concepti. Yet, rather unexpectedly, we found that only Ifnar1+/- fetuses were resorbed after ZIKV infection during early pregnancy, whereas their Ifnar1-/- littermates continue to develop. Analyses of the fetus and placenta revealed that, after ZIKV infection, IFNAR signaling in the conceptus inhibits development of the placental labyrinth, resulting in abnormal architecture of the maternal-fetal barrier. Exposure of midgestation human chorionic villous explants to type I IFN, but not type III IFNs, altered placental morphology and induced cytoskeletal rearrangements within the villous core. Our results implicate type I IFNs as a possible mediator of pregnancy complications, including spontaneous abortions and growth restriction, in the context of congenital viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura J Yockey
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Kellie A Jurado
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Nitin Arora
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
| | - Alon Millet
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Tasfia Rakib
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Kristin M Milano
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Andrew K Hastings
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Yong Kong
- Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Tamas L Horvath
- Program in Integrative Cell Signaling and Neurobiology of Metabolism, Section of Comparative Medicine New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Scott Weatherbee
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Harvey J Kliman
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Carolyn B Coyne
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC (University of Pittsburgh Medical Center), Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
| | - Akiko Iwasaki
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
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28
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Darbellay J, Cox B, Lai K, Delgado-Ortega M, Wheler C, Wilson D, Walker S, Starrak G, Hockley D, Huang Y, Mutwiri G, Potter A, Gilmour M, Safronetz D, Gerdts V, Karniychuk U. Zika Virus Causes Persistent Infection in Porcine Conceptuses and may Impair Health in Offspring. EBioMedicine 2017; 25:73-86. [PMID: 29097124 PMCID: PMC5704061 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2017.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Outcomes of Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in pregnant women vary from the birth of asymptomatic offspring to abnormal development and severe brain lesions in fetuses and infants. There are concerns that offspring affected in utero and born without apparent symptoms may develop mental illnesses. Therefore, animal models are important to test interventions against in utero infection and health sequelae in symptomatic and likely more widespread asymptomatic offspring. To partially reproduce in utero infection in humans, we directly inoculated selected porcine conceptuses with ZIKV. Inoculation resulted in rapid trans-fetal infections, persistent infection in conceptuses, molecular pathology in fetal brains, fetal antibody and type I interferon responses. Offspring infected in utero showed ZIKV in their fetal membranes collected after birth. Some in utero affected piglets were small, depressed, had undersized brains, and showed seizures. Some piglets showed potentially increased activity. Our data suggest that porcine model of persistent in utero ZIKV infection has a strong potential for translational research and can be used to test therapeutic interventions in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Darbellay
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre (VIDO-InterVac), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Brian Cox
- Department of Physiology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Kenneth Lai
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre (VIDO-InterVac), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Mario Delgado-Ortega
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre (VIDO-InterVac), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Colette Wheler
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre (VIDO-InterVac), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Donald Wilson
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre (VIDO-InterVac), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Stewart Walker
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre (VIDO-InterVac), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Gregory Starrak
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Duncan Hockley
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Yanyun Huang
- Prairie Diagnostic Services, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - George Mutwiri
- School of Public Health, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Andrew Potter
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre (VIDO-InterVac), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada; Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Matthew Gilmour
- Canada National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada
| | - David Safronetz
- Canada National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada
| | - Volker Gerdts
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre (VIDO-InterVac), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada; Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Uladzimir Karniychuk
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre (VIDO-InterVac), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada; Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada; School of Public Health, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
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Andersen ML, Winter LMF. Animal models in biological and biomedical research - experimental and ethical concerns. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2017; 91:e20170238. [PMID: 28876358 DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765201720170238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal models have been used in experimental research to increase human knowledge and contribute to finding solutions to biological and biomedical questions. However, increased concern for the welfare of the animals used, and a growing awareness of the concept of animal rights, has brought a greater focus on the related ethical issues. In this review, we intend to give examples on how animals are used in the health research related to some major health problems in Brazil, as well as to stimulate discussion about the application of ethics in the use of animals in research and education, highlighting the role of National Council for the Control of Animal Experimentation (Conselho Nacional de Controle de Experimentação Animal - CONCEA) in these areas. In 2008, Brazil emerged into a new era of animal research regulation, with the promulgation of Law 11794, previously known as the Arouca Law, resulting in an increased focus, and rapid learning experience, on questions related to all aspects of animal experimentation. The law reinforces the idea that animal experiments must be based on ethical considerations and integrity-based assumptions, and provides a regulatory framework to achieve this. This review describes the health research involving animals and the current Brazilian framework for regulating laboratory animal science, and hopes to help to improve the awareness of the scientific community of these ethical and legal rules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica L Andersen
- Departamento de Psicobiologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo/UNIFESP, Rua Napoleão de Barros, 925, 04024-002 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Lucile M F Winter
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo/USP, Rua do Matão, Travessa 14, 05508-090 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Saiz JC, Martín-Acebes MA, Bueno-Marí R, Salomón OD, Villamil-Jiménez LC, Heukelbach J, Alencar CH, Armstrong PK, Ortiga-Carvalho TM, Mendez-Otero R, Rosado-de-Castro PH, Pimentel-Coelho PM. Zika Virus: What Have We Learnt Since the Start of the Recent Epidemic? Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1554. [PMID: 28878742 PMCID: PMC5572254 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Zika is a viral disease transmitted mainly by mosquitoes of the genus Aedes. In recent years, it has expanded geographically, changing from an endemic mosquito-borne disease across equatorial Asia and Africa, to an epidemic disease causing large outbreaks in several areas of the world. With the recent Zika virus (ZIKV) outbreaks in the Americas, the disease has become a focus of attention of public health agencies and of the international research community, especially due to an association with neurological disorders in adults and to the severe neurological and ophthalmological abnormalities found in fetuses and newborns of mothers exposed to ZIKV during pregnancy. A large number of studies have been published in the last 3 years, revealing the structure of the virus, how it is transmitted and how it affects human cells. Many different animal models have been developed, which recapitulate several features of ZIKV disease and its neurological consequences. Moreover, several vaccine candidates are now in active preclinical development, and three of them have already entered phase I clinical trials. Likewise, many different compounds targeting viral and cellular components are being tested in in vitro and in experimental animal models. This review aims to discuss the current state of this rapidly growing literature from a multidisciplinary perspective, as well as to present an overview of the public health response to Zika and of the perspectives for the prevention and treatment of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan-Carlos Saiz
- Department of Biotechnology, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y AlimentariaMadrid, Spain
| | - Miguel A. Martín-Acebes
- Department of Biotechnology, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y AlimentariaMadrid, Spain
| | - Rubén Bueno-Marí
- Departamento de Investigación y Desarrollo (I+D), Laboratorios LokímicaValencia, Spain
| | | | | | - Jorg Heukelbach
- Department of Community Health, School of Medicine, Federal University of CearáFortaleza, Brazil
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, Division of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, TownsvilleQLD, Australia
| | - Carlos H. Alencar
- Department of Community Health, School of Medicine, Federal University of CearáFortaleza, Brazil
| | - Paul K. Armstrong
- Communicable Disease Control Directorate, Western Australia Department of Health, PerthWA, Australia
| | - Tania M. Ortiga-Carvalho
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de JaneiroRio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Rosalia Mendez-Otero
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de JaneiroRio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Paulo H. Rosado-de-Castro
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de JaneiroRio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Instituto D’Or de Pesquisa e EnsinoRio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Pedro M. Pimentel-Coelho
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de JaneiroRio de Janeiro, Brazil
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31
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King NJC, Teixeira MM, Mahalingam S. Zika Virus: Mechanisms of Infection During Pregnancy. Trends Microbiol 2017; 25:701-702. [PMID: 28578821 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2017.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Revised: 05/07/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Immune status changes during pregnancy, with pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory contexts at different stages, making pregnant women potentially more susceptible to various infections. Infection by Zika virus during pregnancy can cause developmental damage to the fetus, and the altered immune response during pregnancy could contribute to disease during Zika infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J C King
- Discipline of Pathology, Bosch Institute, School of Medical Sciences, Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Sydney Medical School, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Mauro M Teixeira
- Instituto de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Suresh Mahalingam
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Queensland 4222, Australia.
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