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Basu A, Singh A, Sehgal S, Madaan T, Prasad NG. Starvation increases susceptibility to bacterial infection and promotes systemic pathogen proliferation in Drosophila melanogaster females. J Invertebr Pathol 2024; 207:108209. [PMID: 39322010 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2024.108209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 08/03/2024] [Accepted: 09/20/2024] [Indexed: 09/27/2024]
Abstract
Defense against pathogens and parasites requires substantial investment of energy and resources on part of the host. This makes the host immune function dependent on availability and accessibility of resources. A resource deprived host is therefore expected to be more susceptible to infections, although empirical results do not always align with this prediction. Limiting host access to resources can additionally impact within-host pathogen numbers, either directly by altering the amount of resources available to the pathogens for proliferation or indirectly by altering the efficiency of the host immune system. We tested for the effects of host starvation (complete deprivation of resources) on susceptibility to bacterial pathogens, and within-host pathogen proliferation, in Drosophila melanogaster females. Our results show that starvation increases post-infection mortality of the host, but in a pathogen-specific manner. This increase in mortality is always accompanied by increased within-host pathogen proliferation. We therefore propose that starvation compromises host resistance to bacterial infections in Drosophila melanogaster females thereby increasing susceptibility to infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aabeer Basu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Punjab, India.
| | - Aparajita Singh
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Punjab, India.
| | - Suhaas Sehgal
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Punjab, India; Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland(2).
| | - Tanvi Madaan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Punjab, India; Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Klosterneuburg, Austria(2).
| | - Nagaraj Guru Prasad
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Punjab, India.
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2
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Zhu T, Yang Y, Hu C, Ma L, Sheng J, Chang R, Liao Y, Wang L, Zhu Y, Zhao M, Li B, Li T, Liao C. Effects of Enterobacter cloacae insecticidal protein on the Duox-ROS system and midgut bacterial community and function of Galleria mellonella larvae. Toxicon 2024; 247:107850. [PMID: 38971137 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Enterobacter cloacae insecticidal proteins have been reported to kill Galleria mellonella larvae through affecting their midgut microbiome. However, the mechanisms involved remain unclear. Here we aim to investigate how the insecticidal proteins act on the midgut Duox-ROS system and microbial community of G. mellonella larvae. METHODS Reverse transcription qPCR and fluorescence probes were utilized to assess the Duox expression levels and to evaluate quantitative changes of the ROS levels. Sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene sequences of the midgut bacteria of G. mellonella larvae was conducted for further analyses of bacterial diversity, composition, and abundance. RESULTS After the injection of the insecticidal proteins, the Duox expression levels first increased within 28 h, then dramatically peaked at 36 h, and slowly decreased thereafter. Simultaneously, the ROS levels increased significantly at 36 h, peaked at 48 h, and rapidly declined to the normal level at 60 h. Responsive to the change of the ROS levels, the structure of the midgut microbial community was altered substantially, compared to that of the untreated larvae. The relative abundance of Enterobacteriaceae and other specific pathogenic bacteria increased significantly, whereas that of Lactobacillus decreased sharply. Importantly, notable shifts were observed in the crucial midgut predicted metabolic functions, including membrane transportation, carbohydrate metabolism, and amino acid metabolism. CONCLUSION Insecticidal proteins of E. cloacae kill G. mellonella larvae mainly through generation of high oxidative stress, alterations of the midgut microbial community and function, and damage to the physiological functions. These findings provide insights into the inhibition mechanism of E. cloacae insecticidal proteins to G. mellonella larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Zhu
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Center of Healthy Food Engineering and Technology of Henan, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Rehabilitation Technology, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China
| | - Yi Yang
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China
| | - Chao Hu
- Pingdingshan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China
| | - Liang Ma
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China
| | - Jiaqing Sheng
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China
| | - Ruiying Chang
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China
| | - Yanfei Liao
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China
| | - Lianzhe Wang
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Center of Healthy Food Engineering and Technology of Henan, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Rehabilitation Technology, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China
| | - Yutao Zhu
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Center of Healthy Food Engineering and Technology of Henan, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China
| | - Mei Zhao
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Center of Healthy Food Engineering and Technology of Henan, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China
| | - Bingbing Li
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Center of Healthy Food Engineering and Technology of Henan, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Rehabilitation Technology, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China.
| | - Taotao Li
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Center of Healthy Food Engineering and Technology of Henan, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Rehabilitation Technology, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China.
| | - Chunli Liao
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Center of Healthy Food Engineering and Technology of Henan, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China; Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Rehabilitation Technology, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan, China.
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3
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Ma M, Luo J, Li C, Eleftherianos I, Zhang W, Xu L. A life-and-death struggle: interaction of insects with entomopathogenic fungi across various infection stages. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1329843. [PMID: 38259477 PMCID: PMC10800808 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1329843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Insects constitute approximately 75% of the world's recognized fauna, with the majority of species considered as pests. Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) are parasitic microorganisms capable of efficiently infecting insects, rendering them potent biopesticides. In response to infections, insects have evolved diverse defense mechanisms, prompting EPF to develop a variety of strategies to overcome or circumvent host defenses. While the interaction mechanisms between EPF and insects is well established, recent findings underscore that their interplay is more intricate than previously thought, especially evident across different stages of EPF infection. This review primarily focuses on the interplay between EPF and the insect defense strategies, centered around three infection stages: (1) Early infection stage: involving the pre-contact detection and avoidance behavior of EPF in insects, along with the induction of behavioral responses upon contact with the host cuticle; (2) Penetration and intra-hemolymph growth stage: involving the initiation of intricate cellular and humoral immune functions in insects, while symbiotic microbes can further contribute to host resistance; (3) Host insect's death stage: involving the ultimate confrontation between pathogens and insects. Infected insects strive to separate themselves from the healthy population, while pathogens rely on the infected insects to spread to new hosts. Also, we discuss a novel pest management strategy underlying the cooperation between EPF infection and disturbing the insect immune system. By enhancing our understanding of the intricate interplay between EPF and the insect, this review provides novel perspectives for EPF-mediated pest management and developing effective fungal insecticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiqi Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, China
| | - Chong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ioannis Eleftherianos
- Infection and Innate Immunity Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Wei Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Letian Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, China
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4
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Touré H, Herrmann JL, Szuplewski S, Girard-Misguich F. Drosophila melanogaster as an organism model for studying cystic fibrosis and its major associated microbial infections. Infect Immun 2023; 91:e0024023. [PMID: 37847031 PMCID: PMC10652941 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00240-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a human genetic disease caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene that encodes a chloride channel. The most severe clinical manifestation is associated with chronic pulmonary infections by pathogenic and opportunistic microbes. Drosophila melanogaster has become the invertebrate model of choice for modeling microbial infections and studying the induced innate immune response. Here, we review its contribution to the understanding of infections with six major pathogens associated with CF (Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia cepacia, Mycobacterium abscessus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Aspergillus fumigatus) together with the perspectives opened by the recent availability of two CF models in this model organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamadoun Touré
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INSERM, Infection et Inflammation, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
| | - Jean-Louis Herrmann
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INSERM, Infection et Inflammation, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpitaux Universitaires Ile-de-France Ouest, GHU Paris-Saclay, Hôpital Raymond Poincaré, Garches, France
| | - Sébastien Szuplewski
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Laboratoire de Génétique et Biologie Cellulaire, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
| | - Fabienne Girard-Misguich
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INSERM, Infection et Inflammation, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
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5
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Cabrera K, Hoard DS, Gibson O, Martinez DI, Wunderlich Z. Drosophila immune priming to Enterococcus faecalis relies on immune tolerance rather than resistance. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011567. [PMID: 37566589 PMCID: PMC10446173 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Innate immune priming increases an organism's survival of a second infection after an initial, non-lethal infection. We used Drosophila melanogaster and an insect-derived strain of Enterococcus faecalis to study transcriptional control of priming. In contrast to other pathogens, the enhanced survival in primed animals does not correlate with decreased E. faecalis load. Further analysis shows that primed organisms tolerate, rather than resist infection. Using RNA-seq of immune tissues, we found many genes were upregulated in only primed flies, suggesting a distinct transcriptional program in response to initial and secondary infections. In contrast, few genes continuously express throughout the experiment or more efficiently re-activate upon reinfection. Priming experiments in immune deficient mutants revealed Imd is largely dispensable for responding to a single infection but needed to fully prime. Together, this indicates the fly's innate immune response is plastic-differing in immune strategy, transcriptional program, and pathway use depending on infection history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Cabrera
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, California, United States of America
- Biological Design Center, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Duncan S. Hoard
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Olivia Gibson
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Daniel I. Martinez
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Zeba Wunderlich
- Biological Design Center, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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6
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Xu R, Lou Y, Tidu A, Bulet P, Heinekamp T, Martin F, Brakhage A, Li Z, Liégeois S, Ferrandon D. The Toll pathway mediates Drosophila resilience to Aspergillus mycotoxins through specific Bomanins. EMBO Rep 2023; 24:e56036. [PMID: 36322050 PMCID: PMC9827548 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202256036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Host defense against infections encompasses both resistance, which targets microorganisms for neutralization or elimination, and resilience/disease tolerance, which allows the host to withstand/tolerate pathogens and repair damages. In Drosophila, the Toll signaling pathway is thought to mediate resistance against fungal infections by regulating the secretion of antimicrobial peptides, potentially including Bomanins. We find that Aspergillus fumigatus kills Drosophila Toll pathway mutants without invasion because its dissemination is blocked by melanization, suggesting a role for Toll in host defense distinct from resistance. We report that mutants affecting the Toll pathway or the 55C Bomanin locus are susceptible to the injection of two Aspergillus mycotoxins, restrictocin and verruculogen. The vulnerability of 55C deletion mutants to these mycotoxins is rescued by the overexpression of Bomanins specific to each challenge. Mechanistically, flies in which BomS6 is expressed in the nervous system exhibit an enhanced recovery from the tremors induced by injected verruculogen and display improved survival. Thus, innate immunity also protects the host against the action of microbial toxins through secreted peptides and thereby increases its resilience to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Xu
- Sino‐French Hoffmann InstituteGuangzhou Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Université de StrasbourgStrasbourgFrance
- Modèles Insectes de l'Immunité InnéeUPR 9022 du CNRSStrasbourgFrance
| | - Yanyan Lou
- Sino‐French Hoffmann InstituteGuangzhou Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Université de StrasbourgStrasbourgFrance
- Modèles Insectes de l'Immunité InnéeUPR 9022 du CNRSStrasbourgFrance
| | - Antonin Tidu
- Université de StrasbourgStrasbourgFrance
- Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARNUPR 9002 du CNRSStrasbourgFrance
| | - Philippe Bulet
- CR Université Grenoble Alpes, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Inserm U1209CNRS UMR 5309GrenobleFrance
- Platform BioPark ArchampsArchampsFrance
| | - Thorsten Heinekamp
- Department of Molecular and Applied MicrobiologyLeibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology ‐ Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz‐HKI)JenaGermany
| | - Franck Martin
- Université de StrasbourgStrasbourgFrance
- Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARNUPR 9002 du CNRSStrasbourgFrance
| | - Axel Brakhage
- Department of Molecular and Applied MicrobiologyLeibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology ‐ Hans Knöll Institute (Leibniz‐HKI)JenaGermany
- Institute of MicrobiologyFriedrich Schiller University JenaJenaGermany
| | - Zi Li
- Sino‐French Hoffmann InstituteGuangzhou Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Samuel Liégeois
- Sino‐French Hoffmann InstituteGuangzhou Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Université de StrasbourgStrasbourgFrance
- Modèles Insectes de l'Immunité InnéeUPR 9022 du CNRSStrasbourgFrance
| | - Dominique Ferrandon
- Sino‐French Hoffmann InstituteGuangzhou Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Université de StrasbourgStrasbourgFrance
- Modèles Insectes de l'Immunité InnéeUPR 9022 du CNRSStrasbourgFrance
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7
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Gómez-Alonso I, Baltierra-Uribe S, Sánchez-Torres L, Cancino-Diaz M, Cancino-Diaz J, Rodriguez-Martinez S, Ovruski SM, Hendrichs J, Cancino J. Irradiation and parasitism affect the ability of larval hemocytes of Anastrepha obliqua for phagocytosis and the production of reactive oxygen species. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 111:e21953. [PMID: 35927971 DOI: 10.1002/arch.21953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The development of the parasitoid Doryctobracon crawfordi (Viereck) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in Anastrepha obliqua (McQuart) (Diptera: Tephritidae) larvae is unviable in nature; however, if the host larva is irradiated at 160 Gy, the parasitoid develops and emerges successfully. This suggests that radiation affects the immune responses of A. obliqua larvae, while the underlying mechanisms remain to be revealed. Using optical and electronic microscopies we determined the number and type of hemocyte populations found inside the A. obliqua larvae, either nonirradiated, irradiated at 160 Gy, parasitized by D. crawfordi, or irradiated and parasitized. Based on flow cytometry, the capacity to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) was determined by the 123-dihydrorhodamine method in those hemocyte cells. Five cell populations were found in the hemolymph of A. obliqua larvae, two of which (granulocytes and plasmatocytes) can phagocytize and produce ROS. A reduction in the number of cells, mainly of the phagocytic type, was observed, as well as the capacity of these cells to produce ROS, when A. obliqua larvae were irradiated. Both radiation and parasitization decreased the ROS production, and when A. obliqua larvae were irradiated followed by parasitization by D. crawfordi, the reduction of the ROS level was even greater. In contrast, a slight increase in the size of these cells was observed in the hemolymph of the parasitized larvae compared to those in nonparasitized larvae. These results suggest that radiation significantly affects the phagocytic cells of A. obliqua and thus permits the development of the parasitoid D. crawfordi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itzia Gómez-Alonso
- Posgrado en Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Prolongación del Carpio y Calle Plan de Ayala s/n, Santo Tomás, Miguel Hidalgo, Mexico City, México
- Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Prolongación de Carpio y Calle Plan de Ayala s/n, Santo Tomás, Miguel Hidalgo, Mexico City, México
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Prolongación de Carpio y Calle Plan de Ayala s/n, Santo Tomás, Miguel Hidalgo, Mexico City, México
| | - Shantal Baltierra-Uribe
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Prolongación de Carpio y Calle Plan de Ayala s/n, Santo Tomás, Miguel Hidalgo, Mexico City, México
| | - Luvia Sánchez-Torres
- Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Prolongación de Carpio y Calle Plan de Ayala s/n, Santo Tomás, Miguel Hidalgo, Mexico City, México
| | - Mario Cancino-Diaz
- Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Prolongación de Carpio y Calle Plan de Ayala s/n, Santo Tomás, Miguel Hidalgo, Mexico City, México
| | - Juan Cancino-Diaz
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Prolongación de Carpio y Calle Plan de Ayala s/n, Santo Tomás, Miguel Hidalgo, Mexico City, México
| | - Sandra Rodriguez-Martinez
- Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Prolongación de Carpio y Calle Plan de Ayala s/n, Santo Tomás, Miguel Hidalgo, Mexico City, México
| | - Sergio M Ovruski
- LIEMEN, División Control Biológico de Plagas, PROIMI Biotecnología, CONICET, Ave. Belgrano y Pje. Caseros, San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Jorge Hendrichs
- Division of Nuclear Insect Pest Control Section, Joint FAO/IAEA Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA Wagramerstrasse 5, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jorge Cancino
- Departamento de Control Biológico, Programa Moscafrut SADER-IICA, Camino a Cacahoatales S. N., Metapa de Domínguez, Chiapas, México
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8
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Stephenson HN, Streeck R, Grüblinger F, Goosmann C, Herzig A. Hemocytes are essential for Drosophila melanogaster post-embryonic development, independent of control of the microbiota. Development 2022; 149:dev200286. [PMID: 36093870 PMCID: PMC9641648 DOI: 10.1242/dev.200286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Proven roles for hemocytes (blood cells) have expanded beyond the control of infections in Drosophila. Despite this, the crucial role of hemocytes in post-embryonic development has long thought to be limited to control of microorganisms during metamorphosis. This has previously been shown by rescue of adult development in hemocyte-ablation models under germ-free conditions. Here, we show that hemocytes have an essential role in post-embryonic development beyond their ability to control the microbiota. Using a newly generated strong hemocyte-specific driver line for the GAL4/UAS system, we show that specific ablation of hemocytes is early pupal lethal, even under axenic conditions. Genetic rescue experiments prove that this is a hemocyte-specific phenomenon. RNA-seq data suggests that dysregulation of the midgut is a prominent consequence of hemocyte ablation in larval stages, resulting in reduced gut lengths. Dissection suggests that multiple processes may be affected during metamorphosis. We believe this previously unreported role for hemocytes during metamorphosis is a major finding for the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly N. Stephenson
- Department of Cellular Microbiology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Charitéplatz 1, Berlin 10117, Germany
- Peninsula Medical School, Faculty of Health,University of Plymouth, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Robert Streeck
- Department of Cellular Microbiology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Charitéplatz 1, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Florian Grüblinger
- Department of Cellular Microbiology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Charitéplatz 1, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Christian Goosmann
- Department of Cellular Microbiology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Charitéplatz 1, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Alf Herzig
- Department of Cellular Microbiology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Charitéplatz 1, Berlin 10117, Germany
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9
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Excreted secreted products from the parasitic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae manipulate the Drosophila melanogaster immune response. Sci Rep 2022; 12:14237. [PMID: 35987963 PMCID: PMC9392720 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-18722-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Steinernema carpocapsae is an entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) that rapidly infects and kills a wide range of insect hosts and has been linked to host immunosuppression during the initial stages of infection. The lethal nature of S. carpocapsae infections has previously been credited to its symbiotic bacteria; however, it has become evident that the nematodes are able to effectively kill their hosts independently through their excretion/secretion products (ESPs). Here we examined how the adult Drosophila melanogaster immune system is modulated in response to S. carpocapsae ESPs in an attempt to ascertain individual pathogenic contributions of the isolated compound. We found that the S. carpocapsae ESPs decrease the survival of D. melanogaster adult flies, they induce the expression of certain antimicrobial peptide-encoding genes, and they cause significant reduction in phenoloxidase enzyme activity and delay in the melanization response in males flies. We also report that S. carpocapsae ESPs affect hemocyte numbers in both male and female individuals. Our results indicate the manipulative role of EPN ESPs and reveal sex-specific differences in the host response against nematode infection factors. These findings are beneficial as they promote our understanding of the molecular basis of nematode pathogenicity and the parasite components that influence nematode-host interactions.
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10
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Sensing microbial infections in the Drosophila melanogaster genetic model organism. Immunogenetics 2022; 74:35-62. [DOI: 10.1007/s00251-021-01239-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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11
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Fiorotti J, Urbanová V, Gôlo PS, Bittencourt VREP, Kopáček P. The role of complement in the tick cellular immune defense against the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium robertsii. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 126:104234. [PMID: 34450130 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2021.104234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) have been widely explored for their potential in the biological control of insect pests and as an environmentally friendly alternative to acaricides for limiting tick infestation in the field. The arthropod cuticle is the main barrier against fungal infection, however, an understanding of internal defense mechanisms after EPF intrusion into the invertebrate hemocoel is still rather limited. Using an infection model of the European Lyme borreliosis vector Ixodes ricinus with the EPF Metarhizium robertsii, we demonstrated that ticks are capable of protecting themselves to a certain extent against mild fungal infections. However, tick mortality dramatically increases when the capability of tick hemocytes to phagocytose fungal conidia is impaired. Using RNAi-mediated silencing of tick thioester-containing proteins (TEPs), followed by in vitro and/or in vivo phagocytic assays, we found that C3-like complement components and α2-macroglobulin pan-protease inhibitors secreted to the hemolymph play pivotal roles in M. robertsii phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica Fiorotti
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Veterinárias, Instituto de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Rural Do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Brazil
| | - Veronika Urbanová
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, CZ-370 05, Czech Republic
| | - Patrícia Silva Gôlo
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Veterinárias, Instituto de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Rural Do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Brazil
| | | | - Petr Kopáček
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, CZ-370 05, Czech Republic.
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12
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Gul I, Kausar S, You Q, Sun W, Li Z, Abbas MN, Cui H. Identification and the immunological role of two Nimrod family genes in the silkworm, Bombyx mori. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 193:154-165. [PMID: 34688681 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.10.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
In animals, immune signaling pathways and effector molecules participate in attenuating microbial infection. Recent work has shown that the Nimrod family proteins can directly bind to bacteria, and this binding leads to bacterial phagocytosis. Although the Nimrod gene family has been reported in many non-drosophilids, their functions remain unexplored in most insect species. Here, we report two members (Nimrod-B and Draper) of the Nimrod gene family from Bombyx mori and analyzed their role in immunity. The two genes were ubiquitously expressed in the tested tissues; but, they transcribed preferentially in immune tissues. The developmental profiles showed that BmNimrod-B and BmDraper transcription levels were highest in the pupal stages. Challenge with microbial pathogens induced the transcription levels of all two genes at different time points. Knockdown of BmDraper decreased the bacterial clearance and increased their replication relative to the control group, whereas, BmNimrod-B suppression had a non-significant effect on them. Furthermore, the mortality rate was increased after BmDraper silencing. The knockdown of these genes did not significantly affect the production of antimicrobial peptides following E. coli infection. Taken together, the Nimrod family genes play a crucial role in host defense by positively regulating the antibacterial immune response in silkworm B. mori.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isma Gul
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, Southwest University, China; Cancer Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Saima Kausar
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, Southwest University, China; Cancer Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Qiuxiang You
- Neurological Disease Center of the Third Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, 401120, China
| | - Wei Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, Southwest University, China; Cancer Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Zekun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, Southwest University, China; Cancer Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Muhammad Nadeem Abbas
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, Southwest University, China; Cancer Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China.
| | - Hongjuan Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, Southwest University, China; Cancer Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China.
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13
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Decio P, Ustaoglu P, Derecka K, Hardy ICW, Roat TC, Malaspina O, Mongan N, Stöger R, Soller M. Thiamethoxam exposure deregulates short ORF gene expression in the honey bee and compromises immune response to bacteria. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1489. [PMID: 33452318 PMCID: PMC7811001 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-80620-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Maximizing crop yields relies on the use of agrochemicals to control insect pests. One of the most widely used classes of insecticides are neonicotinoids that interfere with signalling of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, but these can also disrupt crop-pollination services provided by bees. Here, we analysed whether chronic low dose long-term exposure to the neonicotinoid thiamethoxam alters gene expression and alternative splicing in brains of Africanized honey bees, Apis mellifera, as adaptation to altered neuronal signalling. We find differentially regulated genes that show concentration-dependent responses to thiamethoxam, but no changes in alternative splicing. Most differentially expressed genes have no annotated function but encode short Open Reading Frames, a characteristic feature of anti-microbial peptides. As this suggested that immune responses may be compromised by thiamethoxam exposure, we tested the impact of thiamethoxam on bee immunity by injecting bacteria. We show that intrinsically sub-lethal thiamethoxam exposure makes bees more vulnerable to normally non-pathogenic bacteria. Our findings imply a synergistic mechanism for the observed bee population declines that concern agriculturists, conservation ecologists and the public.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pâmela Decio
- grid.410543.70000 0001 2188 478XInstitute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (Unesp), Rio Claro, Brazil
| | - Pinar Ustaoglu
- grid.6572.60000 0004 1936 7486School of Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT UK
| | - Kamila Derecka
- grid.4563.40000 0004 1936 8868School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, LE12 5RD UK
| | - Ian C. W. Hardy
- grid.4563.40000 0004 1936 8868School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, LE12 5RD UK
| | - Thaisa C. Roat
- grid.410543.70000 0001 2188 478XInstitute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (Unesp), Rio Claro, Brazil
| | - Osmar Malaspina
- grid.410543.70000 0001 2188 478XInstitute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (Unesp), Rio Claro, Brazil
| | - Nigel Mongan
- grid.4563.40000 0004 1936 8868School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, LE12 5RD UK
| | - Reinhard Stöger
- grid.4563.40000 0004 1936 8868School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, LE12 5RD UK
| | - Matthias Soller
- grid.6572.60000 0004 1936 7486School of Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT UK
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14
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Nystrand M, Dowling DK. Effects of immune challenge on expression of life-history and immune trait expression in sexually reproducing metazoans-a meta-analysis. BMC Biol 2020; 18:135. [PMID: 33028304 PMCID: PMC7541220 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-020-00856-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Life-history theory predicts a trade-off between investment into immune defence and other fitness-related traits. Accordingly, individuals are expected to upregulate their immune response when subjected to immune challenge. However, this is predicted to come at the expense of investment into a range of other traits that are costly to maintain, such as growth, reproduction and survival. Currently, it remains unclear whether the magnitude of such costs, and trade-offs involving immune investment and other traits, manifests consistently across species and sexes. To address this, we conducted a meta-analysis to investigate how changes in sex, ontogenetic stage and environmental factors shape phenotypic trait expression following an immune challenge. RESULTS We explored the effects of immune challenge on three types of traits across sexually reproducing metazoans: life-history, morphological and proximate immune traits (235 effect sizes, 53 studies, 37 species [21 invertebrates vs. 16 vertebrates]). We report a general negative effect of immune challenge on survival and reproduction, a positive effect on immune trait expression, but no effect on morphology or development time. The negative effects of immune challenge on reproductive traits and survival were larger in females than males. We also report a pronounced effect of the immune treatment agent used (e.g. whether the treatment involved a live pathogen or not) on the host response to immune challenge, and find an effect of mating status on the host response in invertebrates. CONCLUSION These results suggest that costs associated with immune deployment following an immune challenge are context-dependent and differ consistently in their magnitude across the sexes of diverse taxonomic lineages. We synthesise and discuss the outcomes in the context of evolutionary theory on sex differences in life-history and highlight the need for future studies to carefully consider the design of experiments aimed at disentangling the costs of immune deployment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Nystrand
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800 Australia
| | - D. K. Dowling
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800 Australia
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15
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Vincent CM, Simoes da Silva CJ, Wadhawan A, Dionne MS. Origins of Metabolic Pathology in Francisella-Infected Drosophila. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1419. [PMID: 32733472 PMCID: PMC7360822 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The origins and causes of infection pathologies are often not understood. Despite this, the study of infection and immunity relies heavily on the ability to discern between potential sources of pathology. Work in the fruit fly has supported the assumption that mortality resulting from bacterial invasion is largely due to direct host-pathogen interactions, as lower pathogen loads are often associated with reduced pathology, and bacterial load upon death is predictable. However, the mechanisms through which these interactions bring about host death are complex. Here we show that infection with the bacterium Francisella novicida leads to metabolic dysregulation and, using treatment with a bacteriostatic antibiotic, we show that this pathology is the result of direct interaction between host and pathogen. We show that mutants of the immune deficiency immune pathway fail to exhibit similar metabolic dysregulation, supporting the idea that the reallocation of resources for immune-related activities contributes to metabolic dysregulation. Targeted investigation into the cross-talk between immune and metabolic pathways has the potential to illuminate some of this interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal M Vincent
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection and Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Carolina J Simoes da Silva
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection and Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ashima Wadhawan
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection and Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marc S Dionne
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection and Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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16
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Bartolo G, Gonzalez LO, Alameh S, Valencia CA, Martchenko Shilman M. Identification of glucocorticoid receptor in Drosophila melanogaster. BMC Microbiol 2020; 20:161. [PMID: 32539689 PMCID: PMC7296755 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-020-01848-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vertebrate glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is an evolutionary-conserved cortisol-regulated nuclear receptor that controls key metabolic and developmental pathways. Upon binding to cortisol, GR acts as an immunosuppressive transcription factor. Drosophila melanogaster, a model organism to study innate immunity, can also be immunosuppressed by glucocorticoids. However, while the genome of fruit fly harbors 18 nuclear receptor genes, the functional homolog of vertebrate GR has not been identified. RESULTS In this study, we demonstrated that while D. melanogaster is susceptible to Saccharomyces cerevisiae oral infection, the oral exposure to cortisol analogs, cortisone acetate or estrogen, increases fly sensitivity to yeast challenge. To understand the mechanism of this steroid-induced immunosuppression, we identified the closest genetic GR homolog as D. melanogaster Estrogen Related Receptor (ERR) gene. We discovered that Drosophila ERR is necessary for cortisone acetate- and estrogen-mediated increase in sensitivity to fungal infection: while ERR mutant flies are as sensitive to the fungal challenge as the wildtype flies, the yeast-sensitivity of ERR mutants is not increased by these steroids. Interestingly, the fungal cortisone analog, ergosterol, did not increase the susceptibility of Drosophila to yeast infection. The immunosuppressive effect of steroids on the sensitivity of flies to fungi is evolutionary conserved in insects, as we show that estrogen significantly increases the yeast-sensitivity of Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes, whose genome contains a close ortholog of the fly ERR gene. CONCLUSIONS This study identifies a D. melanogaster gene that structurally resembles vertebrate GR and is functionally necessary for the steroid-mediated immunosuppression to fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Bartolo
- Henry E. Riggs School of Applied Life Sciences, Keck Graduate Institute, Claremont, CA, 91711, USA
| | - Leandra O Gonzalez
- Henry E. Riggs School of Applied Life Sciences, Keck Graduate Institute, Claremont, CA, 91711, USA
| | - Saleem Alameh
- Henry E. Riggs School of Applied Life Sciences, Keck Graduate Institute, Claremont, CA, 91711, USA
| | - C Alexander Valencia
- Aperiomics, Inc., Sterling, VA, 20166, USA
- Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, 1858 W Grandview Blvd, Erie, PA, 16509, USA
- Department of Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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17
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Lu Y, Su F, Li Q, Zhang J, Li Y, Tang T, Hu Q, Yu XQ. Pattern recognition receptors in Drosophila immune responses. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 102:103468. [PMID: 31430488 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2019.103468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Insects, which lack the adaptive immune system, have developed sophisticated innate immune system consisting of humoral and cellular immune responses to defend against invading microorganisms. Non-self recognition of microbes is the front line of the innate immune system. Repertoires of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) recognize the conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) present in microbes, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), peptidoglycan (PGN), lipoteichoic acid (LTA) and β-1, 3-glucans, and induce innate immune responses. In this review, we summarize current knowledge of the structure, classification and roles of PRRs in innate immunity of the model organism Drosophila melanogaster, focusing mainly on the peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs), Gram-negative bacteria-binding proteins (GNBPs), scavenger receptors (SRs), thioester-containing proteins (TEPs), and lectins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzhen Lu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China; Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Insect Development Regulation and Application Research, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fanghua Su
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qilin Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yanjun Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ting Tang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qihao Hu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Qiang Yu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China; Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Insect Development Regulation and Application Research, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.
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18
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Chambers MC, Jacobson E, Khalil S, Lazzaro BP. Consequences of chronic bacterial infection in Drosophila melanogaster. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224440. [PMID: 31648237 PMCID: PMC6812774 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Even when successfully surviving an infection, a host often fails to eliminate a pathogen completely and may sustain substantial pathogen burden for the remainder of its life. Using systemic bacterial infection in Drosophila melanogaster, we characterize chronic infection by three bacterial species from different genera - Providencia rettgeri, Serratia marcescens, and Enterococcus faecalis–following inoculation with a range of doses. To assess the consequences of these chronic infections, we determined the expression of antimicrobial peptide genes, survival of secondary infection, and starvation resistance after one week of infection. While higher infectious doses unsurprisingly lead to higher risk of death, they also result in higher chronic bacterial loads among the survivors for all three infections. All three chronic infections caused significantly elevated expression of antimicrobial peptide genes at one week post-infection and provided generalized protection again secondary bacterial infection. Only P. rettgeri infection significantly influenced resistance to starvation, with persistently infected flies dying more quickly under starvation conditions relative to controls. These results suggest that there is potentially a generalized mechanism of protection against secondary infection, but that other impacts on host physiology may depend on the specific pathogen. We propose that chronic infections in D. melanogaster could be a valuable tool for studying tolerance of infection, including impacts on host physiology and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moria Cairns Chambers
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Eliana Jacobson
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Sarah Khalil
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Brian P. Lazzaro
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- Cornell Institute of Host-Microbe Interactions and Disease, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
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19
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Melcarne C, Lemaitre B, Kurant E. Phagocytosis in Drosophila: From molecules and cellular machinery to physiology. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 109:1-12. [PMID: 30953686 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Phagocytosis is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism that plays a key role in both host defence and tissue homeostasis in multicellular organisms. A range of surface receptors expressed on different cell types allow discriminating between self and non-self (or altered) material, thus enabling phagocytosis of pathogens and apoptotic cells. The phagocytosis process can be divided into four main steps: 1) binding of the phagocyte to the target particle, 2) particle internalization and phagosome formation, through remodelling of the plasma membrane, 3) phagosome maturation, and 4) particle destruction in the phagolysosome. In this review, we describe our present knowledge on phagocytosis in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, assessing each of the key steps involved in engulfment of both apoptotic cells and bacteria. We also assess the physiological role of phagocytosis in host defence, development and tissue homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Melcarne
- Global Health Institute, School of Life Science, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - B Lemaitre
- Global Health Institute, School of Life Science, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - E Kurant
- Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, 34988, Israel.
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20
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Coordination between Rac1 and Rab Proteins: Functional Implications in Health and Disease. Cells 2019; 8:cells8050396. [PMID: 31035701 PMCID: PMC6562727 DOI: 10.3390/cells8050396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The small GTPases of the Rho family regulate many aspects of actin dynamics, but are functionally connected to many other cellular processes. Rac1, a member of this family, besides its known function in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton, plays a key role in the production of reactive oxygen species, in gene transcription, in DNA repair, and also has been proven to have specific roles in neurons. This review focuses on the cooperation between Rac1 and Rab proteins, analyzing how the coordination between these GTPases impact on cells and how alterations of their functions lead to disease.
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21
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Troha K, Buchon N. Methods for the study of innate immunity in Drosophila melanogaster. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2019; 8:e344. [PMID: 30993906 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
From flies to humans, many components of the innate immune system have been conserved during metazoan evolution. This foundational observation has allowed us to develop Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, into a powerful model to study innate immunity in animals. Thanks to an ever-growing arsenal of genetic tools, an easily manipulated genome, and its winning disposition, Drosophila is now employed to study not only basic molecular mechanisms of pathogen recognition and immune signaling, but also the nature of physiological responses activated in the host by microbial challenge and how dysregulation of these processes contributes to disease. Here, we present a collection of methods and protocols to challenge the fly with an assortment of microbes, both systemically and orally, and assess its humoral, cellular, and epithelial response to infection. Our review covers techniques for measuring the reaction to microbial infection both qualitatively and quantitatively. Specifically, we describe survival, bacterial load, BLUD (a measure of disease tolerance), phagocytosis, melanization, clotting, and ROS production assays, as well as efficient protocols to collect hemolymph and measure immune gene expression. We also offer an updated catalog of online resources and a collection of popular reporter lines and mutants to facilitate research efforts. This article is categorized under: Technologies > Analysis of Cell, Tissue, and Animal Phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Troha
- Department of Entomology, Cornell Institute of Host-Microbe Interactions and Disease, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
| | - Nicolas Buchon
- Department of Entomology, Cornell Institute of Host-Microbe Interactions and Disease, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
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22
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Dudzic JP, Hanson MA, Iatsenko I, Kondo S, Lemaitre B. More Than Black or White: Melanization and Toll Share Regulatory Serine Proteases in Drosophila. Cell Rep 2019; 27:1050-1061.e3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.03.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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23
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Banerjee U, Girard JR, Goins LM, Spratford CM. Drosophila as a Genetic Model for Hematopoiesis. Genetics 2019; 211:367-417. [PMID: 30733377 PMCID: PMC6366919 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.118.300223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In this FlyBook chapter, we present a survey of the current literature on the development of the hematopoietic system in Drosophila The Drosophila blood system consists entirely of cells that function in innate immunity, tissue integrity, wound healing, and various forms of stress response, and are therefore functionally similar to myeloid cells in mammals. The primary cell types are specialized for phagocytic, melanization, and encapsulation functions. As in mammalian systems, multiple sites of hematopoiesis are evident in Drosophila and the mechanisms involved in this process employ many of the same molecular strategies that exemplify blood development in humans. Drosophila blood progenitors respond to internal and external stress by coopting developmental pathways that involve both local and systemic signals. An important goal of these Drosophila studies is to develop the tools and mechanisms critical to further our understanding of human hematopoiesis during homeostasis and dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Utpal Banerjee
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Juliet R Girard
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Lauren M Goins
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Carrie M Spratford
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
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24
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Drosophila as a Model to Study Brain Innate Immunity in Health and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19123922. [PMID: 30544507 PMCID: PMC6321579 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19123922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immunity is the first line of defense against invading pathogens and plays an essential role in defending the brain against infection, injury, and disease. It is currently well recognized that central nervous system (CNS) infections can result in long-lasting neurological sequelae and that innate immune and inflammatory reactions are highly implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration. Due to the conservation of the mechanisms that govern neural development and innate immune activation from flies to mammals, the lack of a classical adaptive immune system and the availability of numerous genetic and genomic tools, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster presents opportunities to investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms associated with immune function in brain tissue and how they relate to infection, injury and neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we present an overview of currently identified innate immune mechanisms specific to the adult Drosophila brain.
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25
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Nystrand M, Cassidy EJ, Dowling DK. The effects of a bacterial challenge on reproductive success of fruit flies evolved under low or high sexual selection. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:9341-9352. [PMID: 30377505 PMCID: PMC6194216 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2018] [Revised: 06/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The capacity of individuals to cope with stress, for example, from pathogen exposure, might decrease with increasing levels of sexual selection, although it remains unclear which sex should be more sensitive. Here, we measured the ability of each sex to maintain high reproductive success following challenges with either heat-killed bacteria or procedural control, across replicate populations of Drosophila melanogaster evolved under either high or low levels of sexual selection. Our experiment was run across four separate sampling blocks. We found an interaction between bacterial treatment, sexual selection treatment, and sampling block on female reproductive success. Specifically, and only in the fourth block, we observed that bacterial-challenged females that had evolved under high sexual selection, exhibited lower reproductive success than bacterial-challenged females that had evolved under low sexual selection. Furthermore, we could trace this block-specific effect to a reduction in viscosity of the ovipositioning substrate in the fourth block, in which females laid around 50% more eggs than in previous blocks. In contrast, patterns of male reproductive success were consistent across blocks. Males that evolved under high sexual selection exhibited higher reproductive success than their low-selection counterparts, regardless of whether they were subjected to a bacterial challenge or not. Our results are consistent with the prediction that heightened sexual selection will invoke male-specific evolutionary increases in reproductive fitness. Furthermore, our findings suggest that females might pay fitness costs when exposed to high levels of sexual selection, but that these costs may lie cryptic, and only be revealed under certain environmental contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elizabeth J. Cassidy
- School of Biological SciencesMonash UniversityClaytonVic.Australia
- Department of Plant and Organismal BiologyUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagenDenmark
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26
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Nazario-Toole AE, Robalino J, Okrah K, Corrada-Bravo H, Mount SM, Wu LP. The Splicing Factor RNA-Binding Fox Protein 1 Mediates the Cellular Immune Response in Drosophila melanogaster. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 201:1154-1164. [PMID: 29997126 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1800496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The uptake and destruction of bacteria by phagocytic cells is an essential defense mechanism in metazoans. To identify novel genes involved in the phagocytosis of Staphylococcus aureus, a major human pathogen, we assessed the phagocytic capacity of adult blood cells (hemocytes) of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, by testing several lines of the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel. Natural genetic variation in the gene RNA-binding Fox protein 1 (Rbfox1) correlated with low phagocytic capacity in hemocytes, pointing to Rbfox1 as a candidate regulator of phagocytosis. Loss of Rbfox1 resulted in increased expression of the Ig superfamily member Down syndrome adhesion molecule 4 (Dscam4). Silencing of Dscam4 in Rbfox1-depleted blood cells rescued the fly's cellular immune response to S. aureus, indicating that downregulation of Dscam4 by Rbfox1 is critical for S. aureus phagocytosis in Drosophila To our knowledge, this study is the first to demonstrate a link between Rbfox1, Dscam4, and host defense against S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley E Nazario-Toole
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742.,Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742; and
| | - Javier Robalino
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
| | - Kwame Okrah
- Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
| | - Hector Corrada-Bravo
- Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
| | - Stephen M Mount
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742.,Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
| | - Louisa P Wu
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742; .,Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742; and
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27
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Haller S, Franchet A, Hakkim A, Chen J, Drenkard E, Yu S, Schirmeier S, Li Z, Martins N, Ausubel FM, Liégeois S, Ferrandon D. Quorum-sensing regulator RhlR but not its autoinducer RhlI enables Pseudomonas to evade opsonization. EMBO Rep 2018. [PMID: 29523648 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201744880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
When Drosophila melanogaster feeds on Pseudomonas aeruginosa, some bacteria cross the intestinal barrier and eventually proliferate in the hemocoel. This process is limited by hemocytes through phagocytosis. P. aeruginosa requires the quorum-sensing regulator RhlR to elude the cellular immune response of the fly. RhlI synthesizes the autoinducer signal that activates RhlR. Here, we show that rhlI mutants are unexpectedly more virulent than rhlR mutants, both in fly and in nematode intestinal infection models, suggesting that RhlR has RhlI-independent functions. We also report that RhlR protects P. aeruginosa from opsonization mediated by the Drosophila thioester-containing protein 4 (Tep4). RhlR mutant bacteria show higher levels of Tep4-mediated opsonization, as compared to rhlI mutants, which prevents lethal bacteremia in the Drosophila hemocoel. In contrast, in a septic model of infection, in which bacteria are introduced directly into the hemocoel, Tep4 mutant flies are more resistant to wild-type P. aeruginosa, but not to the rhlR mutant. Thus, depending on the infection route, the Tep4 opsonin can either be protective or detrimental to host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Haller
- CNRS, M3I UPR 9022, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Adrien Franchet
- CNRS, M3I UPR 9022, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Abdul Hakkim
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jing Chen
- Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Eliana Drenkard
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Shen Yu
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Zi Li
- Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Nelson Martins
- CNRS, M3I UPR 9022, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Frederick M Ausubel
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Samuel Liégeois
- CNRS, M3I UPR 9022, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Dominique Ferrandon
- CNRS, M3I UPR 9022, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France .,Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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28
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Duneau DF, Kondolf HC, Im JH, Ortiz GA, Chow C, Fox MA, Eugénio AT, Revah J, Buchon N, Lazzaro BP. The Toll pathway underlies host sexual dimorphism in resistance to both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria in mated Drosophila. BMC Biol 2017; 15:124. [PMID: 29268741 PMCID: PMC5740927 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-017-0466-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Host sexual dimorphism is being increasingly recognized to generate strong differences in the outcome of infectious disease, but the mechanisms underlying immunological differences between males and females remain poorly characterized. Here, we used Drosophila melanogaster to assess and dissect sexual dimorphism in the innate response to systemic bacterial infection. RESULTS We demonstrated sexual dimorphism in susceptibility to infection by a broad spectrum of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. We found that both virgin and mated females are more susceptible than mated males to most, but not all, infections. We investigated in more detail the lower resistance of females to infection with Providencia rettgeri, a Gram-negative bacterium that naturally infects D. melanogaster. We found that females have a higher number of phagocytes than males and that ablation of hemocytes does not eliminate the dimorphism in resistance to P. rettgeri, so the observed dimorphism does not stem from differences in the cellular response. The Imd pathway is critical for the production of antimicrobial peptides in response to Gram-negative bacteria, but mutants for Imd signaling continued to exhibit dimorphism even though both sexes showed strongly reduced resistance. Instead, we found that the Toll pathway is responsible for the dimorphism in resistance. The Toll pathway is dimorphic in genome-wide constitutive gene expression and in induced response to infection. Toll signaling is dimorphic in both constitutive signaling and in induced activation in response to P. rettgeri infection. The dimorphism in pathway activation can be specifically attributed to Persephone-mediated immune stimulation, by which the Toll pathway is triggered in response to pathogen-derived virulence factors. We additionally found that, in absence of Toll signaling, males become more susceptible than females to the Gram-positive Enterococcus faecalis. This reversal in susceptibility between male and female Toll pathway mutants compared to wildtype hosts highlights the key role of the Toll pathway in D. melanogaster sexual dimorphism in resistance to infection. CONCLUSION Altogether, our data demonstrate that Toll pathway activity differs between male and female D. melanogaster in response to bacterial infection, thus identifying innate immune signaling as a determinant of sexual immune dimorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- David F Duneau
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France. .,CNRS, Université Paul Sabatier, UMR5174 EDB, F-31062, Toulouse, France.
| | - Hannah C Kondolf
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France.,Present Address: Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Joo Hyun Im
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France.,Cornell Institute of Host Microbe Interactions and Disease, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Gerardo A Ortiz
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France
| | - Christopher Chow
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France
| | - Michael A Fox
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France
| | - Ana T Eugénio
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, P-2780, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - J Revah
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France.,Cornell Institute of Host Microbe Interactions and Disease, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Nicolas Buchon
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France.,Cornell Institute of Host Microbe Interactions and Disease, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Brian P Lazzaro
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France.,Cornell Institute of Host Microbe Interactions and Disease, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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29
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Khadilkar RJ, Vogl W, Goodwin K, Tanentzapf G. Modulation of occluding junctions alters the hematopoietic niche to trigger immune activation. eLife 2017; 6:28081. [PMID: 28841136 PMCID: PMC5597334 DOI: 10.7554/elife.28081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Stem cells are regulated by signals from their microenvironment, or niche. During Drosophila hematopoiesis, a niche regulates prohemocytes to control hemocyte production. Immune challenges activate cell-signalling to initiate the cellular and innate immune response. Specifically, certain immune challenges stimulate the niche to produce signals that induce prohemocyte differentiation. However, the mechanisms that promote prohemocyte differentiation subsequent to immune challenges are poorly understood. Here we show that bacterial infection induces the cellular immune response by modulating occluding-junctions at the hematopoietic niche. Occluding-junctions form a permeability barrier that regulates the accessibility of prohemocytes to niche derived signals. The immune response triggered by infection causes barrier breakdown, altering the prohemocyte microenvironment to induce immune cell production. Moreover, genetically induced barrier ablation provides protection against infection by activating the immune response. Our results reveal a novel role for occluding-junctions in regulating niche-hematopoietic progenitor signalling and link this mechanism to immune cell production following infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohan J Khadilkar
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Wayne Vogl
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Katharine Goodwin
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Guy Tanentzapf
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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30
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Urbanová V, Hajdušek O, Hönig Mondeková H, Šíma R, Kopáček P. Tick Thioester-Containing Proteins and Phagocytosis Do Not Affect Transmission of Borrelia afzelii from the Competent Vector Ixodes ricinus. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:73. [PMID: 28361038 PMCID: PMC5352706 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The present concept of the transmission of Lyme disease from Borrelia-infected Ixodes sp. ticks to the naïve host assumes that a low number of spirochetes that manage to penetrate the midgut epithelium migrate through the hemocoel to the salivary glands and subsequently infect the host with the aid of immunomodulatory compounds present in tick saliva. Therefore, humoral and/or cellular immune reactions within the tick hemocoel may play an important role in tick competence to act as a vector for borreliosis. To test this hypothesis we have examined complement-like reactions in the hemolymph of the hard tick Ixodes ricinus against Borrelia afzelii (the most common vector and causative agent of Lyme disease in Europe). We demonstrate that I. ricinus hemolymph does not exhibit borreliacidal effects comparable to complement-mediated lysis of bovine sera. However, after injection of B. afzelii into the tick hemocoel, the spirochetes were efficiently phagocytosed by tick hemocytes and this cellular defense was completely eliminated by pre-injection of latex beads. As tick thioester-containing proteins (T-TEPs) are components of the tick complement system, we performed RNAi-mediated silencing of all nine genes encoding individual T-TEPs followed by in vitro phagocytosis assays. Silencing of two molecules related to the C3 complement component (IrC3-2 and IrC3-3) significantly suppressed phagocytosis of B. afzelii, while knockdown of IrTep (insect type TEP) led to its stimulation. However, RNAi-mediated silencing of T-TEPs or elimination of phagocytosis by injection of latex beads in B. afzelii-infected I. ricinus nymphs had no obvious impact on the transmission of spirochetes to naïve mice, as determined by B. afzelii infection of murine tissues following tick infestation. This result supports the concept that Borrelia spirochetes are capable of avoiding complement-related reactions within the hemocoel of ticks competent to transmit Lyme disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Urbanová
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology Ceske Budejovice, Czechia
| | - Ondřej Hajdušek
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology Ceske Budejovice, Czechia
| | - Helena Hönig Mondeková
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology Ceske Budejovice, Czechia
| | - Radek Šíma
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology Ceske Budejovice, Czechia
| | - Petr Kopáček
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology Ceske Budejovice, Czechia
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31
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Nystrand M, Cassidy EJ, Dowling DK. No effect of mitochondrial genotype on reproductive plasticity following exposure to a non-infectious pathogen challenge in female or male Drosophila. Sci Rep 2017; 7:42009. [PMID: 28181526 PMCID: PMC5299430 DOI: 10.1038/srep42009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial genetic variation shapes the expression of life-history traits associated with reproduction, development and survival, and has also been associated with the prevalence and progression of infectious bacteria and viruses in humans. The breadth of these effects on multifaceted components of health, and their link to disease susceptibility, led us to test whether variation across mitochondrial haplotypes affected reproductive success following an immune challenge in the form of a non-infectious pathogen. We test this, by challenging male and female fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), harbouring each of three distinct mitochondrial haplotypes in an otherwise standardized genetic background, to either a mix of heat-killed bacteria, or a procedural control, prior to measuring their subsequent reproductive performance. The effect of the pathogen challenge on reproductive success did not differ across mitochondrial haplotypes; thus there was no evidence that patterns of reproductive plasticity were modified by the mitochondrial genotype following a non-infectious pathogen exposure. We discuss the implications of our data, and suggest future research avenues based on these results.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nystrand
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - E J Cassidy
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia.,Department of Plant and Organismal Biology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - D K Dowling
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
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32
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Advances in Myeloid-Like Cell Origins and Functions in the Model Organism Drosophila melanogaster. Microbiol Spectr 2017; 5. [PMID: 28102122 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.mchd-0038-2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Drosophila has long served as a valuable model for deciphering many biological processes, including immune responses. Indeed, the genetic tractability of this organism is particularly suited for large-scale analyses. Studies performed during the last 3 decades have proven that the signaling pathways that regulate the innate immune response are conserved between Drosophila and mammals. This review summarizes the recent advances on Drosophila hematopoiesis and immune cellular responses, with a particular emphasis on phagocytosis.
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33
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Guillou A, Troha K, Wang H, Franc NC, Buchon N. The Drosophila CD36 Homologue croquemort Is Required to Maintain Immune and Gut Homeostasis during Development and Aging. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005961. [PMID: 27780230 PMCID: PMC5079587 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Phagocytosis is an ancient mechanism central to both tissue homeostasis and immune defense. Both the identity of the receptors that mediate bacterial phagocytosis and the nature of the interactions between phagocytosis and other defense mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we report that Croquemort (Crq), a Drosophila member of the CD36 family of scavenger receptors, is required for microbial phagocytosis and efficient bacterial clearance. Flies mutant for crq are susceptible to environmental microbes during development and succumb to a variety of microbial infections as adults. Crq acts parallel to the Toll and Imd pathways to eliminate bacteria via phagocytosis. crq mutant flies exhibit enhanced and prolonged immune and cytokine induction accompanied by premature gut dysplasia and decreased lifespan. The chronic state of immune activation in crq mutant flies is further regulated by negative regulators of the Imd pathway. Altogether, our data demonstrate that Crq plays a key role in maintaining immune and organismal homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélien Guillou
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States Of America
| | - Katia Troha
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States Of America
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Cell & Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States Of America
| | - Nathalie C. Franc
- Department of Cell & Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States Of America
| | - Nicolas Buchon
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States Of America
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34
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Nystrand M, Cassidy EJ, Dowling DK. Transgenerational plasticity following a dual pathogen and stress challenge in fruit flies. BMC Evol Biol 2016; 16:171. [PMID: 27567640 PMCID: PMC5002108 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-016-0737-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phenotypic plasticity operates across generations, when the parental environment affects phenotypic expression in the offspring. Recent studies in invertebrates have reported transgenerational plasticity in phenotypic responses of offspring when the mothers had been previously exposed to either live or heat-killed pathogens. Understanding whether this plasticity is adaptive requires a factorial design in which both mothers and their offspring are subjected to either the pathogen challenge or a control, in experimentally matched and mismatched combinations. Most prior studies exploring the capacity for pathogen-mediated transgenerational plasticity have, however, failed to adopt such a design. Furthermore, it is currently poorly understood whether the magnitude or direction of pathogen-mediated transgenerational responses will be sensitive to environmental heterogeneity. Here, we explored the transgenerational consequences of a dual pathogen and stress challenge administered in the maternal generation in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Prospective mothers were assigned to a non-infectious pathogen treatment consisting of an injection with heat-killed bacteria or a procedural control, and a stress treatment consisting of sleep deprivation or control. Their daughters and sons were similarly assigned to the same pathogen treatment, prior to measurement of their reproductive success. RESULTS We observed transgenerational interactions involving pathogen treatments of mothers and their offspring, on the reproductive success of daughters but not sons. These interactions were unaffected by sleep deprivation. CONCLUSIONS The direction of the transgenerational effects was not consistent with that predicted under a scenario of adaptive transgenerational plasticity. Instead, they were indicative of expectations based on terminal investment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Nystrand
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800 Australia
| | - E. J. Cassidy
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800 Australia
| | - D. K. Dowling
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800 Australia
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35
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Development of the Cellular Immune System of Drosophila Requires the Membrane Attack Complex/Perforin-Like Protein Torso-Like. Genetics 2016; 204:675-681. [PMID: 27535927 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.115.185462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Pore-forming members of the membrane attack complex/perforin-like (MACPF) protein superfamily perform well-characterized roles as mammalian immune effectors. For example, complement component 9 and perforin function to directly form pores in the membrane of Gram-negative pathogens or virally infected/transformed cells, respectively. In contrast, the only known MACPF protein in Drosophila melanogaster, Torso-like, plays crucial roles during development in embryo patterning and larval growth. Here, we report that in addition to these functions, Torso-like plays an important role in Drosophila immunity. However, in contrast to a hypothesized effector function in, for example, elimination of Gram-negative pathogens, we find that torso-like null mutants instead show increased susceptibility to certain Gram-positive pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis We further show that this deficit is due to a severely reduced number of circulating immune cells and, as a consequence, an impaired ability to phagocytose bacterial particles. Together these data suggest that Torso-like plays an important role in controlling the development of the Drosophila cellular immune system.
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36
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Letourneau M, Lapraz F, Sharma A, Vanzo N, Waltzer L, Crozatier M. Drosophila hematopoiesis under normal conditions and in response to immune stress. FEBS Lett 2016; 590:4034-4051. [PMID: 27455465 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2016] [Revised: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of hematopoietic progenitors and their differentiation into various highly specialized blood cell types constitute a finely tuned process. Unveiling the genetic cascades that control blood cell progenitor fate and understanding how they are modulated in response to environmental changes are two major challenges in the field of hematopoiesis. In the last 20 years, many studies have established important functional analogies between blood cell development in vertebrates and in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Thereby, Drosophila has emerged as a powerful genetic model for studying mechanisms that control hematopoiesis during normal development or in pathological situations. Moreover, recent advances in Drosophila have highlighted how intricate cell communication networks and microenvironmental cues regulate blood cell homeostasis. They have also revealed the striking plasticity of Drosophila mature blood cells and the presence of different sites of hematopoiesis in the larva. This review provides an overview of Drosophila hematopoiesis during development and summarizes our current knowledge on the molecular processes controlling larval hematopoiesis, both under normal conditions and in response to an immune challenge, such as wasp parasitism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manon Letourneau
- Centre de Biologie du Développement, UMR 5547 CNRS/Université Toulouse III and Centre de Biologie Intégrative, Toulouse Cedex 9, France
| | - Francois Lapraz
- Centre de Biologie du Développement, UMR 5547 CNRS/Université Toulouse III and Centre de Biologie Intégrative, Toulouse Cedex 9, France
| | - Anurag Sharma
- Centre de Biologie du Développement, UMR 5547 CNRS/Université Toulouse III and Centre de Biologie Intégrative, Toulouse Cedex 9, France.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, NU Centre for Science Education & Research, Nitte University, Mangalore-18, India
| | - Nathalie Vanzo
- Centre de Biologie du Développement, UMR 5547 CNRS/Université Toulouse III and Centre de Biologie Intégrative, Toulouse Cedex 9, France
| | - Lucas Waltzer
- Centre de Biologie du Développement, UMR 5547 CNRS/Université Toulouse III and Centre de Biologie Intégrative, Toulouse Cedex 9, France
| | - Michèle Crozatier
- Centre de Biologie du Développement, UMR 5547 CNRS/Université Toulouse III and Centre de Biologie Intégrative, Toulouse Cedex 9, France
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Wright-Giemsa staining to observe phagocytes in Locusta migratoria infected with Metarhizium acridum. J Invertebr Pathol 2016; 139:19-24. [PMID: 27345377 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2016.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Hemocytes are the first line of defense in the invertebrate immune system. Understanding their roles in cellular immunity is important for developing more efficient mycoinsecticides. However, the exact classification of hemocytes has been inconsistent and the various types of phagocytes in Locusta migratoria are poorly defined. Herein, the Wright-Giemsa staining method and microscopy were employed to characterize the hemocytes of L. migratoria following infection by Metarhizium acridum. Hemocytes were classified into four types, including granulocytes, plasmatocytes, prohemocytes, and oenocytoids, based on size, morphology, and dye-staining properties. Each type of hemocyte was classified into several subtypes according to different ultrastructural features. At least four subtypes of granulocytes or plasmatocytes, including small-nucleus plasmatocytes, basophil vacuolated plasmatocytes, homogeneous plasmatocytes, and eosinophilic granulocytes, carried out phagocytosis. The percentage of total phagocytes increased two days after infection by M. acridum, then gradually declined during the next two days, and then increased sharply again at the fifth day. Our data suggested that plasmatocytes and granulocytes may be the major phagocytes that protect against invasion by a fungal pathogen in L. migratoria. Total hemocytes in locusts significantly increased in the initial days after infection and decreased in the late period of infection compared to controls. In the hemocoel, hyphal bodies were recognized, enwrapped, and digested by the phagocytes. Then, the broken hyphal pieces were packaged as vesicles to be secreted from the cell. Moreover, locusts might have a sensitive and efficient cellular immune system that can regulate phagocyte differentiation and proliferation before fungi colonize the host hemolymph.
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Gold KS, Brückner K. Macrophages and cellular immunity in Drosophila melanogaster. Semin Immunol 2016; 27:357-68. [PMID: 27117654 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2016.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The invertebrate Drosophila melanogaster has been a powerful model for understanding blood cell development and immunity. Drosophila is a holometabolous insect, which transitions through a series of life stages from embryo, larva and pupa to adulthood. In spite of this, remarkable parallels exist between Drosophila and vertebrate macrophages, both in terms of development and function. More than 90% of Drosophila blood cells (hemocytes) are macrophages (plasmatocytes), making this highly tractable genetic system attractive for studying a variety of questions in macrophage biology. In vertebrates, recent findings revealed that macrophages have two independent origins: self-renewing macrophages, which reside and proliferate in local microenvironments in a variety of tissues, and macrophages of the monocyte lineage, which derive from hematopoietic stem or progenitor cells. Like vertebrates, Drosophila possesses two macrophage lineages with a conserved dual ontogeny. These parallels allow us to take advantage of the Drosophila model when investigating macrophage lineage specification, maintenance and amplification, and the induction of macrophages and their progenitors by local microenvironments and systemic cues. Beyond macrophage development, Drosophila further serves as a paradigm for understanding the mechanisms underlying macrophage function and cellular immunity in infection, tissue homeostasis and cancer, throughout development and adult life.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Katja Brückner
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research; Department of Cell and Tissue Biology; Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.
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39
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Pueyo JI, Magny EG, Sampson CJ, Amin U, Evans IR, Bishop SA, Couso JP. Hemotin, a Regulator of Phagocytosis Encoded by a Small ORF and Conserved across Metazoans. PLoS Biol 2016; 14:e1002395. [PMID: 27015288 PMCID: PMC4807881 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Translation of hundreds of small ORFs (smORFs) of less than 100 amino acids has recently been revealed in vertebrates and Drosophila. Some of these peptides have essential and conserved cellular functions. In Drosophila, we have predicted a particular smORF class encoding ~80 aa hydrophobic peptides, which may function in membranes and cell organelles. Here, we characterise hemotin, a gene encoding an 88aa transmembrane smORF peptide localised to early endosomes in Drosophila macrophages. hemotin regulates endosomal maturation during phagocytosis by repressing the cooperation of 14-3-3ζ with specific phosphatidylinositol (PI) enzymes. hemotin mutants accumulate undigested phagocytic material inside enlarged endo-lysosomes and as a result, hemotin mutants have reduced ability to fight bacteria, and hence, have severely reduced life span and resistance to infections. We identify Stannin, a peptide involved in organometallic toxicity, as the Hemotin functional homologue in vertebrates, showing that this novel regulator of phagocytic processing is widely conserved, emphasizing the significance of smORF peptides in cell biology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- José I. Pueyo
- Brighton and Sussex Medical School, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Emile G. Magny
- Brighton and Sussex Medical School, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | | | - Unum Amin
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Iwan R. Evans
- Department of Infection and Immunity and the Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, South Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah A. Bishop
- Brighton and Sussex Medical School, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Juan P. Couso
- Brighton and Sussex Medical School, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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40
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Lu HL, St. Leger R. Insect Immunity to Entomopathogenic Fungi. GENETICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGI 2016; 94:251-85. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.adgen.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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41
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Zink SD, Van Slyke GA, Palumbo MJ, Kramer LD, Ciota AT. Exposure to West Nile Virus Increases Bacterial Diversity and Immune Gene Expression in Culex pipiens. Viruses 2015; 7:5619-31. [PMID: 26516902 PMCID: PMC4632394 DOI: 10.3390/v7102886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Revised: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Complex interactions between microbial residents of mosquitoes and arboviruses are likely to influence many aspects of vectorial capacity and could potentially have profound effects on patterns of arbovirus transmission. Such interactions have not been well studied for West Nile virus (WNV; Flaviviridae, Flavivirus) and Culex spp. mosquitoes. We utilized next-generation sequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA bacterial genes derived from Culex pipiens Linnaeus following WNV exposure and/or infection and compared bacterial populations and broad immune responses to unexposed mosquitoes. Our results demonstrate that WNV infection increases the diversity of bacterial populations and is associated with up-regulation of classical invertebrate immune pathways including RNA interference (RNAi), Toll, and Jak-STAT (Janus kinase-Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription). In addition, WNV exposure alone, without the establishment of infection, results in similar alterations to microbial and immune signatures, although to a lesser extent. Multiple bacterial genera were found in greater abundance in WNV-exposed and/or infected mosquitoes, yet the most consistent and notable was the genus Serratia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven D Zink
- Griffin Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY 12159, USA.
| | - Greta A Van Slyke
- Griffin Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY 12159, USA.
| | - Michael J Palumbo
- Wadsworth Center Bioinformatics Core, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY 12222, USA.
| | - Laura D Kramer
- Griffin Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY 12159, USA.
| | - Alexander T Ciota
- Griffin Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY 12159, USA.
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42
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Nystrand M, Dowling DK. Transgenerational interactions involving parental age and immune status affect female reproductive success in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 281:20141242. [PMID: 25253454 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.1242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well established that the parental phenotype can influence offspring phenotypic expression, independent of the effects of the offspring's own genotype. Nonetheless, the evolutionary implications of such parental effects remain unclear, partly because previous studies have generally overlooked the potential for interactions between parental sources of non-genetic variance to influence patterns of offspring phenotypic expression. We tested for such interactions, subjecting male and female Drosophila melanogaster of two different age classes to an immune activation challenge or a control treatment. Flies were then crossed in all age and immune status combinations, and the reproductive success of their immune- and control-treated daughters measured. We found that daughters produced by two younger parents exhibited reduced reproductive success relative to those of other parental age combinations. Furthermore, immune-challenged daughters exhibited higher reproductive success when produced by immune-challenged relative to control-treated mothers, a pattern consistent with transgenerational immune priming. Finally, a complex interplay between paternal age and parental immune statuses influenced daughter's reproductive success. These findings demonstrate the dynamic nature of age- and immune-mediated parental effects, traceable to both parents, and regulated by interactions between parents and between parents and offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nystrand
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - D K Dowling
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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43
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Clemmons AW, Lindsay SA, Wasserman SA. An effector Peptide family required for Drosophila toll-mediated immunity. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004876. [PMID: 25915418 PMCID: PMC4411088 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In Drosophila melanogaster, recognition of an invading pathogen activates the Toll or Imd signaling pathway, triggering robust upregulation of innate immune effectors. Although the mechanisms of pathogen recognition and signaling are now well understood, the functions of the immune-induced transcriptome and proteome remain much less well characterized. Through bioinformatic analysis of effector gene sequences, we have defined a family of twelve genes – the Bomanins (Boms) – that are specifically induced by Toll and that encode small, secreted peptides of unknown biochemical activity. Using targeted genome engineering, we have deleted ten of the twelve Bom genes. Remarkably, inactivating these ten genes decreases survival upon microbial infection to the same extent, and with the same specificity, as does eliminating Toll pathway function. Toll signaling, however, appears unaffected. Assaying bacterial load post-infection in wild-type and mutant flies, we provide evidence that the Boms are required for resistance to, rather than tolerance of, infection. In addition, by generating and assaying a deletion of a smaller subset of the Bom genes, we find that there is overlap in Bom activity toward particular pathogens. Together, these studies deepen our understanding of Toll-mediated immunity and provide a new in vivo model for exploration of the innate immune effector repertoire. Dedicated defense systems in the bodies of humans and other animals protect against dangerous microbes, such as bacteria and fungi. We study these processes in the fruit fly Drosophila, which can be readily grown and manipulated in the laboratory. In this animal, as in humans, protective activities are triggered when fragments of bacteria or fungi activate a system for defense gene regulation known as the Toll signaling pathway. The result is the large-scale production of defense molecules and, in many cases, clearance of the infection and survival of the animal. Although the systems for recognizing and initiating responses are well described, the role of many defense molecules is not understood. We have identified a group of closely related defense molecules in flies and used state-of-the-art genomic engineering to simultaneously eliminate most of the genes in the group. By comparing the effect of fungal or bacterial infection on the genetically altered flies and normal siblings, we find that this group of defense molecules is essential for disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexa W. Clemmons
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Scott A. Lindsay
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Steven A. Wasserman
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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44
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Vlisidou I, Wood W. Drosophila blood cells and their role in immune responses. FEBS J 2015; 282:1368-82. [PMID: 25688716 DOI: 10.1111/febs.13235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Revised: 02/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Drosophila melanogaster has been extensively used to study the humoral arm of innate immunity because of the developmental and functional parallels with mammalian innate immunity. However, the fly cellular response to infection is far less understood. Investigative work on Drosophila haemocytes, the immunosurveillance cells of the insect, has revealed that they fulfil roles similar to mammalian monocytes and macrophages. They respond to wound signals and orchestrate the coagulation response. In addition, they phagocytose and encapsulate invading pathogens, and clear up apoptotic bodies controlling inflammation. This review briefly describes the Drosophila haematopoietic system and discusses what is currently known about the contribution of haemocytes to the immune response upon infection and wounding, during all stages of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Vlisidou
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, UK
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45
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Heisig M, Abraham NM, Liu L, Neelakanta G, Mattessich S, Sultana H, Shang Z, Ansari JM, Killiam C, Walker W, Cooley L, Flavell RA, Agaisse H, Fikrig E. Antivirulence properties of an antifreeze protein. Cell Rep 2014; 9:417-24. [PMID: 25373896 PMCID: PMC4223805 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2014.09.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Revised: 07/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
As microbial drug-resistance increases, there is a critical need for new classes of compounds to combat infectious diseases. The Ixodes scapularis tick antifreeze glycoprotein, IAFGP, functions as an antivirulence agent against diverse bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Recombinant IAFGP and a peptide, P1, derived from this protein bind to microbes and alter biofilm formation. Transgenic iafgp-expressing flies and mice challenged with bacteria, as well as wild-type animals administered P1, were resistant to infection, septic shock, or biofilm development on implanted catheter tubing. These data show that an antifreeze protein facilitates host control of bacterial infections and suggest therapeutic strategies for countering pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Heisig
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
| | - Nabil M Abraham
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Lei Liu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Girish Neelakanta
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Sarah Mattessich
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Hameeda Sultana
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Zhengling Shang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Juliana M Ansari
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Charlotte Killiam
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Wendy Walker
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Lynn Cooley
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Richard A Flavell
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Herve Agaisse
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA.
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46
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Horn L, Leips J, Starz‐Gaiano M. Phagocytic ability declines with age in adult Drosophila hemocytes. Aging Cell 2014; 13:719-28. [PMID: 24828474 PMCID: PMC4116448 DOI: 10.1111/acel.12227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Most multicellular organisms show a physiological decline in immune function with age. However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying these changes. We examined Drosophila melanogaster, an important model for identifying genes affecting innate immunity and senescence, to explore the role of phagocytosis in age-related immune dysfunction. We characterized the localized response of immune cells at the dorsal vessel to bacterial infection in 1-week- and 5-week-old flies. We developed a quantitative phagocytosis assay for adult Drosophila and utilized this to characterize the effect of age on phagocytosis in transgenic and natural variant lines. We showed that genes necessary for bacterial engulfment in other contexts are also required in adult flies. We found that blood cells from young and old flies initially engulf bacteria equally well, while cells from older flies accumulate phagocytic vesicles and thus are less capable of destroying pathogens. Our results have broad implications for understanding how the breakdown in cellular processes influences immune function with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Horn
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Maryland Baltimore County Baltimore MD 21250USA
| | - Jeff Leips
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Maryland Baltimore County Baltimore MD 21250USA
| | - Michelle Starz‐Gaiano
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Maryland Baltimore County Baltimore MD 21250USA
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47
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Panayidou S, Ioannidou E, Apidianakis Y. Human pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses in Drosophila: disease modeling, lessons, and shortcomings. Virulence 2014; 5:253-69. [PMID: 24398387 DOI: 10.4161/viru.27524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Drosophila has been the invertebrate model organism of choice for the study of innate immune responses during the past few decades. Many Drosophila-microbe interaction studies have helped to define innate immunity pathways, and significant effort has been made lately to decipher mechanisms of microbial pathogenesis. Here we catalog 68 bacterial, fungal, and viral species studied in flies, 43 of which are relevant to human health. We discuss studies of human pathogens in flies revealing not only the elicitation and avoidance of immune response but also mechanisms of tolerance, host tissue homeostasis, regeneration, and predisposition to cancer. Prominent among those is the emerging pattern of intestinal regeneration as a defense response induced by pathogenic and innocuous bacteria. Immunopathology mechanisms and many microbial virulence factors have been elucidated, but their relevance to human health conventionally necessitates validation in mammalian models of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stavria Panayidou
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Cyprus; Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Eleni Ioannidou
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Cyprus; Nicosia, Cyprus
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48
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Valanne S. Functional genomic analysis of the Drosophila immune response. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 42:93-101. [PMID: 23707784 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Revised: 05/13/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Drosophila melanogaster has been widely used as a model organism for over a century now, and also as an immunological research model for over 20 years. With the emergence of RNA interference (RNAi) in Drosophila as a robust tool to silence genes of interest, large-scale or genome-wide functional analysis has become a popular way of studying the Drosophila immune response in cell culture. Drosophila immunity is composed of cellular and humoral immunity mechanisms, and especially the systemic, humoral response pathways have been extensively dissected using the functional genomic approach. Although most components of the main immune pathways had already been found using traditional genetic screening techniques, important findings including pathway components, positive and negative regulators and modifiers have been made with RNAi screening. Additionally, RNAi screening has produced new information on host-pathogen interactions related to the pathogenesis of many microbial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna Valanne
- Institute of Biomedical Technology and BioMediTech, Tampere University, 33520 Tampere, Finland.
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49
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Estévez-Lao TY, Hillyer JF. Involvement of the Anopheles gambiae Nimrod gene family in mosquito immune responses. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 44:12-22. [PMID: 24200842 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2013.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2013] [Revised: 10/23/2013] [Accepted: 10/25/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Insects fight infection using a variety of signaling pathways and immune effector proteins. In Drosophila melanogaster, three members of the Nimrod gene family (draper, nimC1 and eater) bind bacteria, and this binding leads to phagocytosis by hemocytes. The Nimrod gene family has since been identified in other insects, but their function in non-drosophilids remains unknown. The purpose of this study was to identify the members of the Nimrod gene family in the malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, and to assess their role in immunity. We identified and sequenced three members of this gene family, herein named draper, nimrod and eater, which are the orthologs of D. melanogaster draper, nimB2 and eater, respectively. The three genes are preferentially expressed in hemocytes and their peak developmental expression is in pupae and young adults. Infection induces the transcriptional upregulation of all three genes, but the magnitude of this upregulation becomes more attenuated as mosquitoes become older. RNAi-based knockdown of eater, but not draper or nimrod, decreased a mosquito's ability to kill Escherichia coli in the hemocoel. Knockdown of draper, eater, or any combination of Nimrod family genes rendered mosquitoes more likely to die from Staphylococcus epidermidis. Finally, knockdown of Nimrod family genes did not impact mRNA levels of the antimicrobial peptides defensin (def1), cecropin (cecA) or gambicin (gam1), but eater knockdown led to a decrease in mRNA levels of nitric oxide synthase. Together, these data show that members of the A. gambiae Nimrod gene family are positive regulators of the mosquito antibacterial response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania Y Estévez-Lao
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, VU Station B 35-1634, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
| | - Julián F Hillyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, VU Station B 35-1634, Nashville, TN 37235, USA.
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50
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Gonzalez EA, Garg A, Tang J, Nazario-Toole AE, Wu LP. A glutamate-dependent redox system in blood cells is integral for phagocytosis in Drosophila melanogaster. Curr Biol 2013; 23:2319-2324. [PMID: 24210616 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.09.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2013] [Revised: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate transport is highly regulated as glutamate directly acts as a neurotransmitter and indirectly regulates the synthesis of antioxidants. Although glutamate deregulation has been repeatedly linked to serious human diseases such as HIV infection and Alzheimer's, glutamate's role in the immune system is still poorly understood. We find that a putative glutamate transporter in Drosophila melanogaster, polyphemus (polyph), plays an integral part in the fly's immune response. Flies with a disrupted polyph gene exhibit decreased phagocytosis of microbial-derived bioparticles. When infected with S. aureus, polyph flies show an increase in both susceptibility and bacterial growth. Additionally, the expression of two known glutamate transporters, genderblind and excitatory amino acid transporter 1, in blood cells affects the flies' ability to phagocytose and survive after an infection. Consistent with previous data showing a regulatory role for glutamate transport in the synthesis of the major antioxidant glutathione, polyph flies produce more reactive oxygen species (ROS) as compared to wild-type flies when exposed to S. aureus. In conclusion, we demonstrate that a polyph-dependent redox system in blood cells is necessary to maintain the cells' immune-related functions. Furthermore, our model provides insight into how deregulation of glutamate transport may play a role in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Gonzalez
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Aprajita Garg
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jessica Tang
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ashley E Nazario-Toole
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Louisa P Wu
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
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