Arabidopsis CPR5 independently regulates seed germination and postgermination arrest of development through LOX pathway and ABA signaling

Effects of Jasmonic Acid on Stress Response and Quality Formation in Vegetable Crops and Their Underlying Molecular Mechanisms

The plant hormone jasmonic acid plays an important role in plant growth and development, participating in many physiological processes, such as plant disease resistance, stress resistance, organ development, root growth, and flowering. With the improvement in living standards, people have higher requirements regarding the quality of vegetables. However, during the growth process of vegetables, they are often attacked by pests and diseases and undergo abiotic stresses, resulting in their growth restriction and decreases in their yield and quality. Therefore, people have found many ways to regulate the growth and quality of vegetable crops. In recent years, in addition to the role that JA plays in stress response and resistance, it has been found to have a regulatory effect on crop quality. Therefore, this study aims to review the jasmonic acid accumulation patterns during various physiological processes and its potential role in vegetable development and quality formation, as well as the underlying molecular mechanisms. The information provided in this manuscript sheds new light on the improvements in vegetable yield and quality.

Arabidopsis EIN2 represses ABA responses during germination and early seedling growth by inactivating HLS1 protein independently of the canonical ethylene pathway

The signaling pathways for the phytohormones ethylene and abscisic acid (ABA) have antagonistic effects on seed germination and early seedling establishment. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. In Arabidopsis thaliana, ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 2 (EIN2) localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER); although its biochemical function is unknown, it connects the ethylene signal with the key transcription factors EIN3 and EIN3-LIKE 1 (EIL1), leading to the transcriptional activation of ethylene-responsive genes. In this study, we uncovered an EIN3/EIL1-independent role for EIN2 in regulating the ABA response. Epistasis analysis demonstrated that this distinct role of EIN2 in the ABA response depends on HOOKLESS 1 (HLS1), the putative histone acetyltransferase acting as a positive regulator of ABA responses. Protein interaction assays supported a direct physical interaction between EIN2 and HLS1 in vitro and in vivo. Loss of EIN2 function resulted in an alteration of HLS1-mediated histone acetylation at the ABA-INSENSITIVE 3 (ABI3) and ABI5 loci, which promotes gene expression and the ABA response during seed germination and early seedling growth, indicating that the EIN2-HLS1 module contributes to ABA responses. Our study thus revealed that EIN2 modulates ABA responses by repressing HLS1 function, independently of the canonical ethylene pathway. These findings shed light on the intricate regulatory mechanisms underling the antagonistic interactions between ethylene and ABA signaling, with significant implications for our understanding of plant growth and development.

CPR5-mediated nucleo-cytoplasmic localization of IAA12 and IAA19 controls lateral root development during abiotic stress

Plasticity of the root system architecture (RSA) is essential in enabling plants to cope with various environmental stresses and is mainly controlled by the phytohormone auxin. Lateral root development is a major determinant of RSA. Abiotic stresses reduce auxin signaling output, inhibiting lateral root development; however, how abiotic stress translates into a lower auxin signaling output is not fully understood. Here, we show that the nucleo-cytoplasmic distribution of the negative regulators of auxin signaling AUXIN/INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID INDUCIBLE 12 (AUX/IAA12 or IAA12) and IAA19 determines lateral root development under various abiotic stress conditions. The cytoplasmic localization of IAA12 and IAA19 in the root elongation zone enforces auxin signaling output, allowing lateral root development. Among components of the nuclear pore complex, we show that CONSTITUTIVE EXPRESSOR OF PATHOGENESIS-RELATED GENES 5 (CPR5) selectively mediates the cytoplasmic translocation of IAA12/19. Under abiotic stress conditions, CPR5 expression is strongly decreased, resulting in the accumulation of nucleus-localized IAA12/19 in the root elongation zone and the suppression of lateral root development, which is reiterated in the cpr5 mutant. This study reveals a regulatory mechanism for auxin signaling whereby the spatial distribution of AUX/IAA regulators is critical for lateral root development, especially in fluctuating environmental conditions.

Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of CPR5 Genes in Gossypium Reveals Their Potential Role in Trichome Development

Trichomes protect plants against insects, microbes, herbivores, and abiotic damages and assist seed dispersal. The function of CPR5 genes have been found to be involved in the trichome development but the research on the underlying genetic and molecular mechanisms are extremely limited. Herein, genome wide identification and characterization of CPR5 genes was performed. In total, 26 CPR5 family members were identified in Gossypium species. Phylogenetic analysis, structural characteristics, and synteny analysis of CPR5s showed the conserved evolution relationships of CPR5. The promoter analysis of CPR5 genes revealed hormone, stress, and development-related cis-elements. Gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis showed that the CPR5 genes were largely related to biological regulation, developmental process, multicellular organismal process. Protein-protein interaction analysis predicted several trichome development related proteins (SIM, LGO, and GRL) directly interacting with CPR5 genes. Further, nine putative Gossypium-miRNAs were also identified, targeting Gossypium CPR5 genes. RNA-Seq data of G. arboreum (with trichomes) and G. herbaceum (with no trichomes) was used to perform the co-expression network analysis. GheCPR5.1 was identified as a hub gene in a co-expression network analysis. RT-qPCR of GheCPR5.1 gene in different tissues suggests that this gene has higher expressions in the petiole and might be a key candidate involved in the trichome development. Virus induced gene silencing of GheCPR5.1 (Ghe02G17590) confirms its role in trichome development and elongation. Current results provide proofs of the possible role of CPR5 genes and provide preliminary information for further studies of GheCPR5.1 functions in trichome development.

Investigating the Role of Root Exudates in Recruiting Streptomyces Bacteria to the Arabidopsis thaliana Microbiome

Streptomyces species are saprophytic soil bacteria that produce a diverse array of specialized metabolites, including half of all known antibiotics. They are also rhizobacteria and plant endophytes that can promote plant growth and protect against disease. Several studies have shown that streptomycetes are enriched in the rhizosphere and endosphere of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, we set out to test the hypothesis that they are attracted to plant roots by root exudates, and specifically by the plant phytohormone salicylate, which they might use as a nutrient source. We confirmed a previously published report that salicylate over-producing cpr5 plants are colonized more readily by streptomycetes but found that salicylate-deficient sid2-2 and pad4 plants had the same levels of root colonization by Streptomyces bacteria as the wild-type plants. We then tested eight genome sequenced Streptomyces endophyte strains in vitro and found that none were attracted to or could grow on salicylate as a sole carbon source. We next used ¹³CO₂ DNA stable isotope probing to test whether Streptomyces species can feed off a wider range of plant metabolites but found that Streptomyces bacteria were outcompeted by faster growing proteobacteria and did not incorporate photosynthetically fixed carbon into their DNA. We conclude that, given their saprotrophic nature and under conditions of high competition, streptomycetes most likely feed on more complex organic material shed by growing plant roots. Understanding the factors that impact the competitiveness of strains in the plant root microbiome could have consequences for the effective application of biocontrol strains.

Putative alternative translation start site-encoding nucleotides of CPR5 regulate growth and resistance

BACKGROUND

The Arabidopsis CONSTITUTIVE EXPRESSER of PATHOGENESIS-RELATED GENES 5 (CPR5) has recently been shown to play a role in gating as part of the nuclear pore complex (NPC). Mutations in CPR5 cause multiple defects, including aberrant trichomes, reduced ploidy levels, reduced growth and enhanced resistance to bacterial and fungal pathogens. The pleiotropic nature of cpr5 mutations implicates that the CPR5 protein affects multiple pathways. However, little is known about the structural features that allow CPR5 to affect the different pathways.

RESULTS

Our in silico studies suggest that in addition to three clusters of putative nuclear localization signals and four or five transmembrane domains, CPR5 contains two putative alternative translation start sites. To test the role of the methionine-encoding nucleotides implicated in those sites, metCPR5 cDNAs, in which the relevant nucleotides were changed to encode glutamine, were fused to the CPR5 native promoter and the constructs transformed to cpr5-2 plants to complement cpr5-compromised phenotypes. The control and metCPR5 constructs were able to complement all cpr5 phenotypes, although the extent of complementation depended on the specific complementing plant lines. Remarkably, plants transformed with metCPR5 constructs showed larger leaves and displayed reduced resistance when challenged to Pseudomonas syringae pv Pst DC3000, as compared to control plants. Thus, the methionine-encoding nucleotides regulate growth and resistance. We propose that structural features of the CPR5 N-terminus are implicated in selective gating of proteins involved in regulating the balance between growth and resistance.

CONCLUSION

Plants need to carefully balance the amount of resources used for growth and resistance. The Arabidopsis CPR5 protein regulates plant growth and immunity. Here we show that N-terminal features of CPR5 are involved in the regulation of the balance between growth and resistance. These findings may benefit efforts to improve plant yield, while maintaining optimal levels of disease resistance.

"Salicylic Acid Mutant Collection" as a Tool to Explore the Role of Salicylic Acid in Regulation of Plant Growth under a Changing Environment

The phytohormone salicylic acid (SA) has a crucial role in plant physiology. Its role is best described in the context of plant response to pathogen attack. During infection, SA is rapidly accumulated throughout the green tissues and is important for both local and systemic defences. However, some genetic/metabolic variations can also result in SA overaccumulation in plants, even in basal conditions. To date, more than forty Arabidopsis thaliana mutants have been described as having enhanced endogenous SA levels or constitutively activated SA signalling pathways. In this study, we established a collection of mutants containing different SA levels due to diverse genetic modifications and distinct gene functions. We chose prototypic SA-overaccumulators (SA-OAs), such as bon1-1, but also “non-typical” ones such as exo70b1-1; the selection of OA is accompanied by their crosses with SA-deficient lines. Here, we extensively studied the plant development and SA level/signalling under various growth conditions in soil and in vitro, and showed a strong negative correlation between rosette size, SA content and PR1/ICS1 transcript signature. SA-OAs (namely cpr5, acd6, bon1-1, fah1/fah2 and pi4kβ1β2) had bigger rosettes under high light conditions, whereas WT plants did not. Our data provide new insights clarifying a link between SA and plant behaviour under environmental stresses. The presented SA mutant collection is thus a suitable tool to shed light on the mechanisms underlying trade-offs between growth and defence in plants.

Populus trichocarpa PtNF-YA9, A Multifunctional Transcription Factor, Regulates Seed Germination, Abiotic Stress, Plant Growth and Development in Arabidopsis

NF-YAs play important roles in abiotic stress. However, their characteristics and functions in abiotic stress of poplar, a model woody plant, have not been fully investigated. Here, the biological functions of PtNF-YA9 (Potri.011G101000), an NF-YA gene from Populus trichocarpa, were first fully investigated. PtNF-YA9 is located in the nucleus. The expression of PtNF-YA9 was reduced by mannitol, NaCl, and abscisic acid (ABA). The GUS staining of ProNF-YA9::GUS transgenic lines was also reduced by mannitol treatments. In the PtNF-YA9-overexpressed Arabidopsis (OxPtNA9), OxPtNA9 lines exhibited sensitivity to simulated drought, ABA, and salinity stress during germination stage, and growth arrest emerged at post-germination stage. These phenomena might involve the ABA signaling pathway via the regulation of ABI3, ABI4, and ABI5. At vegetative stages, OxPtNA9 lines decreased in water loss via promoting stomatal closure and displayed high instantaneous water-use efficiency (WUE) of the leaf to exhibit enhanced drought tolerance. Furthermore, OxPtNA9 lines exhibited long primary root in the half-strength Murashige-Skoog agar medium supplemented with NaCl and conferred strong tolerance in the soil under salt stress. Additionally, PtNF-YA9 exhibited dwarf phenotype, short hypocotyl, small leaf area and biomass, delayed flowering, and increased chlorophyll content. Above all, our research proposes a model in which PtNF-YA9 not only plays a key role in reducing plant growth but also can play a primary role in the mechanism of an acclimatization strategy in response to adverse environmental conditions.

Heterologous expression of rice 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase 4 (OsNCED4) in Arabidopsis confers sugar oversensitivity and drought tolerance

BACKGROUND

The 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenases OsNCED4 was cloned from rice in conjunction with OsNCED 1-3 and 5, of which 3 has been shown to function in ABA biosynthesis and alteration of leaf morphology. In higher plants, NCEDs have been shown to be key enzymes controlling ABA biosynthesis and belong to a differentially expressed gene family. Aside from OsNCED3, it remains largely unknown if other OsNCED genes are involved in ABA biosynthesis in rice. Thus, transgenic Arabidopsis plants overexpressing OsNCED4 were generated in the 129B08/nced3 mutant background to explore OsNCED4 function in ABA biosynthesis.

RESULTS

Heterologous expression of OsNCED4 in Arabidopsis increased ABA levels and altered plant size and leaf shape, delayed seed germination, caused sugar oversensitivity in post-germination growth, and enhanced tolerance to drought. The native OsNCED3 and OsNCED4 promoters were expressed in an overlapping pattern in rice seeds and young seedlings, suggesting possible functional redundancy between OsNCED3 and OsNCED4. At the one-leaf stage, similar regulation of OsNCED3 and OsNCED4 gene expression in roots or leaves in response to moderate salt stress (150 mM NaCl) was observed.

CONCLUSION

Like OsNCED3, OsNCED4 is functionally active in ABA biosynthesis in rice. OsNCED3 and OsNCED4 might play redundant roles in controlling ABA biosynthesis in rice, as suggested by GUS staining assay, but this should be further analyzed through complementation of rice NCED knockout mutants.

Arabidopsis CPR5 regulates ethylene signaling via molecular association with the ETR1 receptor

The plant hormone ethylene plays various functions in plant growth, development and response to environmental stress. Ethylene is perceived by membrane-bound ethylene receptors, and among the homologous receptors in Arabidopsis, the ETR1 ethylene receptor plays a major role. The present study provides evidence demonstrating that Arabidopsis CPR5 functions as a novel ETR1 receptor-interacting protein in regulating ethylene response and signaling. Yeast split ubiquitin assays and bi-fluorescence complementation studies in plant cells indicated that CPR5 directly interacts with the ETR1 receptor. Genetic analyses indicated that mutant alleles of cpr5 can suppress ethylene insensitivity in both etr1-1 and etr1-2, but not in other dominant ethylene receptor mutants. Overexpression of Arabidopsis CPR5 either in transgenic Arabidopsis plants, or ectopically in tobacco, significantly enhanced ethylene sensitivity. These findings indicate that CPR5 plays a critical role in regulating ethylene signaling. CPR5 is localized to endomembrane structures and the nucleus, and is involved in various regulatory pathways, including pathogenesis, leaf senescence, and spontaneous cell death. This study provides evidence for a novel regulatory function played by CPR5 in the ethylene receptor signaling pathway in Arabidopsis.

Transcriptome and Differential Expression Profiling Analysis of the Mechanism of Ca2+ Regulation in Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) Pod Development

Calcium not only serves as a necessary nutrient for plant growth but also acts as a ubiquitous central hub in a large number of signaling pathways. Free Ca²⁺ deficiency in the soil may cause early embryo abortion, which eventually led to abnormal development of peanut pod during the harvest season. To understand the mechanisms of Ca²⁺ regulation in pod development, transcriptome analysis of peanut gynophores and pods was performed by comparing the treatments between free Ca²⁺ sufficiency and free Ca²⁺ deficiency using Illumina HiSeq™ 2000. 9,903,082,800 nt bases are generated totally. After assembly, the average length of 102,819 unigenes is 999 nt, N50 is 1,782 nt. RNA-seq based gene expression profilings showed a large number of genes at the transcriptional level changed significantly between the aerial pegs and underground swelling pods under free Ca²⁺ sufficienct or deficiency treatments, respectively. Genes encoding key members of Ca²⁺ signaling transduction pathway, enzymes for hormone metabolism, cell division and growth, transcriptional factor as well as embryo development were highlighted. This information provides useful information for our further study. The results of digital gene expression (DGE) indicated that exogenous calcium might contribute to the development of peanut pod through its signal transduction pathway, meanwhile, promote the normal transition of the gynophores to the reproductive development.

Overexpression of miR529a confers enhanced resistance to oxidative stress in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Overexpressing miR529a can enhance oxidative stress resistance by targeting OsSPL2 and OsSPL14 genes that can regulate the expression of their downstream SOD and POD related genes. MicroRNAs are involved in the regulation of plant developmental and physiological processes, and their expression can be altered when plants suffered environment stresses, including salt, oxidative, drought and Cadmium. The expression of microRNA529 (miR529) can be induced under oxidative stress. However, its biological function under abiotic stress responses is still unclear. In this study, miR529a was overexpressed to investigate the function of miR529a under oxidative stress in rice. Our results demonstrated that the expression of miR529a can be induced by exogenous H₂O₂, and overexpressing miR529a can increase plant tolerance to high level of H₂O₂, resulting in increased seed germination rate, root tip cell viability, reduced leaf rolling rate and chlorophyll retention. The expression of oxidative stress responsive genes and the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD) were increased in miR529a overexpression plant, which could help to reduce redundant reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, only OsSPL2 and OsSPL14 were targeted by miR529a in rice seedlings, repressing their expression in miR529aOE plants could lead to strengthen plant tolerance to oxidation stress. Our study provided the evidence that overexpression of miR529a could strengthen oxidation resistance, and its target genes OsSPL2 and OsSPL14 were responsible for oxidative tolerance, implied the manipulation of miR529a and its target genes regulation on H₂O₂ related response genes could improve oxidative stress tolerance in rice.

CPR5 modulates salicylic acid and the unfolded protein response to manage tradeoffs between plant growth and stress responses

Completion of a plant's life cycle depends on successful prioritization of signaling favoring either growth or defense. Although hormones are pivotal regulators of growth-defense tradeoffs, the underlying signaling mechanisms remain obscure. The unfolded protein response (UPR) is essential for physiological growth as well as management of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in unfavorable growth conditions. The plant UPR transducers are the kinase and ribonuclease IRE1 and the transcription factors bZIP28 and bZIP60. We analyzed management of the tradeoff between growth and ER stress defense by the stress response hormone salicylic acid (SA) and the UPR, which is modulated by SA via unknown mechanisms. We show that the plant growth and stress regulator CPR5, which represses accumulation of SA, favors growth in physiological conditions through inhibition of the SA-dependent IRE1-bZIP60 arm that antagonizes organ growth; CPR5 also favors growth in stress conditions through repression of ER stress-induced bZIP28/IRE1-bZIP60 arms. By demonstrating a physical interaction of CPR5 with bZIP60 and bZIP28, we provide mechanistic insights into CPR5-mediated modulation of UPR signaling. These findings define a critical surveillance strategy for plant growth-ER stress defense tradeoffs based on CPR5 and SA-modulated UPR signaling, whereby CPR5 acts as a positive modulator of growth in physiological conditions and in stress by antagonizing SA-dependent growth inhibition through UPR modulation.

Transcriptional Analysis of serk1 and serk3 Coreceptor Mutants

Somatic embryogenesis receptor kinases (SERKs) are ligand-binding coreceptors that are able to combine with different ligand-perceiving receptors such as BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE1 (BRI1) and FLAGELLIN-SENSITIVE2. Phenotypical analysis of serk single mutants is not straightforward because multiple pathways can be affected, while redundancy is observed for a single phenotype. For example, serk1serk3 double mutant roots are insensitive toward brassinosteroids but have a phenotype different from bri1 mutant roots. To decipher these effects, 4-d-old Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) roots were studied using microarray analysis. A total of 698 genes, involved in multiple biological processes, were found to be differentially regulated in serk1-3serk3-2 double mutants. About half of these are related to brassinosteroid signaling. The remainder appear to be unlinked to brassinosteroids and related to primary and secondary metabolism. In addition, methionine-derived glucosinolate biosynthesis genes are up-regulated, which was verified by metabolite profiling. The results also show that the gene expression pattern in serk3-2 mutant roots is similar to that of the serk1-3serk3-2 double mutant roots. This confirms the existence of partial redundancy between SERK3 and SERK1 as well as the promoting or repressive activity of a single coreceptor in multiple simultaneously active pathways.

The Role of the Atypical Kinases ABC1K7 and ABC1K8 in Abscisic Acid Responses

The ABC1K family of atypical kinases (activity of bc1 complex kinase) is represented in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. In plants they regulate diverse physiological processes in the chloroplasts and mitochondria, but their precise functions are poorly defined. ABC1K7 and ABC1K8 are probably involved in oxidative stress responses, isoprenyl lipid synthesis and distribution of iron within chloroplasts. Because reactive oxygen species take part in abscisic acid (ABA)-mediated processes, we investigated the functions of ABC1K7 and ABC1K8 during germination, stomatal movement, and leaf senescence. Both genes were upregulated by ABA treatment and some ABA-responsive physiological processes were affected in abc1k7 and abc1k8 mutants. Germination was more severely affected by ABA, osmotic stress and salt stress in the single and double mutants; the stomatal aperture was smaller in the mutants under standard growth conditions and was not further reduced by exogenous ABA application; ABA-induced senescence symptoms were more severe in the leaves of the single and double mutants compared to wild type leaves. Taken together, our results suggest that ABC1K7 and ABC1K8 might be involved in the cross-talk between ABA and ROS signaling.

Jasmonate complements the function of Arabidopsis lipoxygenase3 in salinity stress response

The functions of jasmonic acid (JA) in various stress responses have been uncovered in details, but its role in salt tolerance remains unclear. Here, we characterize the function of Arabidopsis lipoxygenase3 (LOX3), an enzyme involved in JA synthesis, in salt stress response. The transcriptional analysis indicated that LOX3 was dramatically induced under salt treatment. Compared with wild type, the lox3 mutant exhibited hypersensitivity to salt stress in germination and different developmental stages. Interestingly, methyl jasmonate (MeJA) rescued the salt sensitivity phenotypes of the lox3 mutant, suggesting the impairment of salinity response in the mutant may be mediated by JA. Furthermore, the lateral root number of the lox3 mutant was similar with that in wild type under normal condition, but less than that in wild type during salt treatment, and this lateral root sensitivity phenotype was also complemented by exogenous MeJA. In addition, the measurement of oxylipins in the lox3 mutant and the analysis on germination of the JA receptor coi1 mutant under salt stress supported that JA may regulate the early response to salinity. In conclusion, we characterized the novel function of LOX3 in salinity stress response, and found that the salt hypersensitivity of the lox3 mutant can be complemented by MeJA, providing new evidence for the association between JA and salt tolerance.

Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies Loci for Salt Tolerance during Germination in Autotetraploid Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) Using Genotyping-by-Sequencing

Salinity is one of major abiotic stresses limiting alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) production in the arid and semi-arid regions in US and other counties. In this study, we used a diverse panel of alfalfa accessions previously described by Zhang et al. (2015) to identify molecular markers associated with salt tolerance during germination using genome-wide association study (GWAS) and genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS). Phenotyping was done by germinating alfalfa seeds under different levels of salt stress. Phenotypic data of adjusted germination rates and SNP markers generated by GBS were used for marker-trait association. Thirty six markers were significantly associated with salt tolerance in at least one level of salt treatments. Alignment of sequence tags to the Medicago truncatula genome revealed genetic locations of the markers on all chromosomes except chromosome 3. Most significant markers were found on chromosomes 1, 2, and 4. BLAST search using the flanking sequences of significant markers identified 14 putative candidate genes linked to 23 significant markers. Most of them were repeatedly identified in two or three salt treatments. Several loci identified in the present study had similar genetic locations to the reported QTL associated with salt tolerance in M. truncatula. A locus identified on chromosome 6 by this study overlapped with that by drought in our previous study. To our knowledge, this is the first report on mapping loci associated with salt tolerance during germination in autotetraploid alfalfa. Further investigation on these loci and their linked genes would provide insight into understanding molecular mechanisms by which salt and drought stresses affect alfalfa growth. Functional markers closely linked to the resistance loci would be useful for MAS to improve alfalfa cultivars with enhanced resistance to drought and salt stresses.

Global analysis of the role of autophagy in cellular metabolism and energy homeostasis in Arabidopsis seedlings under carbon starvation

Germination and early seedling establishment are developmental stages in which plants face limited nutrient supply as their photosynthesis mechanism is not yet active. For this reason, the plant must mobilize the nutrient reserves provided by the mother plant in order to facilitate growth. Autophagy is a catabolic process enabling the bulk degradation of cellular constituents in the vacuole. The autophagy mechanism is conserved among eukaryotes, and homologs of many autophagy-related (ATG) genes have been found in Arabidopsis thaliana. T-DNA insertion mutants (atg mutants) of these genes display higher sensitivity to various stresses, particularly nutrient starvation. However, the direct impact of autophagy on cellular metabolism has not been well studied. In this work, we used etiolated Arabidopsis seedlings as a model system for carbon starvation. atg mutant seedlings display delayed growth in response to carbon starvation compared with wild-type seedlings. High-throughput metabolomic, lipidomic, and proteomic analyses were performed, as well as extensive flux analyses, in order to decipher the underlying causes of the phenotype. Significant differences between atg mutants and wild-type plants have been demonstrated, suggesting global effects of autophagy on central metabolism during carbon starvation as well as severe energy deprivation, resulting in a morphological phenotype.

Phytochrome B-mediated activation of lipoxygenase modulates an excess red light-induced defence response in Arabidopsis

Lipoxygenase (LOX), a non-haem-iron-containing dioxygenase, is activated under various biotic or abiotic stresses to trigger a series resistance response, but the molecular mechanism of LOX activation remains unclear. This work investigated the activation of LOX during the plant defence response induced by excess red light (RL). In conditions of RL-induced defence, Arabidopsis LOX activity and transcription levels of LOX2, LOX3, and LOX4 were both upregulated. Under RL, phytochrome B promoted the degradation of phytochrome-interacting factor 3 (PIF3), a factor that inhibited the expression levels of LOXs, and thus the transcription levels of LOX2, LOX3, and LOX4 were increased. Upon pathogen infection, the activity of mitogen-activated protein kinase 3 (MPK3) and MPK6 was increased in plants pre-treated with RL. Moreover, experiments with the inhibitor PD98059 and mutants mpk3 and mpk6-2 demonstrated that MPK3 and MPK6 were both responsible for LOX activation. Further results showed that, in response to RL, an increase in cytoplasmic calcium concentration and upregulation of calmodulin 3 (CaM3) transcript level occurred upstream of MPK3 and MPK6 activation. Collectively, these results suggested that activation of LOX both at the transcript level and in terms of activity modulates the defence response induced by RL, providing a new insight into the mechanistic study of LOX during plant defences.

Interaction of CPR5 with cell cycle regulators UVI4 and OSD1 in Arabidopsis

The impact of cell cycle on plant immunity was indicated by the enhancement of disease resistance with overexpressing OSD1 and UVI4 genes that are negative regulators of cell cycle controller APC (anaphase promoting complex). CPR5 is another gene that is implicated in cell cycle regulation and plant immunity, but its mode of action is not known. Here we report the analysis of genetic requirement for the function of UVI4 and OSD1 in cell cycle progression control and in particular the involvement of CPR5 in this regulation. We show that the APC activator CCS52A1 partially mediates the function of OSD1 and UVI4 in female gametophyte development. We found that the cpr5 mutation suppresses the endoreduplication defect in the uvi4 single mutant and partially rescued the gametophyte development defect in the osd1 uvi4 double mutant while the uvi4 mutation enhances the cpr5 defects in trichome branching and plant disease resistance. In addition, cyclin B1 genes CYCB1;1, CYCB1;2, and CYCB1;4 are upregulated in cpr5. Therefore, CPR5 has a large role in cell cycle regulation and this role has a complex interaction with that of UVI4 and OSD1. This study further indicates an intrinsic link between plant defense responses and cell cycle progression.

NFYA1 is involved in regulation of postgermination growth arrest under salt stress in Arabidopsis

The nuclear factor Y (NF-Y), which is a ubiquitous transcription factor found in eukaryotes, is composed of three distinct subunits, namely, NF-YA, NF-YB, and NF-YC. Here, we firstly characterized the detailed function of the Arabidopsis NFYA1 factor. It is found that the 35S::AtNFYA1-overexpressed lines were hypersensitive to salt stress and Abscisic acid (ABA) during the early-postgermination growth stages. The transgenic lines exhibited a severe postgermination growth arrest compared with the wild-type (WT) under salt stress and ABA treatment. Interestingly, sodium tungstate, which is an ABA synthesis inhibitor, restored the salt-sensitive phenotype of the 35S::AtNFYA1 lines. Results of the qRT-PCR analysis showed that the mRNA levels of ABI3 and ABI5, as well as their downstream genes AtEM1 and AtEM6, were more greatly upregulated under salt stress during seed germination in the transgenic lines compared with those in WT. On the other hand, the NFYA1-RNAi lines were found to be insensitive to salt stress and exhibited decreased levels of ABI3, ABI5, EM1, and EM6 transcripts. Our results provide clear evidence supporting a role of AtNFYA1 in regulating postgermination growth arrest under salt stress.

LOX genes in blast fungus (Magnaporthe grisea) resistance in rice

Plant Lipoxygenases (LOX) are known to play major role in plant immunity by providing front-line defense against pathogen-induced injury. To verify this, we isolated a full-length OsLOX3 gene and also 12 OsLOX cDNA clones from Oryza sativa indica (cultivar Pusa Basmati 1). We have examined the role played by LOXs in plant development and during attack by blast pathogen Magnaporthe grisea. Gene expression, promoter region analysis, and biochemical and protein structure analysis of isolated OsLOX3 revealed significant homology with LOX super family. Protein sequence comparison of OsLOXs revealed high levels of homology when compared with japonica rice (up to100%) and Arabidopsis (up to 64%). Isolated LOX3 gene and 12 OsLOX cDNAs contained the catalytic LOX domains much required for oxygen binding and synthesis of oxylipins. Amino acid composition, protein secondary structure, and promoter region analysis (with abundance of motifs CGTCA and TGACG) support the role of OsLOX3 gene in providing resistance to diseases in rice plants. OsLOX3 gene expression analysis of root, shoot, flag leaf, and developing and mature seed revealed organ specific patterns during rice plant development and gave evidence to association between tissue location and physiological roles played by individual OsLOXs. Increased defense activity of oxylipins was observed as demonstrated by PCR amplification of OsLOX3 gene and upon inoculation with virulent strains of M. grisea and ectopic application of methyl jasmonate in the injured leaf tissue in adult rice plants.

Loss-of-function of Constitutive Expresser of Pathogenesis Related Genes5 affects potassium homeostasis in Arabidopsis thaliana

Here, we demonstrate that the reduction in leaf K(+) observed in a mutant previously identified in an ionomic screen of fast neutron mutagenized Arabidopsis thaliana is caused by a loss-of-function allele of CPR5, which we name cpr5-3. This observation establishes low leaf K(+) as a new phenotype for loss-of-function alleles of CPR5. We investigate the factors affecting this low leaf K(+) in cpr5 using double mutants defective in salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA) signalling, and by gene expression analysis of various channels and transporters. Reciprocal grafting between cpr5 and Col-0 was used to determine the relative importance of the shoot and root in causing the low leaf K(+) phenotype of cpr5. Our data show that loss-of-function of CPR5 in shoots primarily determines the low leaf K(+) phenotype of cpr5, though the roots also contribute to a lesser degree. The low leaf K(+) phenotype of cpr5 is independent of the elevated SA and JA known to occur in cpr5. In cpr5 expression of genes encoding various Cyclic Nucleotide Gated Channels (CNGCs) are uniquely elevated in leaves. Further, expression of HAK5, encoding the high affinity K(+) uptake transporter, is reduced in roots of cpr5 grown with high or low K(+) supply. We suggest a model in which low leaf K(+) in cpr5 is driven primarily by enhanced shoot-to-root K(+) export caused by a constitutive activation of the expression of various CNGCs. This activation may enhance K(+) efflux, either indirectly via enhanced cytosolic Ca(2+) and/or directly by increased K(+) transport activity. Enhanced shoot-to-root K(+) export may also cause the reduced expression of HAK5 observed in roots of cpr5, leading to a reduction in uptake of K(+). All ionomic data presented is publically available at www.ionomicshub.org.