DNA sequence analyses reveal abundant diversity, endemism and evidence for Asian origin of the porcini mushrooms

A revised phylogeny of Boletaceae using whole genome sequences

The porcini mushroom family Boletaceae is a diverse, widespread group of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) mushroom-forming fungi that so far has eluded intrafamilial phylogenetic resolution based on morphology and multilocus data sets. In this study, we present a genome-wide molecular data set of 1764 single-copy gene families from a global sampling of 418 Boletaceae specimens. The resulting phylogenetic analysis has strong statistical support for most branches of the tree, including the first statistically robust backbone. The enigmatic Phylloboletellus chloephorus from non-ECM Argentinian subtropical forests was recovered as a new subfamily sister to the core Boletaceae. Time-calibrated branch lengths estimate that the family first arose in the early to mid-Cretaceous and underwent a rapid radiation in the Eocene, possibly when the ECM nutritional mode arose with the emergence and diversification of ECM angiosperms. Biogeographic reconstructions reveal a complex history of vicariance and episodic long-distance dispersal correlated with historical geologic events, including Gondwanan origins and inferred vicariance associated with its disarticulation. Together, this study represents the most comprehensively sampled, data-rich molecular phylogeny of the Boletaceae to date, establishing a foundation for future robust inferences of biogeography in the group.

Complete mitochondrial genomes of edible mushrooms: features, evolution, and phylogeny

Edible mushrooms are an important food source with high nutritional and medicinal value. They are a useful source for studying phylogenetic evolution and species divergence. The exploration of the evolutionary relationships among these species conventionally involves analyzing sequence variations within their complete mitochondrial genomes, which range from 31,854 bp (Cordyceps militaris) to 197,486 bp (Grifolia frondosa). The study of the complete mitochondrial genomes of edible mushrooms has emerged as a critical field of research, providing important insights into fungal genetic makeup, evolution, and phylogenetic relationships. This review explores the mitochondrial genome structures of various edible mushroom species, highlighting their unique features and evolutionary adaptations. By analyzing these genomes, robust phylogenetic frameworks are constructed to elucidate mushrooms lineage relationships. Furthermore, the exploration of different variations of mitochondrial DNA presents novel opportunities for enhancing mushroom cultivation biotechnology and medicinal applications. The mitochondrial genomic features are essential for improving agricultural practices and ensuring food security through improved crop productivity, disease resistance, and nutritional qualities. The current knowledge about the mitochondrial genomes of edible mushrooms is summarized in this review, emphasising their significance in both scientific research and practical applications in bioinformatics and medicine.

The subfamily Xerocomoideae (Boletaceae, Boletales) in China

Xerocomoideae is an ecologically and economically important Boletaceae subfamily (Boletales) comprising 10 genera. Although many studies have focused on Xerocomoideae in China, the diversity, taxonomy and molecular phylogeny still remained incompletely understood. In the present study, taxonomic and phylogenetic studies on Chinese species of Xerocomoideae were carried out by morphological examinations and molecular phylogenetic analyses. Eight genera in Xerocomoideae, viz. Aureoboletus, Boletellus, Heimioporus, Hemileccinum, Hourangia, Phylloporus, Pulchroboletus, and Xerocomus were confirmed to be distributed in China; 97 species of the subfamily were accepted as being distributed in China; one ambiguous taxon was tentatively named Bol. aff. putuoensis; two synonyms, viz. A. marroninus and P. dimorphus were defined. Among the Chinese accepted species, 13 were newly described, viz. A. albipes, A. conicus, A. ornatipes, Bol. erythrolepis, Bol. rubidus, Bol. sinochrysenteroides, Bol. subglobosus, Bol. zenghuoxingii, H. squamipes, P. hainanensis, Pul. erubescens, X. albotomentosus, and X. fuscatus, 36 known species were redescribed, and the other 48 species were reviewed. Keys to accepted species of Aureoboletus, Boletellus, Heimioporus, Hemileccinum, Hourangia, Phylloporus, and Xerocomus in China were also provided. Taxonomic novelties: New species: Aureoboletus albipes N.K. Zeng, Xu Zhang & Zhi Q. Liang, A. conicus N.K. Zeng, Xu Zhang & Zhi Q. Liang, A. ornatipes N.K. Zeng, Xu Zhang & Zhi Q. Liang, Boletellus erythrolepis N.K. Zeng, R. Xue, S. Jiang & Zhi Q. Liang, Bol. rubidus N.K. Zeng, R. Xue, Y.J. Hao & Zhi Q. Liang, Bol. sinochrysenteroides N.K. Zeng, R. Xue & Kuan Zhao, Bol. subglobosus N.K. Zeng, R. Xue, S. Jiang & Zhi Q. Liang, Bol. zenghuoxingii N.K. Zeng, R. Xue, S. Jiang & Zhi Q. Liang, Hemileccinum squamipes N.K. Zeng, Chang Xu & Zhi Q. Liang, Phylloporus hainanensis N.K. Zeng, L.L. Wu, & Zhi Q. Liang, Pulchroboletus erubescens N.K. Zeng, Chang Xu & Zhi Q. Liang, Xerocomus albotomentosus N.K. Zeng, H.J. Xie, Chang Xu & Zhi Q. Liang, and X. fuscatus N.K. Zeng, H.J. Xie, Chang Xu & Zhi Q. Liang. Citation: Xue R, Zhang X, Xu C, Xie HJ, Wu LL, Wang Y, Tang LP, Hao YJ, Zhao K, Jiang S, Li Y, Yang YY, Li Z, Liang ZQ, Zeng NK (2023). The subfamily Xerocomoideae (Boletaceae, Boletales) in China. Studies in Mycology 106: 95-197. doi: 10.3114/sim.2022.106.03.

Global phylogeographical distribution of Gloeoporus dichrous

Phylogeographic analyses are efficient in ecological and evolutionary studies to discover the origin of a lineage, its dispersal routes, and the divergence of ancestral traits. Studies on widespread wood-decay fungi have revealed the phylogenetic division of several polypores based on geographical distribution. In this study, specimens of Gloeoporus dichrous, a cosmopolitan polypore species, were collected globally and analyzed for their geographic distribution. Multi-marker Bayesian molecular clock and haplotype analyses revealed a clear division of G. dichrous populations by continent. The species diverged from its neighboring clades 10.3 (16.0-5.6) million years ago, with Asian and North American populations at the center of divergence. Possible dispersal mechanisms and pathways are predicted and discussed based on the evaluated transfer routes. The biogeography of G. dichrous analyzed in this study represents a fraction of the polypore evolution and may advance the understanding of the overall evolution of wood-decay fungi.

Boletaceae in China: Taxonomy and phylogeny reveal a new genus, two new species, and a new record

Boletaceae, the largest family in Boletales, has been attracted by mycologists in the world due to its diverse morphology and complex history of evolution. Although considerable work has been done in the past decades, novel taxa are continually described. The current study aimed to introduce three new taxa and one new record of Boletaceae from China. The morphological descriptions, color photographs, phylogenetic trees to show the positions of the taxa, and comparisons with allied taxa are provided. The new genus Hemilanmaoa is unique in the Pulveroboletus group, and Hemilanmaoa retistipitatus was introduced as the type species. It can be distinguished by its bluing basidioma when injured, a decurrent hymenophore, a stipe covered with distinct reticulations, and a fertile stipitipellis. Porphyrellus pseudocyaneotinctus is characterized by its pileipellis consisting of broadly concatenated cells and thin-walled caulocystidia in Porphyrellus. In Phylloporus, Phylloporus biyangensis can be distinguished by its hymenophores that change to blue when injured and yellow basal mycelium. Lanmaoa angustispora, as a new record, is first reported in Northern China. Internal transcribed spacer (ITS), 28S rDNA (28S), translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1-α), RNA polymerase II subunit 1 (rpb1), and RNA polymerase II subunit 2 (rpb2) were employed to execute phylogenetic analyses.

Historical biogeography and diversification of ringless Amanita (section Vaginatae) support an African origin and suggest niche conservatism in the Americas

Ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECM) sustain nutrient recycling in most terrestrial ecosystems, yet we know little about what major biogeographical events gave rise to present-day diversity and distribution patterns. Given the strict relationship between some ECM lineages and their hosts, geographically well-sampled phylogenies are central to understanding major evolutionary processes of fungal biodiversity patterns. Here, we focus on Amanita sect. Vaginatae to address global diversity and distribution patterns. Ancestral-state-reconstruction based on a 4-gene timetree with over 200 species supports an African origin between the late Paleocene and the early Eocene (ca. 56 Ma). Major biogeographic "out-of-Africa" events include multiple dispersal events to Southeast Asia (ca. 45-21 Ma), Madagascar (ca. 18 Ma), and the current Amazonian basin (ca. 45-36 Ma), the last two likely trans-oceanic. Later events originating in Southeast Asia involve Nearctic dispersal to North America (ca. 20-5 Ma), Oceania (Australia and New Zealand; ca. 15 Ma), and Europe (ca. 10-5 Ma). Subsequent dispersals were also inferred from Southeast Asia to East Asia (ca. 4 Ma); from North America to East Asia (ca. 11-8 Ma), Southeast Asia (ca. 19-2 Ma), Northern Andes (ca. 15 Ma), and Europe (ca. 15-2 Ma), respectively; and from the Amazon to the Caribbean region (ca. 25-20 Ma). Finally, we detected a significant increase in the net diversification rates in the branch leading to most northern temperate species in addition to higher state-dependent diversification rates in temperate lineages, consistent with previous findings. These results suggest that species of sect. Vaginatae likely have higher dispersal ability and higher adaptability to new environments, in particular compared to those of its sister clade, sect. Caesareae. Overall, the much wider distribution of A. sect. Vaginatae, from pan-tropical to pan-arctic, provides a unique window to understanding niche conservatism across a species-rich clade of ECM fungi.

Origin and evolutionary history of Populus (Salicaceae): Further insights based on time divergence and biogeographic analysis

INTRODUCTION

Populus (Salicaceae) species harbour rich biodiversity and are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere. However, the origin and biogeography of Populus remain poorly understood.

METHODS

We infer the divergence times and the historical biogeography of the genus Populus through phylogenetic analysis of 34 chloroplast fragments based on a large sample.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Eurasia is the likely location of the early divergences of Salicaceae after the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction, followed by recurrent spread to the remainder of the Old World and the New World beginning in the Eocene; the extant Populus species began to diversity during the early Oligocene (approximately 27.24 Ma), climate changes during the Oligocene may have facilitated the diversification of modern poplar species; three separate lineages of Populus from Eurasia colonized North America in the Cenozoic via the Bering Land Bridges (BLB); We hypothesize that the present day disjunction in Populus can be explained by two scenarios: (i) Populus likely originated in Eurasia and subsequently colonized other regions, including North America; and (ii) the fact that the ancestor of the genus Populus that was once widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere and eventually wiped out due to the higher extinction rates in North America, similar to the African Rand flora. We hypothesize that disparities in extinction across the evolutionary history of Populus in different regions shape the modern biogeography of Populus. Further studies with dense sampling and more evidence are required to test these hypotheses. Our research underscores the significance of combining phylogenetic analyses with biogeographic interpretations to enhance our knowledge of the origin, divergence, and distribution of biodiversity in temperate plant floras.

Global phylogeny of the Shiitake mushroom and related Lentinula species uncovers novel diversity and suggests an origin in the Neotropics

Lentinula (Basidiomycota, Agaricales) includes the most widely cultivated mushroom in the world, Lentinula edodes, also known as shiitake (Japanese) or xiang-gu (Chinese). At present, nine species are recognized in the genus, based on morphology, mating criteria, and geographic distributions. However, analyses of internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of ribosomal RNA genes have suggested that there are cryptic lineages. We analyzed a global-scale phylogenetic dataset from 325 Lentinula individuals from 24 countries in Asia-Australasia and the Americas plus Madagascar, with 325 sequences of ITS, 80 LSU sequences, and 111 sequences of translation elongation factor (tef1-α) genes. We recovered 15 independent lineages (Groups 1-15) that may correspond to species. Lineages in Asia-Australasia (Groups 1-5) and the Americas plus Madagascar (Groups 6-15) formed sister clades. Four lineages are represented only by sequences from single individuals and require further molecular sampling, including L. aff. raphanica (Group 7), L. ixodes (Group 8), L. boryana (Group 12), and L. aff. aciculospora (Group 14). Groups 1 and 5 are here referred to L. edodes and L. aff. edodes, respectively. However, these groups most likely represent the same species and are only recognized as (unsupported) monophyletic lineages by maximum likelihood analyses of ITS alone. Other putative species resolved here include L. lateritia (Group 2), L. novae-zelandieae (Group 3), L. aff. lateritia (Group 4), L. raphanica (Group 6), L. aff. detonsa (Group 9), L. detonsa (Group 10), L. guzmanii sp. nov. (Group 11), L. aciculospora (Group 13), and L. madagasikarensis (Group 15). Groups 9-12 represent the "L. boryana complex". Molecular clock and historical biogeographic analyses suggest that the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of Lentinula can be placed in the middle Oligocene, ca. 30 million years ago (Ma), and had a likely presence in neotropical America. The MRCA of Lentinula in the Americas and Madagascar lived ca. 22 Ma in the Neotropics and the MRCA of Lentinula in Asia-Australasia lived ca. 6 Ma in Oceania. Given the current knowledge about plate tectonics and paleoclimatic models of the last 30 Myr, our phylogenetic hypothesis suggests that the extant distribution of Lentinula is likely to have arisen, in large part, due to long-distance dispersal. Lentinula collections include at least four dubious taxa that need further taxonomic studies: L. reticeps from the USA (Ohio); L. guarapiensis from Paraguay; Lentinus puiggarii from Brazil (São Paulo); and "L. platinedodes" from Vietnam. Approximately ten of the fifteen Groups are reported on Fagaceae, which appears to be the ancestral substrate of Lentinula.

Exploring the Relationships between Four New Species of Boletoid Fungi from Northern China and Their Related Species

The family Boletaceae primarily represents ectomycorrhizal fungi, which play an essential ecological role in forest ecosystems. Although the Boletaceae family has been subject to a relatively global and comprehensive history of work, novel species and genera are continually described. During this investigation in northern China, many specimens of boletoid fungi were collected. Based on the study of their morphology and phylogeny, four new species, Butyriboletus pseudoroseoflavus, Butyriboletus subregius, Tengioboletus subglutinosus, and Suillellus lacrymibasidiatus, are introduced. Morphological evidence and phylogenetic analyses of the single or combined dataset (ITS or 28S, rpb1, rpb2, and tef1) confirmed these to be four new species. The evidence and analyses indicated the new species’ relationships with other species within their genera. Detailed descriptions, color photographs, and line drawings are provided. The species of Butyriboletus in China were compared in detail and the worldwide keys of Tengioboletus and Suillellus were given.

Reappraisal of the Genus Exsudoporus (Boletaceae) Worldwide Based on Multi-Gene Phylogeny, Morphology and Biogeography, and Insights on Amoenoboletus

The boletoid genera Butyriboletus and Exsudoporus have recently been suggested by some researchers to constitute a single genus, and Exsudoporus was merged into Butyriboletus as a later synonym. However, no convincing arguments have yet provided significant evidence for this congeneric placement. In this study, we analyze material from Exsudoporus species and closely related taxa to assess taxonomic and phylogenetic boundaries between these genera and to clarify species delimitation within Exsudoporus. Outcomes from a multilocus phylogenetic analysis (ITS, nrLSU, tef1-α and rpb2) clearly resolve Exsudoporus as a monophyletic, homogenous and independent genus that is sister to Butyriboletus. An accurate morphological description, comprehensive sampling, type studies, line drawings and a historical overview on the nomenclatural issues of the type species E. permagnificus are provided. Furthermore, this species is documented for the first time from Israel in association with Quercus calliprinos. The previously described North American species Exsudoporus frostii and E. floridanus are molecularly confirmed as representatives of Exsudoporus, and E. floridanus is epitypified. The eastern Asian species Leccinum rubrum is assigned here to Exsudoporus based on molecular evidence, and a new combination is proposed. Sequence data from the original material of the Japanese Boletus kermesinus were generated, and its conspecificity with L. rubrum is inferred as formerly presumed based on morphology. Four additional cryptic species from North and Central America previously misdetermined as either B. frostii or B. floridanus are phylogenetically placed but remain undescribed due to the paucity of available material. Boletus weberi (syn. B. pseudofrostii) and Xerocomus cf. mcrobbii cluster outside of Exsudoporus and are herein assigned to the recently described genus Amoenoboletus. Biogeographic distribution patterns are elucidated, and a dichotomous key to all known species of Exsudoporus worldwide is presented.

Elevation Matters More than Season in Shaping the Heterogeneity of Soil and Root Associated Ectomycorrhizal Fungal Community

Ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungi play important roles in forest ecosystems, and their richness and composition can change along with elevation and season changes. However, no study has estimated the relative importance of altitudinal and seasonal heterogeneity in predicting the distribution of EcM fungal communities by simultaneously considering different sample types (root versus soil). In this study, we collected root and soil samples along a > 1,500-m elevation gradient during wet and dry seasons from Baima Snow Mountain, located in “the Mountains of Southwest China,” one of the 34 biodiversity hot spots, and we analyzed them using next-generation sequencing. Regardless of the sample type, similar EcM fungal richness pattern with increasing elevation (decline in the forest zone, and an increase at the alpine meadow zone) and strong community turnovers among different elevational zones and between two seasons were detected, and changes of EcM fungal community similarity on 400-m altitude gradient were equivalent to the community turnover between dry and wet seasons. Elevation and edaphic factors were shown to have the largest effects on EcM fungal community. The heterogeneity of richness and community composition was stronger among different elevational zones than across different seasons, mainly because the elevation variations in the EcM fungal community were shaped by the combined effects of different environmental factors, while seasonal changes were mainly controlled by temperature and fast-changing soil nutrients.

IMPORTANCE Altitude and season represent two important environmental gradients that shape the structure of biome, including the heterogeneity of EcM fungi. Previous studies have separately considered the influences of altitude and season on EcM fungal communities, but the relative importance of altitude and season is still unknown. The present study revealed that elevation influences the heterogeneity of EcM fungal community more than season; this may be because the variability of environmental factors is higher across different elevations than that across seasons.

Phylogenetic analysis reveals the new genus Amoenoboletus from Asia and New Zealand

The Asia-Pacific region is renowned to harbor nearly half of the global hot spots of biodiversity. Accordingly, many endemic species of boletes have already been recorded from this geographic region. However, the majority of the specific descriptions of reported boletoid species follow classical concepts of taxonomy, and by comparison only a few taxa have been corroborated by modern molecular techniques. In this study, we focused on specimens in a new clade uncovered by our previous studies. By careful reexamination of macroscopic and microscopic characters of Boletus granulopunctatus, originally described from Japan, and Xerocomus mcrobbii, originally described from New Zealand, we discovered a new genus and species Amoenoboletus miraculosus from Sabah, Malaysia. In addition, three new combinations in Amoenoboletus are proposed, and a dichotomous key to species in the genus is provided. The phylogenetically close relationship among Amoenoboletus species suggests a tight geographic correlation in the Asia-Pacific region.

Retiboletus (Boletaceae) in northern Thailand: one novel species and two first records

Morphological characters and multi-gene phylogenetic analyses were used to identify Retiboletus specimens collected in northern Thailand. Retiboletus brevibasidiatus is described as new to science, whereas R. fuscus and R. nigrogriseus are reported for the first time from Thailand. Retiboletus brevibasidiatus produces medium-sized basidiomes, with a dark blonde to clay pileus and densely reticulate stipe mostly on the upper part with pale yellow to chrome yellow basal mycelium. It is difficult to separate R. brevibasidiatus from other closely related species on the basis of macroscopic characters. However, the new species can be distinguished by microscopic characters, mostly the shorter basidia. The macro- and micro-morphology of the R. fuscus and R. nigrogriseus collections from Thailand fit well with the previous descriptions of materials from China and Japan. Detailed descriptions, molecular phylogeny, and illustrations of the three species are provided.

Neoboletus infuscatus, a new tropical bolete from Hainan, southern China

Neoboletus infuscatus (Boletaceae, Boletales) is described as a new species from Yinggeling of Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Park, southern China. It is morphologically characterized by a large basidioma with a nearly glabrous, brownish yellow, yellowish brown to pale brown pileus, pores orangish red when young, yellowish brown to brown when old, context and hymenophore staining blue when injured, a yellow stipe with red punctuations, surfaces of the pileus and the stipe usually covered with a thin layer of white pruina when young. Phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences from part of the 28S gene, the nuclear rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, and part of the translation elongation factor 1-α gene (TEF1) also confirm that N. infuscatus forms an independent lineage within Neoboletus. Detailed morphological description, color photos of fresh basidiomata and line-drawings of microstructures are provided.

Parvixerocomus matheranensis (Boletaceae), a new species from India

A new species of Parvixerocomus, P. matheranensis belonging to Boletoideae of Boletaceae is described and illustrated from tropical region of Maharashtra, India. P. matheranensis is morphologically distinguished by small basidiomes having ruby red pileus with concolorous stipe, yellow hymenophore that stains blue to blackish blue on bruising, elongate ellipsoid to cylindrical basidiospores with inconspicuous suprahilar depression, ventricose to clavate cheilocystidia, ventricose to lageniform pleurocystidia. Further, extensive phylogenetic analyses based on five gene markers (nrITS, nrLSU, rpb1, rpb2, tef1-α) confirmed that P. matheranensis is distinct from its closest taxa P. aokii and P. pseudoaokii and also from other members of Boletoideae.

Exploring the Species Diversity of Edible Mushrooms in Yunnan, Southwestern China, by DNA Barcoding

Yunnan Province, China, is famous for its abundant wild edible mushroom diversity and a rich source of the world's wild mushroom trade markets. However, much remains unknown about the diversity of edible mushrooms, including the number of wild edible mushroom species and their distributions. In this study, we collected and analyzed 3585 mushroom samples from wild mushroom markets in 35 counties across Yunnan Province from 2010 to 2019. Among these samples, we successfully obtained the DNA barcode sequences from 2198 samples. Sequence comparisons revealed that these 2198 samples likely belonged to 159 known species in 56 different genera, 31 families, 11 orders, 2 classes, and 2 phyla. Significantly, 51.13% of these samples had sequence similarities to known species at lower than 97%, likely representing new taxa. Further phylogenetic analyses on several common mushroom groups including 1536 internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences suggested the existence of 20 new (cryptic) species in these groups. The extensive new and cryptic species diversity in wild mushroom markets in Yunnan calls for greater attention for the conservation and utilization of these resources. Our results on both the distinct barcode sequences and the distributions of these sequences should facilitate new mushroom species discovery and forensic authentication of high-valued mushrooms and contribute to the scientific inventory for the management of wild mushroom markets.

A global meta-analysis of ITS rDNA sequences from material belonging to the genus Ganoderma (Basidiomycota, Polyporales) including new data from selected taxa

Ganoderma P. Karst. is a cosmopolitan genus of white-rot fungi which comprises species with highly-prized pharmaceutical properties, valuable biotechnological applications and of significant phytopathological interest. However, the status of the taxonomy within the genus is still highly controversial and ambiguous despite the progress made through molecular approaches. A metadata analysis of 3908 nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rDNA sequences obtained from GenBank/ENA/DDBJ and UNITE was performed by targeting sequences annotated as Ganoderma, but also sequences from environmental samples and from material examined for the first time. Ganoderma taxa segregated into five main lineages (Clades A to E). Clade A corresponds to the core of laccate species and includes G. shanxiense and three major well-supported clusters: Cluster A.1 ('G. lucidum sensu lato') consists of taxa from Eurasia and North America, Cluster A.2 of material with worldwide occurrence including G. resinaceum and Cluster A.3 is composed of species originating from all continents except Europe and comprises G. lingzhi. Clade B includes G. applanatum and allied species with a Holarctic distribution. Clade C comprises taxa from Asia and Africa only. Clade D consists of laccate taxa with tropical/subtropical occurrence, while clade E harbours the highest number of non-laccate species with a cosmopolitan distribution. The 92 Ganoderma-associated names, initially used for sequences labelling, correspond to at least 80 taxa. Amongst them, 21 constitute putatively new phylospecies after our application of criteria relevant to the robustness/support of the terminal clades, intra- and interspecific genetic divergence and available biogeographic data. Moreover, several other groups or individual sequences seem to represent distinct taxonomic entities and merit further investigation. A particularly large number of the public sequences was revealed to be insufficiently and/or incorrectly identified, for example, 87% and 78% of entries labelled as G. australe and G. lucidum, respectively. In general, ITS demonstrated high efficacy in resolving relationships amongst most of the Ganoderma taxa; however, it was not equally useful at elucidating species barriers across the entire genus and such cases are outlined. Furthermore, we draw conclusions on biogeography by evaluating species occurrence on a global scale in conjunction with phylogenetic structure/patterns. The sequence variability assessed in ITS spacers could be further exploited for diagnostic purposes.

137Cs, 40K, and K in raw and stir-fried mushrooms from the Boletaceae family from the Midu region in Yunnan, Southwest China

The parallel batches of the same species and geographical origin mushrooms both raw and stir-fried were investigated to get an insight into the content and intake of ¹³⁷Cs, ⁴⁰K, and K from mushroom meals. The Boletaceae family species (Baorangia bicolor, Boletus bainiugan, Butyriboletus roseoflavus, Retiboletus griseus, Rugiboletus extremiorientalis, and Sutorius magnificus) were collected from the Midu County (Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture) in 2018. The activity concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs in the caps of dried raw mushrooms were in the range 14 ± 1 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass (db) (R. griseus) to 34 ± 2 Bq kg^-1 db (R. extremiorientalis), and in stems from 16 ± 1 Bq kg^-1 db (B. bicolor and B. bainiugan) to 23 ± 1 Bq kg^-1 db (R. extremiorientalis). The mean activity concentration in the whole fruiting bodies in all six species was 18 ± 4 Bq kg^-1 db. The activity concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs were roughly the same in both dehydrated materials, stir-fried, and raw mushrooms, while the contents of ⁴⁰K and stable K were around 2- to 3-fold smaller in stir-fried than raw product. The raw and stir-fried mushrooms on a whole (wet) weight basis showed activity concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs in the range from 1.2 to 3.2 Bq kg^-1 ww (mean 1.9 ± 0.6 Bq kg^-1 ww) and 6.0 to 9.4 Bq kg^-1 ww (mean 7.0 ± 1.2 Bq kg^-1 ww), respectively. Evidently, when expressed on a whole (wet) weight basis, the cooked mushrooms showed on average around 3.5-fold greater activity concentration of ¹³⁷Cs when compared with raw mushrooms. The ¹³⁷Cs, ⁴⁰K, and total K enrichment in stir-frying (in a whole (wet) weight basis for the meal), confronted with the results for dehydrated raw and fried mushrooms, show the direct correlation with loss of mass (largely moisture) during the cooking procedure but not much of ¹³⁷Cs and ⁴⁰K. Edible wild mushrooms from Yunnan were little contaminated with radiocaesium. As assessed, the mean radioactivity dose from natural ⁴⁰K in around 9.3-fold exceeded the dose obtained for artificial ¹³⁷Cs from stir-fried mushroom meals, which both were very low doses.

Genetic analysis of Boletus edulis suggests that intra-specific competition may reduce local genetic diversity as a woodland ages

Ectomycorrhizal fungi are key players in terrestrial ecosystems yet their mating systems and population dynamics remain poorly understood. We investigated the fine-scale relatedness structure and genetic diversity of Boletus edulis, one of the world's most commercially important wild mushrooms. Microsatellite genotyping of fruiting bodies from 14 different sites around Bielefeld in Germany revealed little in the way of population structure over a geographic scale of several kilometres. However, on a more local scale we found evidence for elevated relatedness as well as inbreeding. We also observed a significant negative association between the genetic diversity of fruit and the age of the trees under which they were sampled. Taken together, our results suggest that as genets mature, they compete and potentially create conditions under which further spores struggle to become established. By implication, even though this species is widely picked, propagules remain common enough to create strong competition when new habitats become available.

The saprotrophic Pleurotus ostreatus species complex: late Eocene origin in East Asia, multiple dispersal, and complex speciation

The Pleurotus ostreatus species complex is saprotrophic and of significant economic and ecological importance. However, species delimitation has long been problematic because of phenotypic plasticity and morphological stasis. In addition, the evolutionary history is poorly understood due to limited sampling and insufficient gene fragments employed for phylogenetic analyses. Comprehensive sampling from Asia, Europe, North and South America and Africa was used to run phylogenetic analyses of the P. ostreatus species complex based on 40 nuclear single-copy orthologous genes using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference analyses. Here, we present a robust phylogeny of the P. ostreatus species complex, fully resolved from the deepest nodes to species level. The P. ostreatus species complex was strongly supported as monophyletic, and 20 phylogenetic species were recognized, with seven putatively new species. Data from our molecular clock analyses suggested that divergence of the genus Pleurotus probably occurred in the late Jurassic, while the most recent common ancestor of the P. ostreatus species complex diversified about 39 Ma in East Asia. Species of the P. ostreatus complex might migrate from the East Asia into North America across the North Atlantic Land Bridge or the Bering Land Bridge at different times during the late Oligocene, late Miocene and late Pliocene, and then diversified in the Old and New Worlds simultaneously through multiple dispersal and vicariance events. The dispersal from East Asia to South America in the middle Oligocene was probably achieved by a long-distance dispersal event. Intensification of aridity and climate cooling events in the late Miocene and Quaternary glacial cycling probably had a significant influence on diversification patterns of the complex. The disjunctions among East Asia, Europe, North America and Africa within Clade IIc are hypothesized to be a result of allopatric speciation. Substrate transitions to Apiaceae probably occurred no earlier than 6 Ma. Biogeographic analyses suggested that the global cooling of the late Eocene, intensification of aridity caused by rapid uplift of the QTP and retreat of the Tethys Sea in the late Miocene, climate cooling events in Quaternary glacial cycling, and substrate transitions have contributed jointly to diversification of the species complex.

Psiloboletinus is an independent genus sister to Suillus

The genus Psiloboletinus was proposed by Rolf Singer in 1945 based on Phylloporus lariceti, a species that associates with Larix in the Altai Mountains of central and eastern Asia. However, this classification has been controversial due to the morphological similarity to known genera Boletinus and Fuscoboletinus. Because of the lack of fresh material to study, the phylogenetic position of Psiloboletinus has remained unknown since its publication. However, the recently described species Suillus foetidus reported from northeast China allows this issue to be reexamined and resolved. Through morphological observations and comparison, we find that S. foetidus is a heterotypic synonym of Ps. lariceti. Furthermore, Psiloboletinus should be retained as an independent genus sister to Suillus based on molecular phylogenetic evidence and morphological features.

Molecular strategies for identification and characterization of some wild edible mushrooms of Nagaland, India

Nagaland has a rich macro fungal flora but not many works has been carried out till today. Present investigation deals with molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of six popular wild edible mushrooms (WEMs) species of Nagaland, India viz., Lentinula edodes, Lentinus squarrosulus, L. sajor-caju, L. tigrinus, Schizophyllum commune, Termitomyces heimii and one variety of L. squarrosulus based on molecular markers (ITS, 18S rRNA and 28S rRNA genes) data. The use of DNA markers for identification of mushrooms is highly desirable and practical because it is reliable and quick. This approach could resolve successfully the identity and interrelationship of six WEM species with respect to their infrageneric groups. The high CI values of the mushrooms species indicated the low homoplasy nature. The ITS and 28S rRNA data sets were found to be more informative then the 18S rRNA datasets. The molecular data generated for each mushroom species in the present investigation will help in correct identification and conservation of these widely consumed WEM of the region. Additionally assessment of bioactive molecules indicates that studied species are rich in pro-health bioactive compounds. The study hence throws light on the potential and importance of mushrooms especially the edible mushrooms as an economically valuable crop.

Species Diversity, Phylogeny, Divergence Time, and Biogeography of the Genus Sanghuangporus (Basidiomycota)

"Sanghuang" is a popular fungus used as a Chinese traditional medicine. In fact, it represents a group of fungi belonging to the genus Sanghuangporus, but little is known about its origin and biogeography. The aim of this study was to characterize the molecular relationships, origin and biogeographical distribution of Sanghuangporus. The multi-locus phylogenetic analyses were used to infer the phylogenetic relationships. In addition, based on Bayesian evolutionary analysis using sequences from the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), nuclear large subunit rDNA (nLSU), translation elongation factor 1-α (EF1-α), and the largest and second largest subunits of RNA polymerase II (RPB1 and RPB2), we used a fungus fossil-based approach to gain insight into the divergence time of species in Sanghuangporus. The molecular phylogeny strongly supports the monophyly of Sanghuangporus (MP = 100%, ML = 100%, and BPP = 1.00), and 13 species are recognized in this genus. The Bayesian uncorrelated lognormal relaxed molecular clock using BEAST and reconstructed ancestral areas indicate that the maximum crown age of Sanghuangporus is approximately 30.85 million years. East Asia is the likely ancestral area (38%). Dispersal and differentiation to other continents then occurred during the late Middle Miocene and Pliocene. The ancestor of Sanghuangporus probably originated in palaeotropical Northeast Asia and covered Northeast Asia and East Africa during the Oligocene-Miocene, hosted by plants that expanded via the "Gomphotherium Landbridge." Six kinds of dispersal routes are proposed, including intercontinental dispersal events of three clades between Northeast Asia and East Africa, between East Asia and North America, and between Northeast Asia and Europe.

Phylogeny, biogeography and taxonomic re-assessment of Multifurca (Russulaceae, Russulales) using three-locus data

Multifurca is a small genus newly established to accommodate lactarioid and russuloid species with some characters reminiscent of corticoid members of Russulaceae. It shows an amphi-pacific distribution with strong preference for the tropical zone of the Northern Hemisphere and thus has particular significance for biogeographical study. Using worldwide samples and three loci (ITS, 28S rDNA and rpb2), we demonstrated that Multifurca is split into two highly supported major clades that are here recognized at the subgeneric level: subg. Furcata subg. nov. exclusively includes lactarioid species, while subg. Multifurca includes species with a russuloid habit. Using phylogenetic species recognition and comparison of genetic distances we recognize five new and six previously described species, almost double the known number of species before this study. Molecular dating using a Bayesian method suggested that Multifurca originated in early Paleocene and diversified in the Eocene. The most recent interspecific divergences occurred both in Asia and America, roughly at the same time around the Pliocene. Ancestral area reconstruction and comparisons of genetic distances and morphology suggested an early divergence within Australasia or tropical Asia. From the early Miocene to Pliocene, multiple dispersals/migrations to Australasia and North America by island hopping or land bridge likely happened. Vicariance at the late Tertiary might be the most likely mechanism accounting for the eastern Asia-southeastern North America and Australasia-tropical Asia disjunct distributions. The shared polymorphisms in the ITS alignment, numerous degenerated base pairs in the rpb2 sequences and weak conflict between the ITS and LSU genealogies of M. subg. Furcata suggest recent speciation. Host specificity of Multifurca species or species pairs is relatively low. Host shifts are believed to have aided establishment in new territories during the dispersals and migrations.

Spongispora temasekensis, a new boletoid genus and species from Singapore

Dipterocarp forests are a typical and widespread type of vegetation in tropical lowlands of southeast Asia that harbor a high diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi, including boletes. Based on molecular and morphological characters, a unique bolete found in Singapore associated with the dipterocarp Hopea odorata was proven to represent a new species in the proposed new genus Spongispora. Phylogenetic analyses of five loci indicate that Spongispora is nested in the subfamily Leccinoideae of the Boletaceae, most closely related to an inclusive clade of Leccinum, Leccinellum, Octaviania, Rossbeevera, and Turmalinea. However, genetic distances between Spongispora and genera in Leccinoideae are mostly higher than that between any two known genera in this subfamily, which supports the proposal of a new genus. Spongispora temasekensis is characterized by a whitish to pale yellow hymenophore that stains brown where injured, coarsely reticulate stipe, interwoven trichodermial pileipellis, and broadly elliptical to ovoid basidiospores with sponge-like ornamentation perforated by irregular clefts, cracks, and warts under scanning electron microscopy. Morphological descriptions, illustrations, and comparisons with allied taxa are made, and a key to the genera of the subfamily Leccinoideae is provided.

Studies on diversity of higher fungi in Yunnan, southwestern China: A review

Yunnan is exceedingly rich in higher fungi (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). Given that the number of fungi (including lichens) occurring in a given area is, as Hawksworth suggested, roughly six times that of local vascular plants, a total of approximately 104,000 fungal species would be expected in Yunnan. However, to date only about 6000 fungal species, including roughly 3000 species of higher fungi, have been reported from the province. Although studies on Yunnan's fungi started in the late nineteenth century, significant progress has been made only in the last forty-five years. Over the first twenty-five years of this period, studies on fungal diversity in this area have largely been about taxonomy based on morphological characters and partially on geographical distribution. Over the past twenty years, the combination of both morphological and molecular phylogenetic approaches has become the preferred method to help understand the diversity and evolution of higher fungi. This review focuses on our current knowledge of how geological, geographical, and ecological factors may have contributed to the diversity patterns of higher fungi in Yunnan. Based on this knowledge, three aspects for future studies are suggested.

Species diversity, distribution patterns, and substrate specificity of Strobilurus

The fungal genus Strobilurus belongs to Physalacriaceae and contains approximately 11 species worldwide. Species of this genus grow and reproduce on cones of various conifers, seed pods or fruits of Magnolia and Liquidambar, and branches and wood of conifers. Previous studies focused mainly on samples from Europe and North America. And no genus-specific phylogenetic analysis has been carried out to date. The monophyly, degree of species diversity and substrate specificity, and overall distribution patterns are addressed here using morphological and molecular evidence. The authors collected samples of Strobilurus from much of its known distribution ranges and carried out morphological observations and multilocus phylogenetic analyses using five molecular markers. The results show that Strobilurus is a monophyletic group but may exclude one species, S. ohshimae. A total of 13 species was identified, with two, S. orientalis and S. pachycystidiatus, described as new from China. Several species were shown to be specific to certain substrates, whereas a few less so. Biogeographic analyses indicated that historical exchanges of species between East Asia, Europe, and North America, later vicariance events, and substrate specificity have contributed jointly to diversification of Strobilurus.

Tropic origins, a dispersal model for saprotrophic mushrooms in Agaricus section Minores with descriptions of sixteen new species

Agaricus section Minores contains the richest species diversity within the genus. Its Phylogeny is firstly presented by a Maximum Likelihood tree generated through DNA sequences from four gene regions of 91 species. Furthermore, a molecular dating analysis is conducted used those sequences, and it provided the divergence times of the clades within section Minores. Study showed section Minores has a tropical origin. Four main dispersal routes are proposed: (1) species from South Asia migrated through the Tibetan Plateau and reached Europe ca. 9-13 Ma; (2) species from out of South Asia dispersed to Europe in the earlier time of ca. 22 Ma; (3) species from South Asia dispersed through North Asia to Alaska, and reached West America around ca. 9 Ma; and (4) species from South Asia dispersed south and reached Oceania by at least three invading events about ca. 9, 12 and 16-18 Ma respectively. Those routes excepting the second route coincide with those of ectomycorrhizal mushrooms. To know whether the second route existed in the saprotrophic mushrooms requires further studies, and the fourth route may explain why the secotioid species occurring in Australia are morphologically similar but cluster in different phylogenetic clades. This study also demonstrates a great biodiversity of A. section Minores in China. Sixteen new species and three new records are introduced from China with morphological descriptions, illustrations, color photographs and phylogenetic analyses.

Phylogeny, divergence time and historical biogeography of Laetiporus (Basidiomycota, Polyporales)

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to characterize the molecular relationship, origin and historical biogeography of the species in important brown rot fungal genus Laetiporus from East Asia, Europe, Pan-America, Hawaii and South Africa. We used six genetic markers to estimate a genus-level phylogeny including (1) the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), (2) nuclear large subunit rDNA (nrLSU), (3) nuclear small subunit rDNA (nrSSU), (4) translation elongation factor 1-α (EF-1α), (5) DNA-directed RNA polymerase II subunit 2 (RPB2), and (6) mitochondrial small subunit rDNA (mtSSU).

RESULTS

Results of multi-locus phylogenetic analyses show clade support for at least seventeen species-level lineages including two new Laetiporus in China. Molecular dating using BEAST estimated the present crown group diverged approximately 20.16 million years ago (Mya) in the early Miocene. Biogeographic analyses using RASP indicated that Laetiporus most likely originated in temperate zones with East Asia and North America having the highest probability (48%) of being the ancestral area.

CONCLUSIONS

Four intercontinental dispersal routes and a possible concealed dispersal route were established for the first time.

Ecological and physical barriers shape genetic structure of the Alpine porcini (Boletus reticuloceps)

The Alpine porcini, Boletus reticuloceps, is an ectomycorrhizal mushroom distributed in subalpine areas of Southwest China, central China, and Taiwan Island. This distribution pattern makes it an ideal organism to infer how ectomycorrhizal fungi have reacted to historical tectonic and climatic changes, and to illustrate the mechanism for the disjunction of organisms between Southwest China and Taiwan. In this study, we explored the phylogeographic pattern of B. reticuloceps by microsatellite genotyping, DNA sequencing, ecological factor analysis, and species distribution modeling. Three genetic groups from the East Himalayas (EH), northern Hengduan Mountains (NHM), and southern Hengduan Mountains (SHM), were identified. The earlier divergent SHM group is found under Abies in moister environments, whereas the EH and NHM groups, which are physically separated by the Mekong-Salween Divide, are found mainly under Picea in drier environments. Samples from Taiwan showed a close relationship with the SHM group. High mountains did not form dispersal barriers among populations in each of the EH, NHM, and SHM groups, probably due to the relatively weak host specificity of B. reticuloceps. Our study indicated that ecological heterogeneity could have contributed to the divergence between the SHM and the NHM-EH groups, while physical barriers could have led to the divergence of the NHM and the EH groups. Dispersal into Taiwan via Central China during the Quaternary glaciations is likely to have shaped its disjunct distribution.

Phylogeny and biogeography of the remarkable genus Bondarzewia (Basidiomycota, Russulales)

Bondarzewia is a conspicuous and widely distributed mushroom genus, but little is known about its origin and biogeography. Here, we investigated the systematics and biogeography of Bondarzewia species using multi-locus phylogenetic analysis. Four genetic markers, including the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), large nuclear ribosomal RNA subunit (nLSU), elongation factor 1-α (tef1) and mitochondrial small subunit rDNA (mtSSU), were used to infer the phylogenetic relationships of Bondarzewia. We performed Bayesian evolutionary analysis on the gene datasets of the largest and second largest subunits of RNA polymerase II (RPB1 and RPB2). From the results, we inferred that the maximum crown age of Bondarzewia is approximately 25.5 million-years-ago (Mya) and that tropical East Asia is likely to be its ancestral area, with three possible expansions leading to its distribution in North America, Europe and Oceania.

Fungal DNA barcoding

Fungi are ubiquitous in both natural and human-made environments. They play important roles in the health of plants, animals, and humans, and in broad ecosystem functions. Thus, having an efficient species-level identification system could significantly enhance our ability to treat fungal diseases and to monitor the spatial and temporal patterns of fungal distributions and migrations. DNA barcoding is a potent approach for rapid identification of fungal specimens, generating novel species hypothesis, and guiding biodiversity and ecological studies. In this mini-review, I briefly summarize (i) the history of DNA sequence-based fungal identification; (ii) the emergence of the ITS region as the consensus primary fungal barcode; (iii) the use of the ITS barcodes to address a variety of issues on fungal diversity from local to global scales, including generating a large number of species hypothesis; and (iv) the problems with the ITS barcode region and the approaches to overcome these problems. Similar to DNA barcoding research on plants and animals, significant progress has been achieved over the last few years in terms of both the questions being addressed and the foundations being laid for future research endeavors. However, significant challenges remain. I suggest three broad areas of research to enhance the usefulness of fungal DNA barcoding to meet the current and future challenges: (i) develop a common set of primers and technologies that allow the amplification and sequencing of all fungi at both the primary and secondary barcode loci; (ii) compile a centralized reference database that includes all recognized fungal species as well as species hypothesis, and allows regular updates from the research community; and (iii) establish a consensus set of new species recognition criteria based on barcode DNA sequences that can be applied across the fungal kingdom.

A NIR spectroscopy-based efficient approach to detect fraudulent additions within mixtures of dried porcini mushrooms

Boletus edulis and allied species (BEAS), known as "porcini mushrooms", represent almost the totality of wild mushrooms placed on the Italian market, both fresh and dehydrated. Furthermore, considerable amounts of these dried fungi are imported from China. The presence of Tylopilus spp. and other extraneous species (i.e., species edible but not belonging to BEAS) within dried porcini mushrooms - mainly from those imported from China and sold in Italy - may represent an evaluable problem from a commercial point of view. The purpose of the present study is to evaluate near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) as a rapid and effective alternative to classical methods for identifying extraneous species within dried porcini batches and detecting related commercial frauds. To this goal, 80 dried fungi including BEAS, Tylopilus spp., and Boletus violaceofuscus were analysed by NIRS. For each sample, 3 different parts of the pileus (pileipellis, flesh and hymenium) were analysed and a low-level strategy for data fusion, consisting of combining the signals obtained by the different parts before data processing, was applied. Then, NIR spectra were used to develop reliable and efficient class-models using a novel method, partial least squares density modelling (PLS-DM), and the two most commonly used class-modelling techniques, UNEQ and SIMCA. The results showed that NIR spectroscopy coupled with chemometric class-modelling technique can be suggested as an effective analytical strategy to check the authenticity of dried BEAS mushrooms.

Multilocus phylogenetic analyses reveal unexpected abundant diversity and significant disjunct distribution pattern of the Hedgehog Mushrooms (Hydnum L.)

Hydnum is a fungal genus proposed by Linnaeus in the early time of modern taxonomy. It contains several ectomycorrhizal species which are commonly consumed worldwide. However, Hydnum is one of the most understudied fungal genera, especially from a molecular phylogenetic view. In this study, we extensively gathered specimens of Hydnum from Asia, Europe, America and Australasia, and analyzed them by using sequences of four gene fragments (ITS, nrLSU, tef1α and rpb1). Our phylogenetic analyses recognized at least 31 phylogenetic species within Hydnum, 15 of which were reported for the first time. Most Australasian species were recognized as strongly divergent old relics, but recent migration between Australasia and the Northern Hemisphere was also detected. Within the Northern Hemisphere, frequent historical biota exchanges between the Old World and the New World via both the North Atlantic Land Bridge and the Bering Land Bridge could be elucidated. Our study also revealed that most Hydnum species found in subalpine areas of the Hengduan Mountains in southwestern China occur in northeastern/northern China and Europe, indicating that the composition of the mycobiota in the Hengduan Mountains reigion is more complicated than what we have known before.

Circumscription and Taxonomic Arrangement of Nigroboletus roseonigrescens Gen. Et Sp. Nov., a New Member of Boletaceae from Tropical South-Eastern China

Nigroboletus is proposed as a novel genus in family Boletaceae, subfamily Boletoideae, to include N. roseonigrescens, a new boletoid species from tropical environment in south-eastern China. Detailed morphological description, color pictures of both fresh basidiomes in habitat and dried material along with photomicrographs and line drawings of the main anatomical features are provided, supported by a comprehensive phylogeny based on multigene molecular analysis (nrITS, nrLSU, rpb1, rpb2 and tef1-α datasets). Taxonomic placement and evolutionary relationships of Nigroboletus are investigated.

Revisiting the morphology and phylogeny of Lactifluus with three new lineages from southern China

As a recent group mainly defined by molecular data the genus Lactifluus is in need of further study to provide insight into the morphological and molecular variation within the genus, species limits and relationships. Phylogenetic analyses of nuc rDNA ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS), D1 and D2 domains of nuc 28S rDNA (28S), and part of the second largest subunit of the RNA polymerase II (rpb2) (6-7 region) sequences of 28 samples from southern China revealed three new lineages of Lactifluus. Two of them are nested in a major clade that includes the type of Lactifluus and here is treated as two new sections: L. sect. Ambicystidiati and L. sect. Tenuicystidiati. Lactifluus ambicystidiatus, described here as a new species (= sect. Ambicystidiati), has both lamprocystidia and macrocystidia in the hymenium, a unique combination of features within Russulaceae. Furthermore, only remnants of lactiferous hyphae are present in L. ambicystidiatus and our results suggest that the ability to form a lactiferous system has been lost in this lineage. Lactifluus sect. Tenuicystidiati forms a strongly supported monophyletic group as a sister lineage to L. sect. Lactifluus. We recognize it based on the thin-walled macrocystidia and smaller ellipsoid spores with an incomplete reticulum compared with L. sect. Lactifluus. The former placement of L. tenuicystidiatus in the African L. sect. Pseudogymnocarpi is not supported. Using genealogical concordance we recognize five phylogenetic species within L. sect. Tenuicystidiati and describe two of these as new, L. subpruinosus and L. tropicosinicus. The third lineage, represented by L. leoninus, forms a sister group to L. subg. Lactariopsis sensu stricto. The three lineages provide further evidence for morphological features in Lactifluus being homoplasious. Some sections and species complexes are likely to be composed of more species and merit further investigations. Subtropical-tropical Asia is likely a key region for additional sampling.

Four new species in Leucoagaricus (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota) from Asia

The genus Leucoagaricus has been well studied in Europe. However, species diversity of Leucoagaricus in Asia remains poorly known, especially in the mountains of southwestern China, a hot spot for biodiversity. Based on morphological characters and molecular data, four new species are described, La. asiaticus, La. subcrystallifer, La. subpurpureolilacinus and La. truncatus. Detailed morphological descriptions, drawings of microstructures for novel taxa and comparisons with closely allied taxa are provided. Phylogenetic analyses inferred from internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and region 6-7 of the gene for the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (rpb2) sequences show that the novel taxa are nested within a well-supported clade jointly formed by members of Leucoagaricus section Rubrotincti and subgenus Sericeomyces.