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Popgeorgiev N, Gil C, Berthenet K, Bertolin G, Ichim G. Shedding light on mitochondrial outer-membrane permeabilization and membrane potential: State of the art methods and biosensors. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2024; 156:58-65. [PMID: 37438211 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2023.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Membrane structural integrity is essential for optimal mitochondrial function. These organelles produce the energy needed for all vital processes, provided their outer and inner membranes are intact. This prevents the release of mitochondrial apoptogenic factors into the cytosol and ensures intact mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) to sustain ATP production. Cell death by apoptosis is generally triggered by outer mitochondrial membrane permeabilization (MOMP), tightly coupled with loss of ΔΨ m. As these two processes are essential for both mitochondrial function and cell death, researchers have devised various techniques to assess them. Here, we discuss current methods and biosensors available for detecting MOMP and measuring ΔΨ m, focusing on their advantages and limitations and discuss what new imaging tools are needed to improve our knowledge of mitochondrial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay Popgeorgiev
- Cancer Cell Death laboratory, part of LabEX DEVweCAN, Cancer Initiation and Tumoral Cell Identity Department, CRCL, U1052 INSERM, UMR CNRS 5286, Centre Léon Bérard, Université Lyon I, Institut Convergence PLAsCAN Lyon, France; Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France
| | - Clara Gil
- Cancer Cell Death laboratory, part of LabEX DEVweCAN, Cancer Initiation and Tumoral Cell Identity Department, CRCL, U1052 INSERM, UMR CNRS 5286, Centre Léon Bérard, Université Lyon I, Institut Convergence PLAsCAN Lyon, France
| | - Kevin Berthenet
- Cancer Cell Death laboratory, part of LabEX DEVweCAN, Cancer Initiation and Tumoral Cell Identity Department, CRCL, U1052 INSERM, UMR CNRS 5286, Centre Léon Bérard, Université Lyon I, Institut Convergence PLAsCAN Lyon, France
| | - Giulia Bertolin
- CNRS, Univ Rennes, IGDR (Institute of Genetics and Development of Rennes), Rennes, France.
| | - Gabriel Ichim
- Cancer Cell Death laboratory, part of LabEX DEVweCAN, Cancer Initiation and Tumoral Cell Identity Department, CRCL, U1052 INSERM, UMR CNRS 5286, Centre Léon Bérard, Université Lyon I, Institut Convergence PLAsCAN Lyon, France.
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2
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Vennin C, Cattaneo CM, Bosch L, Vegna S, Ma X, Damstra HGJ, Martinovic M, Tsouri E, Ilic M, Azarang L, van Weering JRT, Pulver E, Zeeman AL, Schelfhorst T, Lohuis JO, Rios AC, Dekkers JF, Akkari L, Menezes R, Medema R, Baglio SR, Akhmanova A, Linn SC, Lemeer S, Pegtel DM, Voest EE, van Rheenen J. Taxanes trigger cancer cell killing in vivo by inducing non-canonical T cell cytotoxicity. Cancer Cell 2023; 41:1170-1185.e12. [PMID: 37311414 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2023.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Although treatment with taxanes does not always lead to clinical benefit, all patients are at risk of their detrimental side effects such as peripheral neuropathy. Understanding the in vivo mode of action of taxanes can help design improved treatment regimens. Here, we demonstrate that in vivo, taxanes directly trigger T cells to selectively kill cancer cells in a non-canonical, T cell receptor-independent manner. Mechanistically, taxanes induce T cells to release cytotoxic extracellular vesicles, which lead to apoptosis specifically in tumor cells while leaving healthy epithelial cells intact. We exploit these findings to develop an effective therapeutic approach, based on transfer of T cells pre-treated with taxanes ex vivo, thereby avoiding toxicity of systemic treatment. Our study reveals a different in vivo mode of action of one of the most commonly used chemotherapies, and opens avenues to harness T cell-dependent anti-tumor effects of taxanes while avoiding systemic toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Vennin
- Division of Molecular Pathology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Chiara M Cattaneo
- Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Molecular Oncology and Immunology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Leontien Bosch
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Serena Vegna
- Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Division of Tumor Biology and Immunology, Oncode Institute, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Xuhui Ma
- Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Molecular Oncology and Immunology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Hugo G J Damstra
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Moreno Martinovic
- Division of Gene Regulation, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Efi Tsouri
- Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Division of Tumor Biology and Immunology, Oncode Institute, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Mila Ilic
- Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Division of Cell Biology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Leyla Azarang
- Biostatistics Centre & Department of Psychosocial Research and Epidemiology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jan R T van Weering
- Department of Human Genetics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam UMC, 1105AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Emilia Pulver
- Division of Molecular Pathology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Amber L Zeeman
- Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and University Medical Centre (UMC), 3584CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Tim Schelfhorst
- Division of Molecular Pathology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen O Lohuis
- Division of Molecular Pathology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Anne C Rios
- Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Johanna F Dekkers
- Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Leila Akkari
- Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Division of Tumor Biology and Immunology, Oncode Institute, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Renee Menezes
- Biostatistics Centre & Department of Psychosocial Research and Epidemiology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Rene Medema
- Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Division of Cell Biology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Serena R Baglio
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Anna Akhmanova
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Sabine C Linn
- Divisions of Molecular Pathology and of Medical Oncology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Pathology, University Medical Center, 1081HV Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Simone Lemeer
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Netherlands Proteomics Center, 3584CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Dirk M Pegtel
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Emile E Voest
- Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Molecular Oncology and Immunology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jacco van Rheenen
- Division of Molecular Pathology, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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3
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Scheele CLGJ, Herrmann D, Yamashita E, Celso CL, Jenne CN, Oktay MH, Entenberg D, Friedl P, Weigert R, Meijboom FLB, Ishii M, Timpson P, van Rheenen J. Multiphoton intravital microscopy of rodents. NATURE REVIEWS. METHODS PRIMERS 2022; 2:89. [PMID: 37621948 PMCID: PMC10449057 DOI: 10.1038/s43586-022-00168-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Tissues are heterogeneous with respect to cellular and non-cellular components and in the dynamic interactions between these elements. To study the behaviour and fate of individual cells in these complex tissues, intravital microscopy (IVM) techniques such as multiphoton microscopy have been developed to visualize intact and live tissues at cellular and subcellular resolution. IVM experiments have revealed unique insights into the dynamic interplay between different cell types and their local environment, and how this drives morphogenesis and homeostasis of tissues, inflammation and immune responses, and the development of various diseases. This Primer introduces researchers to IVM technologies, with a focus on multiphoton microscopy of rodents, and discusses challenges, solutions and practical tips on how to perform IVM. To illustrate the unique potential of IVM, several examples of results are highlighted. Finally, we discuss data reproducibility and how to handle big imaging data sets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colinda L. G. J. Scheele
- Laboratory for Intravital Imaging and Dynamics of Tumor Progression, VIB Center for Cancer Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Oncology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - David Herrmann
- Cancer Ecosystems Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Department, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- St. Vincent’s Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Erika Yamashita
- Department of Immunology and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine and Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- WPI-Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Laboratory of Bioimaging and Drug Discovery, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Osaka, Japan
| | - Cristina Lo Celso
- Department of Life Sciences and Centre for Hematology, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Sir Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Craig N. Jenne
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Maja H. Oktay
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
- Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - David Entenberg
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
- Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Peter Friedl
- Department of Cell Biology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- David H. Koch Center for Applied Genitourinary Cancers, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Roberto Weigert
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Franck L. B. Meijboom
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Sustainable Animal Stewardship, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Faculty of Humanities, Ethics Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Masaru Ishii
- Department of Immunology and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine and Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- WPI-Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Laboratory of Bioimaging and Drug Discovery, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Osaka, Japan
| | - Paul Timpson
- Cancer Ecosystems Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Department, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- St. Vincent’s Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jacco van Rheenen
- Division of Molecular Pathology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Division of Molecular Pathology, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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4
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Intravital microscopy for real-time monitoring of drug delivery and nanobiological processes. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 189:114528. [PMID: 36067968 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Intravital microscopy (IVM) expands our understanding of cellular and molecular processes, with applications ranging from fundamental biology to (patho)physiology and immunology, as well as from drug delivery to drug processing and drug efficacy testing. In this review, we highlight modalities, methods and model organisms that make up today's IVM landscape, and we present how IVM - via its high spatiotemporal resolution - enables analysis of metabolites, small molecules, nanoparticles, immune cells, and the (tumor) tissue microenvironment. We furthermore present examples of how IVM facilitates the elucidation of nanomedicine kinetics and targeting mechanisms, as well as of biological processes such as immune cell death, host-pathogen interactions, metabolic states, and disease progression. We conclude by discussing the prospects of IVM clinical translation and examining the integration of machine learning in future IVM practice.
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Floerchinger A, Murphy KJ, Latham SL, Warren SC, McCulloch AT, Lee YK, Stoehr J, Mélénec P, Guaman CS, Metcalf XL, Lee V, Zaratzian A, Da Silva A, Tayao M, Rolo S, Phimmachanh M, Sultani G, McDonald L, Mason SM, Ferrari N, Ooms LM, Johnsson AKE, Spence HJ, Olson MF, Machesky LM, Sansom OJ, Morton JP, Mitchell CA, Samuel MS, Croucher DR, Welch HCE, Blyth K, Caldon CE, Herrmann D, Anderson KI, Timpson P, Nobis M. Optimizing metastatic-cascade-dependent Rac1 targeting in breast cancer: Guidance using optical window intravital FRET imaging. Cell Rep 2021; 36:109689. [PMID: 34525350 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Assessing drug response within live native tissue provides increased fidelity with regards to optimizing efficacy while minimizing off-target effects. Here, using longitudinal intravital imaging of a Rac1-Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) biosensor mouse coupled with in vivo photoswitching to track intratumoral movement, we help guide treatment scheduling in a live breast cancer setting to impair metastatic progression. We uncover altered Rac1 activity at the center versus invasive border of tumors and demonstrate enhanced Rac1 activity of cells in close proximity to live tumor vasculature using optical window imaging. We further reveal that Rac1 inhibition can enhance tumor cell vulnerability to fluid-flow-induced shear stress and therefore improves overall anti-metastatic response to therapy during transit to secondary sites such as the lung. Collectively, this study demonstrates the utility of single-cell intravital imaging in vivo to demonstrate that Rac1 inhibition can reduce tumor progression and metastases in an autochthonous setting to improve overall survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Floerchinger
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Kendelle J Murphy
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Sharissa L Latham
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Sean C Warren
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Andrew T McCulloch
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Young-Kyung Lee
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Janett Stoehr
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Pauline Mélénec
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Cris S Guaman
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Xanthe L Metcalf
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Victoria Lee
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Anaiis Zaratzian
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Andrew Da Silva
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Michael Tayao
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Sonia Rolo
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G611BD, UK
| | - Monica Phimmachanh
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Ghazal Sultani
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Laura McDonald
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G611BD, UK
| | - Susan M Mason
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G611BD, UK
| | - Nicola Ferrari
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G611BD, UK; Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Switchback Road, Glasgow G111QH, UK
| | - Lisa M Ooms
- Cancer Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia
| | | | - Heather J Spence
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Michael F Olson
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto ON, M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - Laura M Machesky
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Owen J Sansom
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G611BD, UK; Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Switchback Road, Glasgow G111QH, UK
| | - Jennifer P Morton
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G611BD, UK; Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Switchback Road, Glasgow G111QH, UK
| | - Christina A Mitchell
- Cancer Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Michael S Samuel
- Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology and University of South Australia; and the School of Medicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - David R Croucher
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Heidi C E Welch
- Signalling Programme, Babraham Institute, Cambridge CB223AT, UK
| | - Karen Blyth
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G611BD, UK; Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Switchback Road, Glasgow G111QH, UK
| | - C Elizabeth Caldon
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - David Herrmann
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Kurt I Anderson
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G611BD, UK; Francis Crick Institute, London NW11AT, UK
| | - Paul Timpson
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia.
| | - Max Nobis
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia.
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Eribulin and Paclitaxel Differentially Alter Extracellular Vesicles and Their Cargo from Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13112783. [PMID: 34205051 PMCID: PMC8199867 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13112783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles play a central role in intercellular communication and contribute to cancer progression, including the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Microtubule targeting agents (MTAs) including eribulin and paclitaxel continue to provide significant value in cancer therapy and their abilities to inhibit oncogenic signaling pathways, including eribulin's capacity to reverse EMT are being revealed. Because microtubules are involved in the intracellular trafficking required for the formation and cargo loading of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), we investigated whether MTA-mediated disruption of microtubule-dependent transport would impact sEV release and their cargo. Eribulin and paclitaxel caused an intracellular accumulation of CD63, a tetraspanin component of sEVs, in late/multivesicular endosomes of triple-negative breast cancer cells, consistent with the disruption of endosomal sorting and exosome cargo loading in these cells. While the concentrations of sEVs released from MTA-treated cells were not significantly altered, levels of CD63 and the CD63-associated cargos, ILK and β-integrin, were reduced in sEVs isolated from eribulin-treated HCC1937 cells as compared to vehicle or paclitaxel-treated cells. These results show that eribulin can reduce specific sEV cargos, including ILK, a major transducer of EMT in the tumor microenvironment, which may contribute to eribulin's ability to reverse EMT to promote anticancer efficacy.
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Margarido AS, Bornes L, Vennin C, van Rheenen J. Cellular Plasticity during Metastasis: New Insights Provided by Intravital Microscopy. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2020; 10:cshperspect.a037267. [PMID: 31615867 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a037267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Metastasis is a highly dynamic process during which cancer and microenvironmental cells undergo a cascade of events required for efficient dissemination throughout the body. During the metastatic cascade, tumor cells can change their state and behavior, a phenomenon commonly defined as cellular plasticity. To monitor cellular plasticity during metastasis, high-resolution intravital microscopy (IVM) techniques have been developed and allow us to visualize individual cells by repeated imaging in animal models. In this review, we summarize the latest technological advancements in the field of IVM and how they have been applied to monitor metastatic events. In particular, we highlight how longitudinal imaging in native tissues can provide new insights into the plastic physiological and developmental processes that are hijacked by cancer cells during metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreia S Margarido
- Molecular Pathology, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Laura Bornes
- Molecular Pathology, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Claire Vennin
- Molecular Pathology, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jacco van Rheenen
- Molecular Pathology, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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8
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Yano S, Tazawa H, Kagawa S, Fujiwara T, Hoffman RM. FUCCI Real-Time Cell-Cycle Imaging as a Guide for Designing Improved Cancer Therapy: A Review of Innovative Strategies to Target Quiescent Chemo-Resistant Cancer Cells. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12092655. [PMID: 32957652 PMCID: PMC7563319 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12092655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Chemotherapy of solid tumors has made very slow progress over many decades. A major problem has been that solid tumors very often contain non-dividing cells due to lack of oxygen deep in the tumor and these non-dividing cells resist most currently-used chemotherapy which usually only targets dividing cells. The present review demonstrates how a unique imaging system, FUCCI, which color codes cells depending on whether they are in a dividing or non-dividing phase, is being used to design very novel therapy that targets non-dividing cancer cells which can greatly improve the efficacy of cancer chemotherapy. Abstract Progress in chemotherapy of solid cancer has been tragically slow due, in large part, to the chemoresistance of quiescent cancer cells in tumors. The fluorescence ubiquitination cell-cycle indicator (FUCCI) was developed in 2008 by Miyawaki et al., which color-codes the phases of the cell cycle in real-time. FUCCI utilizes genes linked to different color fluorescent reporters that are only expressed in specific phases of the cell cycle and can, thereby, image the phases of the cell cycle in real-time. Intravital real-time FUCCI imaging within tumors has demonstrated that an established tumor comprises a majority of quiescent cancer cells and a minor population of cycling cancer cells located at the tumor surface or in proximity to tumor blood vessels. In contrast to most cycling cancer cells, quiescent cancer cells are resistant to cytotoxic chemotherapy, most of which target cells in S/G2/M phases. The quiescent cancer cells can re-enter the cell cycle after surviving treatment, which suggests the reason why most cytotoxic chemotherapy is often ineffective for solid cancers. Thus, quiescent cancer cells are a major impediment to effective cancer therapy. FUCCI imaging can be used to effectively target quiescent cancer cells within tumors. For example, we review how FUCCI imaging can help to identify cell-cycle-specific therapeutics that comprise decoy of quiescent cancer cells from G1 phase to cycling phases, trapping the cancer cells in S/G2 phase where cancer cells are mostly sensitive to cytotoxic chemotherapy and eradicating the cancer cells with cytotoxic chemotherapy most active against S/G2 phase cells. FUCCI can readily image cell-cycle dynamics at the single cell level in real-time in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, visualizing cell cycle dynamics within tumors with FUCCI can provide a guide for many strategies to improve cell-cycle targeting therapy for solid cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuya Yano
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-8558, Japan; (H.T.); (S.K.); (T.F.)
- Center for Graduate Medical Education, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-86-235-7257; Fax: +81-86-221-8775
| | - Hiroshi Tazawa
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-8558, Japan; (H.T.); (S.K.); (T.F.)
- Center of Innovative Clinical Medicine, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Kagawa
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-8558, Japan; (H.T.); (S.K.); (T.F.)
- Minimally Invasive Therapy Center, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Toshiyoshi Fujiwara
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-8558, Japan; (H.T.); (S.K.); (T.F.)
| | - Robert M. Hoffman
- AntiCancer, Inc., San Diego, CA 92111, USA;
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
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9
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Risinger AL, Du L. Targeting and extending the eukaryotic druggable genome with natural products: cytoskeletal targets of natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2020; 37:634-652. [PMID: 31764930 PMCID: PMC7797185 DOI: 10.1039/c9np00053d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 2014-2019We review recent progress on natural products that target cytoskeletal components, including microtubules, actin, intermediate filaments, and septins and highlight their demonstrated and potential utility in the treatment of human disease. The anticancer efficacy of microtubule targeted agents identified from plants, microbes, and marine organisms is well documented. We highlight new microtubule targeted agents currently in clinical evaluations for the treatment of drug resistant cancers and the accumulating evidence that the anticancer efficacy of these agents is not solely due to their antimitotic effects. Indeed, the effects of microtubule targeted agents on interphase microtubules are leading to their potential for more mechanistically guided use in cancers as well as neurological disease. The discussion of these agents as more targeted drugs also prompts a reevaluation of our thinking about natural products that target other components of the cytoskeleton. For instance, actin active natural products are largely considered chemical probes and non-selective toxins. However, studies utilizing these probes have uncovered aspects of actin biology that can be more specifically targeted to potentially treat cancer, neurological disorders, and infectious disease. Compounds that target intermediate filaments and septins are understudied, but their continued discovery and mechanistic evaluations have implications for numerous therapeutic indications.
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Affiliation(s)
- April L Risinger
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Department of Pharmacology, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, Texas 78229, USA.
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10
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Perrin L, Bayarmagnai B, Gligorijevic B. Frontiers in Intravital Multiphoton Microscopy of Cancer. Cancer Rep (Hoboken) 2020; 3:e1192. [PMID: 32368722 PMCID: PMC7197974 DOI: 10.1002/cnr2.1192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cancer is a highly complex disease which involves the co-operation of tumor cells with multiple types of host cells and the extracellular matrix. Cancer studies which rely solely on static measurements of individual cell types are insufficient to dissect this complexity. In the last two decades, intravital microscopy has established itself as a powerful technique that can significantly improve our understanding of cancer by revealing the dynamic interactions governing cancer initiation, progression and treatment effects, in living animals. This review focuses on intravital multiphoton microscopy (IV-MPM) applications in mouse models of cancer. Recent Findings IV-MPM studies have already enabled a deeper understanding of the complex events occurring in cancer, at the molecular, cellular and tissue levels. Multiple cells types, present in different tissues, influence cancer cell behavior via activation of distinct signaling pathways. As a result, the boundaries in the field of IV-MPM are continuously being pushed to provide an integrated comprehension of cancer. We propose that optics, informatics and cancer (cell) biology are co-evolving as a new field. We have identified four emerging themes in this new field. First, new microscopy systems and image processing algorithms are enabling the simultaneous identification of multiple interactions between the tumor cells and the components of the tumor microenvironment. Second, techniques from molecular biology are being exploited to visualize subcellular structures and protein activities within individual cells of interest, and relate those to phenotypic decisions, opening the door for "in vivo cell biology". Third, combining IV-MPM with additional imaging modalities, or omics studies, holds promise for linking the cell phenotype to its genotype, metabolic state or tissue location. Finally, the clinical use of IV-MPM for analyzing efficacy of anti-cancer treatments is steadily growing, suggesting a future role of IV-MPM for personalized medicine. Conclusion IV-MPM has revolutionized visualization of tumor-microenvironment interactions in real time. Moving forward, incorporation of novel optics, automated image processing, and omics technologies, in the study of cancer biology, will not only advance our understanding of the underlying complexities but will also leverage the unique aspects of IV-MPM for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louisiane Perrin
- Department of BioengineeringTemple UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvania
| | | | - Bojana Gligorijevic
- Department of BioengineeringTemple UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvania
- Fox Chase Cancer CenterCancer Biology ProgramPhiladelphiaPennsylvania
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11
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Antony J, Thiery JP, Huang RYJ. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition: lessons from development, insights into cancer and the potential of EMT-subtype based therapeutic intervention. Phys Biol 2019; 16:041004. [PMID: 30939460 DOI: 10.1088/1478-3975/ab157a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a fundamental developmental process wherein polarized epithelial cells lose their junctional architecture and apical-basal polarity to become motile mesenchymal cells, and there is emerging evidence for its role in propagating tumor dissemination. While many multifaceted nodules converge onto the EMT program, in this review we will highlight the fundamental biology of the signaling schemas that enable EMT. In many cancers, the property of tumor dissemination and metastasis is closely associated with re-enabling developmental properties such as EMT. We discuss the molecular complexity of the tumor heterogeneity in terms of EMT-based gene expression molecular subtypes, and the rewiring of critical signaling nodules in the subtypes displaying higher degrees of EMT can be therapeutically exploited. Specifically in the context of a deadly malignancy such as ovarian cancer where there are no defined mutations or limited biomarkers for developing targeted therapy or personalized medicine, we highlight the importance of identifying EMT-based subtypes that will improve therapeutic intervention. In ovarian cancer, the poor prognosis mesenchymal 'Mes' subtype presents with amplified signaling of the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) AXL, extensive crosstalk with other RTKs such as cMET, EGFR and HER2, and sustained temporal activation of extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK) leading to induction of EMT transcription factor Slug, underscoring a pathway addiction in Mes that can be therapeutically targeted. We will further examine the emergence of therapeutic modalities in these EMT subtypes and finally conclude with potential interdisciplinary biophysical methodologies to provide additional insights in deciphering the mechanistic and biochemical aspects of EMT. This review intends to provide an overview of the cellular and molecular changes accompanying epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in development and the requisition of this evolutionarily conserved pathway in cancer progression and metastatic disease. Specifically, in a heterogeneous disease such as ovarian cancer lacking defined targetable mutations, the identification of EMT-based subtypes has opened avenues to tailor precision personalized medicine. In particular, using the oncogenic RTK AXL as an example, we will highlight how this classification enables EMT-subtype specific identification of targets that could improve treatment options for patients and how there is a growing need for biophysical approaches to model dynamic processes such as EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Antony
- Institute of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America
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12
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Kaul R, Risinger AL, Mooberry SL. Microtubule-Targeting Drugs: More than Antimitotics. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2019; 82:680-685. [PMID: 30835122 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b00105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Nature has yielded numerous compounds that bind to tubulin/microtubules and disrupt microtubule function. Even with the advent of targeted therapies for cancer, natural products and their derivatives that target microtubules are some of the most effective drugs used in the treatment of solid tumors and hematological malignancies. For decades, these drugs were thought to work solely through their ability to inhibit mitosis. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that their actions are much more complex, in that they also have significant effects on microtubules in nondividing cells that inhibit a diverse range of signaling events important for carcinogenesis. The abilities of these drugs to inhibit oncogenic signaling likely underlies their efficacy, especially in solid tumors. In this review, we describe the role of microtubules in cells, the proliferation paradox of cells in culture as compared to cancers in patients, and evidence that microtubule-targeting drugs inhibit cellular signaling pathways important for tumorigenesis. The potential mechanisms behind differences in the clinical indications and efficacy of these natural-product-derived drugs are also discussed. Microtubules are an important target for structurally diverse natural products, and a fuller understanding of the mechanisms of action of these drugs will promote their optimal use.
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13
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Real-Time Determination of the Cell-Cycle Position of Individual Cells within Live Tumors Using FUCCI Cell-Cycle Imaging. Cells 2018; 7:cells7100168. [PMID: 30322204 PMCID: PMC6210921 DOI: 10.3390/cells7100168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Most cytotoxic agents have limited efficacy for solid cancers. Cell-cycle phase analysis at the single-cell level in solid tumors has shown that the majority of cancer cells in tumors is not cycling and is therefore resistant to cytotoxic chemotherapy. Intravital cell-cycle imaging within tumors demonstrated the cell-cycle position and distribution of cancer cells within a tumor, and cell-cycle dynamics during chemotherapy. Understanding cell-cycle dynamics within tumors should provide important insights into novel treatment strategies.
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14
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Sparks H, Kondo H, Hooper S, Munro I, Kennedy G, Dunsby C, French P, Sahai E. Heterogeneity in tumor chromatin-doxorubicin binding revealed by in vivo fluorescence lifetime imaging confocal endomicroscopy. Nat Commun 2018; 9:2662. [PMID: 29985394 PMCID: PMC6037736 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-04820-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We present an approach to quantify drug-target engagement using in vivo fluorescence endomicroscopy, validated with in vitro measurements. Doxorubicin binding to chromatin changes the fluorescence lifetime of histone-GFP fusions that we measure in vivo at single-cell resolution using a confocal laparo/endomicroscope. We measure both intra- and inter-tumor heterogeneity in doxorubicin chromatin engagement in a model of peritoneal metastasis of ovarian cancer, revealing striking variation in the efficacy of doxorubicin-chromatin binding depending on intra-peritoneal or intravenous delivery. Further, we observe significant variations in doxorubicin-chromatin binding between different metastases in the same mouse and between different regions of the same metastasis. The quantitative nature of fluorescence lifetime imaging enables direct comparison of drug-target engagement for different drug delivery routes and between in vitro and in vivo experiments. This uncovers different rates of cell killing for the same level of doxorubicin binding in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugh Sparks
- Tumor Cell Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, NW1 1AT, UK
- Photonics Group, Physics Department, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Hiroshi Kondo
- Tumor Cell Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Steven Hooper
- Tumor Cell Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Ian Munro
- Photonics Group, Physics Department, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Gordon Kennedy
- Photonics Group, Physics Department, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Christopher Dunsby
- Photonics Group, Physics Department, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - Paul French
- Photonics Group, Physics Department, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - Erik Sahai
- Tumor Cell Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, NW1 1AT, UK.
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15
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Nobis M, Warren SC, Lucas MC, Murphy KJ, Herrmann D, Timpson P. Molecular mobility and activity in an intravital imaging setting - implications for cancer progression and targeting. J Cell Sci 2018; 131:131/5/jcs206995. [PMID: 29511095 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.206995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular mobility, localisation and spatiotemporal activity are at the core of cell biological processes and deregulation of these dynamic events can underpin disease development and progression. Recent advances in intravital imaging techniques in mice are providing new avenues to study real-time molecular behaviour in intact tissues within a live organism and to gain exciting insights into the intricate regulation of live cell biology at the microscale level. The monitoring of fluorescently labelled proteins and agents can be combined with autofluorescent properties of the microenvironment to provide a comprehensive snapshot of in vivo cell biology. In this Review, we summarise recent intravital microscopy approaches in mice, in processes ranging from normal development and homeostasis to disease progression and treatment in cancer, where we emphasise the utility of intravital imaging to observe dynamic and transient events in vivo We also highlight the recent integration of advanced subcellular imaging techniques into the intravital imaging pipeline, which can provide in-depth biological information beyond the single-cell level. We conclude with an outlook of ongoing developments in intravital microscopy towards imaging in humans, as well as provide an overview of the challenges the intravital imaging community currently faces and outline potential ways for overcoming these hurdles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max Nobis
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, St. Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Sean C Warren
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, St. Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Morghan C Lucas
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, St. Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Kendelle J Murphy
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, St. Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - David Herrmann
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, St. Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Paul Timpson
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, St. Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
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16
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Stiers PJ, van Gastel N, Moermans K, Stockmans I, Carmeliet G. An Ectopic Imaging Window for Intravital Imaging of Engineered Bone Tissue. JBMR Plus 2018; 2:92-102. [PMID: 30283894 PMCID: PMC6124161 DOI: 10.1002/jbm4.10028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Revised: 12/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue engineering is a promising branch of regenerative medicine, but its clinical application remains limited because thorough knowledge of the in vivo repair processes in these engineered implants is limited. Common techniques to study the different phases of bone repair in mice are destructive and thus not optimal to gain insight into the dynamics of this process. Instead, multiphoton‐intravital microscopy (MP‐IVM) allows visualization of (sub)cellular processes at high resolution and frequency over extended periods of time when combined with an imaging window that permits optical access to implants in vivo. In this study, we have developed and validated an ectopic imaging window that can be placed over a tissue‐engineered construct implanted in mice. This approach did not interfere with the biological processes of bone regeneration taking place in these implants, as evidenced by histological and micro–computed tomography (μCT)‐based comparison to control ectopic implants. The ectopic imaging window permitted tracking of individual cells over several days in vivo. Furthermore, the use of fluorescent reporters allowed visualization of the onset of angiogenesis and osteogenesis in these constructs. Taken together, this novel imaging window will facilitate further analysis of the spatiotemporal regulation of cellular processes in bone tissue–engineered implants and provides a powerful tool to enhance the therapeutic potential of bone tissue engineering. © 2017 The Authors JBMR Plus published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pieter-Jan Stiers
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing KU Leuven Leuven Belgium.,Prometheus Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Nick van Gastel
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing KU Leuven Leuven Belgium.,Prometheus Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Karen Moermans
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Ingrid Stockmans
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Geert Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing KU Leuven Leuven Belgium.,Prometheus Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
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17
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Synergistic antitumor effects of combination PI3K/mTOR and MEK inhibition (SAR245409 and pimasertib) in mucinous ovarian carcinoma cells by fluorescence resonance energy transfer imaging. Oncotarget 2018; 7:29577-91. [PMID: 27102436 PMCID: PMC5045418 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.8807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to clarify the synergistic effects of dual inhibition of the PI3K/mTOR and MAPK pathways in ovarian mucinous carcinoma (OMC) cells, using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) imaging. We exposed 6 OMC cell lines to a PI3K/mTOR inhibitor (voxtalisib, SAR245409) and/or a MEK inhibitor (pimasertib), and evaluated synergistic effects using the Chou-Talalay method. Then, S6K (PI3K pathway) and ERK (MAPK pathway) kinase activities, and their individual proliferative or cytotoxic effects were calculated by time-lapse FRET imaging. In combination with SAR245409, pimasertib (30 nM) synergistically inhibited cell growth (combination indexes: 0.03-0.5) and induced apoptosis in all 6 OMC cell lines. FRET-imaging results demonstrated that ERK inhibition induced both anti-proliferation and apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner in both MCAS and OAW42 cells. However, S6K inhibition suppressed proliferation in a threshold manner in both cell lines, although apoptosis was only induced in OAW42 cells. These results demonstrated that combined PI3K/mTOR and MEK inhibition exhibited synergistic antitumor effects in OMC cells and that FRET imaging is useful for analyzing kinase activities in live cells and elucidating their cytostatic and cytotoxic effects.
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18
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Schukken KM, Foijer F. CIN and Aneuploidy: Different Concepts, Different Consequences. Bioessays 2017; 40. [PMID: 29160563 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201700147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Chromosomal instability (CIN) and aneuploidy are similar concepts but not synonymous. CIN is the process that leads to chromosome copy number alterations, and aneuploidy is the result. While CIN and resulting aneuploidy often cause growth defects, they are also selected for in cancer cells. Although such contradicting fates may seem paradoxical at first, they can be better understood when CIN and aneuploidy are assessed separately, taking into account the in vitro or in vivo context, the rate of CIN, and severity of the aneuploid karyotype. As CIN can only be measured in living cells, which proves to be technically challenging in vivo, aneuploidy is more frequently quantified. However, CIN rates might be more predictive for tumor outcome than assessing aneuploidy rates alone. In reviewing the literature, we therefore conclude that there is an urgent need for new models in which we can monitor chromosome mis-segregation and its consequences in vivo. Also see the video abstract here: https://youtu.be/fL3LxZduchg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaske M Schukken
- European Research Institute for the Biology of Ageing (ERIBA), University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Floris Foijer
- European Research Institute for the Biology of Ageing (ERIBA), University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
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19
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Carlson M, Watson AL, Anderson L, Largaespada DA, Provenzano PP. Multiphoton fluorescence lifetime imaging of chemotherapy distribution in solid tumors. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2017; 22:1-9. [PMID: 29188660 PMCID: PMC5712660 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.22.11.116010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Doxorubicin is a commonly used chemotherapeutic employed to treat multiple human cancers, including numerous sarcomas and carcinomas. Furthermore, doxorubicin possesses strong fluorescent properties that make it an ideal reagent for modeling drug delivery by examining its distribution in cells and tissues. However, while doxorubicin fluorescence and lifetime have been imaged in live tissue, its behavior in archival samples that frequently result from drug and treatment studies in human and animal patients, and murine models of human cancer, has to date been largely unexplored. Here, we demonstrate imaging of doxorubicin intensity and lifetimes in archival formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded sections from mouse models of human cancer with multiphoton excitation and multiphoton fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM). Multiphoton excitation imaging reveals robust doxorubicin emission in tissue sections and captures spatial heterogeneity in cells and tissues. However, quantifying the amount of doxorubicin signal in distinct cell compartments, particularly the nucleus, often remains challenging due to strong signals in multiple compartments. The addition of FLIM analysis to display the spatial distribution of excited state lifetimes clearly distinguishes between signals in distinct compartments such as the cell nuclei versus cytoplasm and allows for quantification of doxorubicin signal in each compartment. Furthermore, we observed a shift in lifetime values in the nuclei of transformed cells versus nontransformed cells, suggesting a possible diagnostic role for doxorubicin lifetime imaging to distinguish normal versus transformed cells. Thus, data here demonstrate that multiphoton FLIM is a highly sensitive platform for imaging doxorubicin distribution in normal and diseased archival tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjorie Carlson
- University of Minnesota, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- University of Minnesota, Physical Sciences in Oncology Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
| | - Adrienne L. Watson
- University of Minnesota, Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
| | - Leah Anderson
- University of Minnesota, Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
| | - David A. Largaespada
- University of Minnesota, Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
| | - Paolo P. Provenzano
- University of Minnesota, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- University of Minnesota, Physical Sciences in Oncology Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- University of Minnesota, Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- University of Minnesota, Stem Cell Institute, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- University of Minnesota, Institute for Engineering in Medicine, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- Address all correspondence to: Paolo P. Provenzano, E-mail:
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20
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Lorz A, Botesteanu DA, Levy D. Modeling Cancer Cell Growth Dynamics In vitro in Response to Antimitotic Drug Treatment. Front Oncol 2017; 7:189. [PMID: 28913178 PMCID: PMC5582072 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2017.00189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Investigating the role of intrinsic cell heterogeneity emerging from variations in cell-cycle parameters and apoptosis is a crucial step toward better informing drug administration. Antimitotic agents, widely used in chemotherapy, target exclusively proliferative cells and commonly induce a prolonged mitotic arrest followed by cell death via apoptosis. In this paper, we developed a physiologically motivated mathematical framework for describing cancer cell growth dynamics that incorporates the intrinsic heterogeneity in the time individual cells spend in the cell-cycle and apoptosis process. More precisely, our model comprises two age-structured partial differential equations for the proliferative and apoptotic cell compartments and one ordinary differential equation for the quiescent compartment. To reflect the intrinsic cell heterogeneity that governs the growth dynamics, proliferative and apoptotic cells are structured in "age," i.e., the amount of time remaining to be spent in each respective compartment. In our model, we considered an antimitotic drug whose effect on the cellular dynamics is to induce mitotic arrest, extending the average cell-cycle length. The prolonged mitotic arrest induced by the drug can trigger apoptosis if the time a cell will spend in the cell cycle is greater than the mitotic arrest threshold. We studied the drug's effect on the long-term cancer cell growth dynamics using different durations of prolonged mitotic arrest induced by the drug. Our numerical simulations suggest that at confluence and in the absence of the drug, quiescence is the long-term asymptotic behavior emerging from the cancer cell growth dynamics. This pattern is maintained in the presence of small increases in the average cell-cycle length. However, intermediate increases in cell-cycle length markedly decrease the total number of cells and can drive the cancer population to extinction. Intriguingly, a large "switch-on/switch-off" increase in the average cell-cycle length maintains an active cell population in the long term, with oscillating numbers of proliferative cells and a relatively constant quiescent cell number.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Lorz
- CEMSE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 7598, Laboratoire Jacques-Louis Lions, Paris, France
| | - Dana-Adriana Botesteanu
- Women’s Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, United States
- Department of Mathematics and Center for Scientific Computation and Mathematical Modeling (CSCAMM), University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Doron Levy
- Department of Mathematics and Center for Scientific Computation and Mathematical Modeling (CSCAMM), University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
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21
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Alieva M, Margarido AS, Wieles T, Abels ER, Colak B, Boquetale C, Jan Noordmans H, Snijders TJ, Broekman ML, van Rheenen J. Preventing inflammation inhibits biopsy-mediated changes in tumor cell behavior. Sci Rep 2017; 7:7529. [PMID: 28790339 PMCID: PMC5548904 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-07660-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Although biopsies and tumor resection are prognostically beneficial for glioblastomas (GBM), potential negative effects have also been suggested. Here, using retrospective study of patients and intravital imaging of mice, we identify some of these negative aspects, including stimulation of proliferation and migration of non-resected tumor cells, and provide a strategy to prevent these adverse effects. By repeated high-resolution intravital microscopy, we show that biopsy-like injury in GBM induces migration and proliferation of tumor cells through chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL-2)-dependent recruitment of macrophages. Blocking macrophage recruitment or administrating dexamethasone, a commonly used glucocorticoid to prevent brain edema in GBM patients, suppressed the observed inflammatory response and subsequent tumor growth upon biopsy both in mice and in multifocal GBM patients. Taken together, our study suggests that inhibiting CCL-2-dependent recruitment of macrophages may further increase the clinical benefits from surgical and biopsy procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Alieva
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Hubrecht Institute-KNAW & University Medical Center Utrecht, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Andreia S Margarido
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Hubrecht Institute-KNAW & University Medical Center Utrecht, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Tamara Wieles
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Hubrecht Institute-KNAW & University Medical Center Utrecht, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Erik R Abels
- Departments of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th Street, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Burcin Colak
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Hubrecht Institute-KNAW & University Medical Center Utrecht, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Carla Boquetale
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Hubrecht Institute-KNAW & University Medical Center Utrecht, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Herke Jan Noordmans
- Medical Technology and Clinical Physics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Tom J Snijders
- Department of Neurology & Neurosurgery, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marike L Broekman
- Departments of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th Street, Boston, MA, 02129, USA.,Department of Neurology & Neurosurgery, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jacco van Rheenen
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Hubrecht Institute-KNAW & University Medical Center Utrecht, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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22
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Hirata E, Sahai E. Tumor Microenvironment and Differential Responses to Therapy. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2017; 7:cshperspect.a026781. [PMID: 28213438 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a026781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Cancer evolution plays a key role in both the development of tumors and their response to therapy. Like all evolutionary processes, tumor evolution is shaped by the environment. In tumors, this consists of a complex mixture of nontransformed cell types and extracellular matrix. Chemotherapy or radiotherapy imposes further strong selective pressures on cancer cells during cancer treatment. Here, we review how different components of the tumor microenvironment can modulate the response to chemo- and radiotherapy. We further describe how therapeutic strategies directly alter the composition, or function, of the tumor microenvironment, thereby further altering the selective pressures to which cancer cells are exposed. Last, we explore the consequences of these interactions for therapy outcomes and how to exploit our increasing understanding of the tumor microenvironment for therapeutic benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eishu Hirata
- Department of Oncologic Pathology, Kanazawa Medical University, Ishikawa 920-0293, Japan
| | - Erik Sahai
- Tumor Cell Biology Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, London WC2A 3LY, United Kingdom
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23
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Procedures and applications of long-term intravital microscopy. Methods 2017; 128:52-64. [PMID: 28669866 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2017.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is increasingly used in biomedical research to study dynamic processes at cellular and subcellular resolution in their natural environment. Long-term IVM especially can be applied to visualize migration and proliferation over days to months within the same animal without recurrent surgeries. Skin can be repetitively imaged without surgery. To intermittently visualize cells in other organs, such as liver, mammary gland and brain, different imaging windows including the abdominal imaging window (AIW), dermal imaging window (DIW) and cranial imaging window (CIW) have been developed. In this review, we describe the procedure of window implantation and pros and cons of each technique as well as methods to retrace a position of interest over time. In addition, different fluorescent biosensors to facilitate the tracking of cells for different purposes, such as monitoring cell migration and proliferation, are discussed. Finally, we consider new techniques and possibilities of how long-term IVM can be even further improved in the future.
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24
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Abstract
Imaging is widely used in anticancer drug development, typically for whole-body tracking of labelled drugs to different organs or to assess drug efficacy through volumetric measurements. However, increasing attention has been drawn to pharmacology at the single-cell level. Diverse cell types, including cancer-associated immune cells, physicochemical features of the tumour microenvironment and heterogeneous cell behaviour all affect drug delivery, response and resistance. This Review summarizes developments in the imaging of in vivo anticancer drug action, with a focus on microscopy approaches at the single-cell level and translational lessons for the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miles A. Miller
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Ralph Weissleder
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
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25
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Conway JRW, Warren SC, Timpson P. Context-dependent intravital imaging of therapeutic response using intramolecular FRET biosensors. Methods 2017; 128:78-94. [PMID: 28435000 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2017.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Intravital microscopy represents a more physiologically relevant method for assessing therapeutic response. However, the movement into an in vivo setting brings with it several additional considerations, the primary being the context in which drug activity is assessed. Microenvironmental factors, such as hypoxia, pH, fibrosis, immune infiltration and stromal interactions have all been shown to have pronounced effects on drug activity in a more complex setting, which is often lost in simpler two- or three-dimensional assays. Here we present a practical guide for the application of intravital microscopy, looking at the available fluorescent reporters and their respective expression systems and analysis considerations. Moving in vivo, we also discuss the microscopy set up and methods available for overlaying microenvironmental context to the experimental readouts. This enables a smooth transition into applying higher fidelity intravital imaging to improve the drug discovery process.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R W Conway
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Sean C Warren
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Paul Timpson
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Cancer Division, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia.
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26
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van Grinsven E, Prunier C, Vrisekoop N, Ritsma L. Two-Photon Intravital Microscopy Animal Preparation Protocol to Study Cellular Dynamics in Pathogenesis. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1563:51-71. [PMID: 28324601 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6810-7_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon intravital microscopy (2P-IVM) is an advanced imaging platform that allows the visualization of dynamic processes at subcellular resolution in vivo. Dynamic processes like cell migration, cell proliferation, cell-cell interactions, and cell signaling have an interactive character and occur in complex environments. Hence, it is of pivotal importance to study these processes in living animals, using for example 2P-IVM. 2P-IVM can be performed on a variety of tissues, from the skin of the animal to internal organs, and a variety of methods can be utilized to perform 2P-IVM on these tissues. Here, we discuss the protocols and considerations for four of those 2P-IVM methods, namely tissue explant imaging, skin imaging, surgical exposure imaging, and multi-day window imaging. We carefully compare and explain in depth how to set up each method. Lastly, in the notes section we mention some alternative solutions for the 2P-IVM methods described. In conclusion, this protocol can be used as a guide towards deciding which 2P-IVM method to use and to enable the setup of this method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erinke van Grinsven
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Laboratory of Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Chloé Prunier
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Einthovenweg 20, 2333 ZC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Nienke Vrisekoop
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Laboratory of Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Laila Ritsma
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Einthovenweg 20, 2333 ZC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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27
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
Three-dimensional (3D) cell motility underlies essential processes, such as embryonic development, tissue repair and immune surveillance, and is involved in cancer progression. Although the cytoskeleton is a well-studied regulator of cell migration, most of what we know about its functions originates from studies conducted in two-dimensional (2D) cultures. This research established that the microtubule network mediates polarized trafficking and signaling that are crucial for cell shape and movement in 2D. In parallel, developments in light microscopy and 3D cell culture systems progressively allowed to investigate cytoskeletal functions in more physiologically relevant settings. Interestingly, several studies have demonstrated that microtubule involvement in cell morphogenesis and motility can differ in 2D and 3D environments. In this Commentary, we discuss these differences and their relevance for the understanding the role of microtubules in cell migration in vivo. We also provide an overview of microtubule functions that were shown to control cell shape and motility in 3D matrices and discuss how they can be investigated further by using physiologically relevant models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin P. Bouchet
- Cell Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, Utrecht 3584 CH, The Netherlands
| | - Anna Akhmanova
- Cell Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, Utrecht 3584 CH, The Netherlands
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28
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Rohena CC, Risinger AL, Devambatla RKV, Dybdal-Hargreaves NF, Kaul R, Choudhary S, Gangjee A, Mooberry SL. Janus Compounds, 5-Chloro-N⁴-methyl-N⁴-aryl-9H-pyrimido[4,5-b]indole-2,4-diamines, Cause Both Microtubule Depolymerizing and Stabilizing Effects. Molecules 2016; 21:E1661. [PMID: 27918450 PMCID: PMC5470396 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21121661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
While evaluating a large library of compounds designed to inhibit microtubule polymerization, we identified four compounds that have unique effects on microtubules. These compounds cause mixed effects reminiscent of both microtubule depolymerizers and stabilizers. Immunofluorescence evaluations showed that each compound initially caused microtubule depolymerization and, surprisingly, with higher concentrations, microtubule bundles were also observed. There were subtle differences in the propensity to cause these competing effects among the compounds with a continuum of stabilizing and destabilizing effects. Tubulin polymerization experiments confirmed the differential effects and, while each of the compounds increased the initial rate of tubulin polymerization at high concentrations, total tubulin polymer was not enhanced at equilibrium, likely because of the dueling depolymerization effects. Modeling studies predict that the compounds bind to tubulin within the colchicine site and confirm that there are differences in their potential interactions that might underlie their distinct effects on microtubules. Due to their dual properties of microtubule stabilization and destabilization, we propose the name Janus for these compounds after the two-faced Roman god. The identification of synthetically tractable, small molecules that elicit microtubule stabilizing effects is a significant finding with the potential to identify new mechanisms of microtubule stabilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina C Rohena
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA.
| | - April L Risinger
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA.
- Cancer Therapy & Research Center, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA.
| | - Ravi Kumar Vyas Devambatla
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA 15282, USA.
| | - Nicholas F Dybdal-Hargreaves
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA.
| | - Roma Kaul
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA.
| | - Shruti Choudhary
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA 15282, USA.
| | - Aleem Gangjee
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA 15282, USA.
| | - Susan L Mooberry
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA.
- Cancer Therapy & Research Center, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA.
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29
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Day RN, Tao W, Dunn KW. A simple approach for measuring FRET in fluorescent biosensors using two-photon microscopy. Nat Protoc 2016; 11:2066-80. [DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2016.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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30
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A Vulnerability of a Subset of Colon Cancers with Potential Clinical Utility. Cell 2016; 165:317-30. [PMID: 27058664 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.02.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2015] [Revised: 12/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BRAF(V600E) mutant colon cancers (CCs) have a characteristic gene expression signature that is also found in some tumors lacking this mutation. Collectively, they are referred to as "BRAF-like" tumors and represent some 20% of CCs. We used a shRNA-based genetic screen focused on genes upregulated in BRAF(V600E) CCs to identify vulnerabilities of this tumor subtype that might be exploited therapeutically. Here, we identify RANBP2 (also known as NUP358) as essential for survival of BRAF-like, but not for non-BRAF-like, CC cells. Suppression of RANBP2 results in mitotic defects only in BRAF-like CC cells, leading to cell death. Mechanistically, RANBP2 silencing reduces microtubule outgrowth from the kinetochores, thereby inducing spindle perturbations, providing an explanation for the observed mitotic defects. We find that BRAF-like CCs display far greater sensitivity to the microtubule poison vinorelbine both in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that vinorelbine is a potential tailored treatment for BRAF-like CCs.
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31
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Abstract
Apoptotic cell death is widely considered a positive process that both prevents and treats cancer. Although undoubtedly having a beneficial role, paradoxically, apoptosis can also cause unwanted effects that may even promote cancer. In this Opinion article we highlight some of the ways by which apoptosis can exert oncogenic functions. We argue that fully understanding this dark side will be required to optimally engage apoptosis, thereby maximizing tumour cell kill while minimizing unwanted pro-tumorigenic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Ichim
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute and Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Glasgow G61 1BD, UK
| | - Stephen W G Tait
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute and Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Glasgow G61 1BD, UK
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32
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Fisi V, Kátai E, Bogner P, Miseta A, Nagy T. Timed, sequential administration of paclitaxel improves its cytotoxic effectiveness in a cell culture model. Cell Cycle 2016; 15:1227-33. [PMID: 27104236 PMCID: PMC4889271 DOI: 10.1080/15384101.2016.1158361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Paclitaxel (taxol) is a chemotherapeutic agent frequently used in combination with other anti-neoplastic drugs. It is most effective during the M phase of the cell-cycle and tends to cause synchronization in malignant cells lines. In this study, we investigated whether timed, sequential treatment based on the cell-cycle characteristics could be exploited to enhance the cytotoxic effect of paclitaxel. We characterized the cell-cycle properties of a rapidly multiplying cell line (Sp2, mouse myeloma cells) by propidium-iodide DNA staining such as the lengths of various cell cycle phases and population duplication time. Based on this we designed a paclitaxel treatment protocol that comprised a primary and a secondary, timed treatment. We found that the first paclitaxel treatment synchronized the cells at the G2/M phase but releasing the block by stopping the treatment allowed a large number of cells to enter the next cell-cycle by a synchronized manner. The second treatment was most effective during the time when these cells approached the next G2/M phase and was least effective when it occurred after the peak time of this next G2/M phase. Moreover, we found that after mixing Sp2 cells with another, significantly slower multiplying cell type (Jurkat human T-cell leukemia) at an initial ratio of 1:1, the ratio of the two different cell types could be influenced by timed sequential paclitaxel treatment at will. Our results demonstrate that knowledge of the cell-cycle parameters of a specific malignant cell type could improve the effectivity of the chemotherapy. Implementing timed chemotherapeutic treatments could increase the cytotoxicity on the malignant cells but also decrease the side-effects since other, non-malignant cell types will have different cell-cycle characteristic and be out of synch during the treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktória Fisi
- a Department of Laboratory Medicine , University of Pécs , Pécs , Hungary
| | - Emese Kátai
- a Department of Laboratory Medicine , University of Pécs , Pécs , Hungary
| | - Péter Bogner
- b Department of Radiology , University of Pécs , Pécs , Hungary
| | - Attila Miseta
- a Department of Laboratory Medicine , University of Pécs , Pécs , Hungary
| | - Tamás Nagy
- a Department of Laboratory Medicine , University of Pécs , Pécs , Hungary
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33
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Scheele CLGJ, Maynard C, van Rheenen J. Intravital Insights into Heterogeneity, Metastasis, and Therapy Responses. Trends Cancer 2016; 2:205-216. [PMID: 28741572 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2016.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Tumor progression is driven by a series of genetic and microenvironmental changes. These events lead to heterogeneous tumors which consist of a variety of cells from which some cells may possess properties which promote survival after therapy and metastasis. Recent advances in intravital microscopy (IVM) have enabled visualization of this tumor heterogeneity over time at a single-cell resolution. We highlight here the latest IVM studies that have revealed the dynamic interactions between the tumor cells and their local microenvironment. We review the most recent data that exposes how these dynamic interactions cause an additional increase in tumor heterogeneity, resulting in multiple metastatic strategies and facilitating therapy resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colinda L G J Scheele
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), and University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Carrie Maynard
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), and University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jacco van Rheenen
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), and University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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34
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Risinger AL, Dybdal-Hargreaves NF, Mooberry SL. Breast Cancer Cell Lines Exhibit Differential Sensitivities to Microtubule-targeting Drugs Independent of Doubling Time. Anticancer Res 2015; 35:5845-5850. [PMID: 26504006 PMCID: PMC4812601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microtubule-targeting agents (MTAs) are a mainstay in breast cancer treatment, yet patient responses differ. The underlying mechanisms of these differences are unknown. While MTAs are mitotic inhibitors, recent evidence highlights that non-mitotic effects of these drugs can contribute to their anticancer effects. It is critical to identify the non-mitotic mechanisms that could contribute to differences among MTAs. However, it is not clear whether rapidly dividing cells in culture are optimal tools to address these mechanistic questions in interphase cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS Detailed concentration response curves for five MTAs in a panel of diverse breast cancer cell lines were generated. RESULTS Substantial differences among both drugs and cell lines, consistent with the clinical scenario, were observed. Importantly, these differences do not correlate with cell doubling time. CONCLUSION The interphase actions of MTAs are critical to the full spectrum of their effects in cancer cells, even in cell culture models.
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Affiliation(s)
- April L Risinger
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Therapy & Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, U.S.A
| | - Nicholas F Dybdal-Hargreaves
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Therapy & Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, U.S.A
| | - Susan L Mooberry
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Therapy & Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, U.S.A.
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35
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Tao W, Rubart M, Ryan J, Xiao X, Qiao C, Hato T, Davidson MW, Dunn KW, Day RN. A practical method for monitoring FRET-based biosensors in living animals using two-photon microscopy. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2015; 309:C724-35. [PMID: 26333599 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00182.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The commercial availability of multiphoton microscope systems has nurtured the growth of intravital microscopy as a powerful technique for evaluating cell biology in the relevant context of living animals. In parallel, new fluorescent protein (FP) biosensors have become available that enable studies of the function of a wide range of proteins in living cells. Biosensor probes that exploit Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) are among the most sensitive indicators of an array of cellular processes. However, differences between one-photon and two-photon excitation (2PE) microscopy are such that measuring FRET by 2PE in the intravital setting remains challenging. Here, we describe an approach that simplifies the use of FRET-based biosensors in intravital 2PE microscopy. Based on a systematic comparison of many different FPs, we identified the monomeric (m) FPs mTurquoise and mVenus as particularly well suited for intravital 2PE FRET studies, enabling the ratiometric measurements from linked FRET probes using a pair of experimental images collected simultaneously. The behavior of the FPs is validated by fluorescence lifetime and sensitized emission measurements of a set of FRET standards. The approach is demonstrated using a modified version of the AKAR protein kinase A biosensor, first in cells in culture, and then in hepatocytes in the liver of living mice. The approach is compatible with the most common 2PE microscope configurations and should be applicable to a variety of different FRET probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Tao
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Indiana University Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Michael Rubart
- Riley Heart Research Center, Wells Center for Pediatric Research, and Krannert Institute of Cardiology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Jennifer Ryan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Indiana University Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Xiao Xiao
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and
| | - Chunping Qiao
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and
| | - Takashi Hato
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Indiana University Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Michael W Davidson
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory and Department of Biological Science, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida
| | - Kenneth W Dunn
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Indiana University Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Richard N Day
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana
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36
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Chandrasekaran G, Tátrai P, Gergely F. Hitting the brakes: targeting microtubule motors in cancer. Br J Cancer 2015; 113:693-8. [PMID: 26180922 PMCID: PMC4559828 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2015.264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Revised: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the growing number of therapies that target cancer-specific pathways, cytotoxic treatments remain important clinical tools. The rationale for targeting cell proliferation by chemotherapeutic agents stems from the assumption that tumours harbour a greater fraction of actively dividing cells than normal tissues. One such group of cytotoxic drugs impair microtubule polymers, which are cytoskeletal components of cells essential for many processes including mitosis. However, in addition to their antimitotic action, these agents cause debilitating and dose-limiting neurotoxicity because of the essential functions of microtubules in neurons. To overcome this limitation, drugs against mitosis-specific targets have been developed over the past decade, albeit with variable clinical success. Here we review the key lessons learnt from antimitotic therapies with a focus on inhibitors of microtubule motor proteins. Furthermore, based on the cancer genome data, we describe a number of motor proteins with tumour type-specific alterations, which warrant further investigation in the quest for cytotoxic targets with increased cancer specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayathri Chandrasekaran
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre, University of Cambridge, Robinson Way, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Péter Tátrai
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre, University of Cambridge, Robinson Way, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Fanni Gergely
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre, University of Cambridge, Robinson Way, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK
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37
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Maia ARR, de Man J, Boon U, Janssen A, Song JY, Omerzu M, Sterrenburg JG, Prinsen MBW, Willemsen-Seegers N, de Roos JADM, van Doornmalen AM, Uitdehaag JCM, Kops GJPL, Jonkers J, Buijsman RC, Zaman GJR, Medema RH. Inhibition of the spindle assembly checkpoint kinase TTK enhances the efficacy of docetaxel in a triple-negative breast cancer model. Ann Oncol 2015; 26:2180-92. [PMID: 26153498 DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdv293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC) are considered the most aggressive type of breast cancer, for which no targeted therapy exists at the moment. These tumors are characterized by having a high degree of chromosome instability and often overexpress the spindle assembly checkpoint kinase TTK. To explore the potential of TTK inhibition as a targeted therapy in TNBC, we developed a highly potent and selective small molecule inhibitor of TTK, NTRC 0066-0. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The compound is characterized by long residence time on the target and inhibits the proliferation of a wide variety of human cancer cell lines with potency in the same range as marketed cytotoxic agents. In cell lines and in mice, NTRC 0066-0 inhibits the phosphorylation of a TTK substrate and induces chromosome missegregation. NTRC 0066-0 inhibits tumor growth in MDA-MB-231 xenografts as a single agent after oral application. To address the effect of the inhibitor in breast cancer, we used a well-defined mouse model that spontaneously develops breast tumors that share key morphologic and molecular features with human TNBC. Our studies show that combination of NTRC 0066-0 with a therapeutic dose of docetaxel resulted in doubling of mouse survival and extended tumor remission, without toxicity. Furthermore, we observed that treatment efficacy is only achieved upon co-administration of the two compounds, which suggests a synergistic in vivo effect. Therefore, we propose TTK inhibition as a novel therapeutic target for neoadjuvant therapy in TNBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R R Maia
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam
| | - J de Man
- Netherlands Translational Research Center B.V., Oss
| | - U Boon
- Division of Molecular Pathology and Cancer Genomics Centre
| | - A Janssen
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam
| | - J-Y Song
- Division of Experimental Animal Pathology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - G J P L Kops
- Department of Medical Oncology Department of Cancer Genomics Netherlands, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - J Jonkers
- Division of Molecular Pathology and Cancer Genomics Centre Department of Cancer Genomics Netherlands, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - R C Buijsman
- Netherlands Translational Research Center B.V., Oss
| | - G J R Zaman
- Netherlands Translational Research Center B.V., Oss
| | - R H Medema
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam Department of Cancer Genomics Netherlands, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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38
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Abstract
Taxol (generic name paclitaxel) is a microtubule-stabilizing drug that is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of ovarian, breast, and lung cancer, as well as Kaposi's sarcoma. It is used off-label to treat gastroesophageal, endometrial, cervical, prostate, and head and neck cancers, in addition to sarcoma, lymphoma, and leukemia. Paclitaxel has long been recognized to induce mitotic arrest, which leads to cell death in a subset of the arrested population. However, recent evidence demonstrates that intratumoral concentrations of paclitaxel are too low to cause mitotic arrest and result in multipolar divisions instead. It is hoped that this insight can now be used to develop a biomarker to identify the ∼50% of patients that will benefit from paclitaxel therapy. Here I discuss the history of paclitaxel and our recently evolved understanding of its mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth A Weaver
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology and Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705
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Chittajallu DR, Florian S, Kohler RH, Iwamoto Y, Orth JD, Weissleder R, Danuser G, Mitchison TJ. In vivo cell-cycle profiling in xenograft tumors by quantitative intravital microscopy. Nat Methods 2015; 12:577-85. [PMID: 25867850 PMCID: PMC4579269 DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.3363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Quantification of cell-cycle state at a single-cell level is essential to understand fundamental three-dimensional (3D) biological processes such as tissue development and cancer. Analysis of 3D in vivo images, however, is very challenging. Today's best practice, manual annotation of select image events, generates arbitrarily sampled data distributions, which are unsuitable for reliable mechanistic inferences. Here, we present an integrated workflow for quantitative in vivo cell-cycle profiling. It combines image analysis and machine learning methods for automated 3D segmentation and cell-cycle state identification of individual cell-nuclei with widely varying morphologies embedded in complex tumor environments. We applied our workflow to quantify cell-cycle effects of three antimitotic cancer drugs over 8 d in HT-1080 fibrosarcoma xenografts in living mice using a data set of 38,000 cells and compared the induced phenotypes. In contrast to results with 2D culture, observed mitotic arrest was relatively low, suggesting involvement of additional mechanisms in their antitumor effect in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stefan Florian
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Rainer H Kohler
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Yoshiko Iwamoto
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - James D Orth
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Ralph Weissleder
- 1] Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. [2] Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Gaudenz Danuser
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Timothy J Mitchison
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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van Unen J, Woolard J, Rinken A, Hoffmann C, Hill SJ, Goedhart J, Bruchas MR, Bouvier M, Adjobo-Hermans MJW. A Perspective on Studying G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Signaling with Resonance Energy Transfer Biosensors in Living Organisms. Mol Pharmacol 2015; 88:589-95. [PMID: 25972446 DOI: 10.1124/mol.115.098897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The last frontier for a complete understanding of G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) biology is to be able to assess GPCR activity, interactions, and signaling in vivo, in real time within biologically intact systems. This includes the ability to detect GPCR activity, trafficking, dimerization, protein-protein interactions, second messenger production, and downstream signaling events with high spatial resolution and fast kinetic readouts. Resonance energy transfer (RET)-based biosensors allow for all of these possibilities in vitro and in cell-based assays, but moving RET into intact animals has proven difficult. Here, we provide perspectives on the optimization of biosensor design, of signal detection in living organisms, and the multidisciplinary development of in vitro and cell-based assays that more appropriately reflect the physiologic situation. In short, further development of RET-based probes, optical microscopy techniques, and mouse genome editing hold great potential over the next decade to bring real-time in vivo GPCR imaging to the forefront of pharmacology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakobus van Unen
- Department of Biochemistry, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (M.J.W.A.-H.); Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada (M.B.); Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri (M.R.B.); Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Section of Molecular Cytology, van Leeuwenhoek Centre for Advanced Microscopy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (J.U., J.G.); Cell Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom (J.W., S.J.H.); Bio-Imaging-Center/Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum and Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (C.H.); and Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia (A.R.)
| | - Jeanette Woolard
- Department of Biochemistry, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (M.J.W.A.-H.); Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada (M.B.); Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri (M.R.B.); Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Section of Molecular Cytology, van Leeuwenhoek Centre for Advanced Microscopy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (J.U., J.G.); Cell Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom (J.W., S.J.H.); Bio-Imaging-Center/Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum and Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (C.H.); and Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia (A.R.)
| | - Ago Rinken
- Department of Biochemistry, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (M.J.W.A.-H.); Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada (M.B.); Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri (M.R.B.); Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Section of Molecular Cytology, van Leeuwenhoek Centre for Advanced Microscopy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (J.U., J.G.); Cell Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom (J.W., S.J.H.); Bio-Imaging-Center/Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum and Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (C.H.); and Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia (A.R.)
| | - Carsten Hoffmann
- Department of Biochemistry, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (M.J.W.A.-H.); Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada (M.B.); Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri (M.R.B.); Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Section of Molecular Cytology, van Leeuwenhoek Centre for Advanced Microscopy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (J.U., J.G.); Cell Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom (J.W., S.J.H.); Bio-Imaging-Center/Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum and Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (C.H.); and Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia (A.R.)
| | - Stephen J Hill
- Department of Biochemistry, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (M.J.W.A.-H.); Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada (M.B.); Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri (M.R.B.); Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Section of Molecular Cytology, van Leeuwenhoek Centre for Advanced Microscopy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (J.U., J.G.); Cell Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom (J.W., S.J.H.); Bio-Imaging-Center/Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum and Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (C.H.); and Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia (A.R.)
| | - Joachim Goedhart
- Department of Biochemistry, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (M.J.W.A.-H.); Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada (M.B.); Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri (M.R.B.); Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Section of Molecular Cytology, van Leeuwenhoek Centre for Advanced Microscopy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (J.U., J.G.); Cell Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom (J.W., S.J.H.); Bio-Imaging-Center/Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum and Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (C.H.); and Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia (A.R.)
| | - Michael R Bruchas
- Department of Biochemistry, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (M.J.W.A.-H.); Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada (M.B.); Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri (M.R.B.); Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Section of Molecular Cytology, van Leeuwenhoek Centre for Advanced Microscopy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (J.U., J.G.); Cell Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom (J.W., S.J.H.); Bio-Imaging-Center/Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum and Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (C.H.); and Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia (A.R.)
| | - Michel Bouvier
- Department of Biochemistry, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (M.J.W.A.-H.); Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada (M.B.); Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri (M.R.B.); Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Section of Molecular Cytology, van Leeuwenhoek Centre for Advanced Microscopy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (J.U., J.G.); Cell Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom (J.W., S.J.H.); Bio-Imaging-Center/Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum and Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (C.H.); and Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia (A.R.)
| | - Merel J W Adjobo-Hermans
- Department of Biochemistry, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (M.J.W.A.-H.); Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada (M.B.); Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri (M.R.B.); Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Section of Molecular Cytology, van Leeuwenhoek Centre for Advanced Microscopy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (J.U., J.G.); Cell Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom (J.W., S.J.H.); Bio-Imaging-Center/Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum and Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (C.H.); and Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia (A.R.)
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Hirata E, Girotti MR, Viros A, Hooper S, Spencer-Dene B, Matsuda M, Larkin J, Marais R, Sahai E. Intravital imaging reveals how BRAF inhibition generates drug-tolerant microenvironments with high integrin β1/FAK signaling. Cancer Cell 2015; 27:574-88. [PMID: 25873177 PMCID: PMC4402404 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2015.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 419] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2014] [Revised: 02/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Intravital imaging of BRAF-mutant melanoma cells containing an ERK/MAPK biosensor reveals how the tumor microenvironment affects response to BRAF inhibition by PLX4720. Initially, melanoma cells respond to PLX4720, but rapid reactivation of ERK/MAPK is observed in areas of high stromal density. This is linked to "paradoxical" activation of melanoma-associated fibroblasts by PLX4720 and the promotion of matrix production and remodeling leading to elevated integrin β1/FAK/Src signaling in melanoma cells. Fibronectin-rich matrices with 3-12 kPa elastic modulus are sufficient to provide PLX4720 tolerance. Co-inhibition of BRAF and FAK abolished ERK reactivation and led to more effective control of BRAF-mutant melanoma. We propose that paradoxically activated MAFs provide a "safe haven" for melanoma cells to tolerate BRAF inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eishu Hirata
- Tumor Cell Biology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, London WC2A 3LY, UK
| | - Maria Romina Girotti
- Molecular Oncology Group, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, Wilmslow Road, Manchester M20 4BX, UK
| | - Amaya Viros
- Molecular Oncology Group, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, Wilmslow Road, Manchester M20 4BX, UK
| | - Steven Hooper
- Tumor Cell Biology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, London WC2A 3LY, UK
| | - Bradley Spencer-Dene
- Experimental Histopathology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, London WC2A 3LY, UK
| | - Michiyuki Matsuda
- Laboratory of Bioimaging and Cell Signalling, Kyoto University Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto 606-8315, Japan
| | - James Larkin
- Department of Medical Oncology, Royal Marsden NHS Trust, Fulham Road, London SW3 6JJ, UK
| | - Richard Marais
- Molecular Oncology Group, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, Wilmslow Road, Manchester M20 4BX, UK
| | - Erik Sahai
- Tumor Cell Biology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, London WC2A 3LY, UK.
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42
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Ogden A, Rida PCG, Reid MD, Kucuk O, Aneja R. Die-hard survivors: heterogeneity in apoptotic thresholds may underlie chemoresistance. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2015; 15:277-81. [PMID: 25695344 DOI: 10.1586/14737140.2015.1016425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The unmatched efficacy of microtubule-targeting agents (MTAs) as chemotherapeutics was once assumed to originate from their impact on mitotic processes; however, this misconception is being eroded by amassing data that MTAs instead target interphase functions in patients' tumors. What remains murky is how MTAs target malignant cells over non-malignant ones if proliferation rates do not distinguish them. In many instances, malignant cells are actually more 'primed' for apoptosis than non-malignant ones. Nevertheless, even if most cells within the tumor are more apoptosis-susceptible than those in healthy tissues, there likely exist small subpopulations of apoptosis-resistant clones that engender incomplete responses to MTAs and relapse. Therefore, intratumor heterogeneity in terms of proximity to the apoptotic threshold must be better understood to facilitate the design of chemotherapeutic regimens, which may benefit from including drugs like BH3 mimetics that help in lowering the apoptotic threshold of tumor cells within these chemoresistant subpopulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Ogden
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
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43
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Abstract
Optical imaging assays, especially fluorescence molecular assays, are minimally invasive if not completely noninvasive, and thus an ideal technique to be applied to live specimens. These fluorescence imaging assays are a powerful tool in biomedical sciences as they allow the study of a wide range of molecular and physiological events occurring in biological systems. Furthermore, optical imaging assays bridge the gap between the in vitro cell-based analysis of subcellular processes and in vivo study of disease mechanisms in small animal models. In particular, the application of Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) and fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM), well-known techniques widely used in microscopy, to the optical imaging assay toolbox, will have a significant impact in the molecular study of protein-protein interactions during cancer progression. This review article describes the application of FLIM-FRET to the field of optical imaging and addresses their various applications, both current and potential, to anti-cancer drug delivery and cancer research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpi Rajoria
- Albany Medical College, The Center for Cardiovascular Sciences, Albany, NY, 12208
| | - Lingling Zhao
- Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Biomedical imaging Center and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Troy, NY 12180
| | - Xavier Intes
- Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Biomedical imaging Center and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Troy, NY 12180
| | - Margarida Barroso
- Albany Medical College, The Center for Cardiovascular Sciences, Albany, NY, 12208
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44
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Zasadil LM, Andersen KA, Yeum D, Rocque GB, Wilke LG, Tevaarwerk AJ, Raines RT, Burkard ME, Weaver BA. Cytotoxicity of paclitaxel in breast cancer is due to chromosome missegregation on multipolar spindles. Sci Transl Med 2014; 6:229ra43. [PMID: 24670687 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3007965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 265] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The blockbuster chemotherapy drug paclitaxel is widely presumed to cause cell death in tumors as a consequence of mitotic arrest, as it does at concentrations routinely used in cell culture. However, we determine here that paclitaxel levels in primary breast tumors are well below those required to elicit sustained mitotic arrest. Instead, cells in these lower concentrations of drug proceed through mitosis without substantial delay and divide their chromosomes on multipolar spindles, resulting in chromosome missegregation and cell death. Consistent with these cell culture data, most mitotic cells in primary human breast cancers contain multipolar spindles after paclitaxel treatment. Contrary to the previous hypothesis, we find that mitotic arrest is dispensable for tumor regression in patients. These results demonstrate that mitotic arrest is not responsible for the efficacy of paclitaxel, which occurs because of chromosome missegregation on highly abnormal, multipolar spindles. This mechanistic insight may be used to improve selection of future antimitotic drugs and to identify a biomarker with which to select patients likely to benefit from paclitaxel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Zasadil
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
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45
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Alieva M, Ritsma L, Giedt RJ, Weissleder R, van Rheenen J. Imaging windows for long-term intravital imaging: General overview and technical insights. INTRAVITAL 2014; 3:e29917. [PMID: 28243510 PMCID: PMC5312719 DOI: 10.4161/intv.29917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Revised: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Intravital microscopy is increasingly used to visualize and quantitate dynamic biological processes at the (sub)cellular level in live animals. By visualizing tissues through imaging windows, individual cells (e.g., cancer, host, or stem cells) can be tracked and studied over a time-span of days to months. Several imaging windows have been developed to access tissues including the brain, superficial fascia, mammary glands, liver, kidney, pancreas, and small intestine among others. Here, we review the development of imaging windows and compare the most commonly used long-term imaging windows for cancer biology: the cranial imaging window, the dorsal skin fold chamber, the mammary imaging window, and the abdominal imaging window. Moreover, we provide technical details, considerations, and trouble-shooting tips on the surgical procedures and microscopy setups for each imaging window and explain different strategies to assure imaging of the same area over multiple imaging sessions. This review aims to be a useful resource for establishing the long-term intravital imaging procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Alieva
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands; Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Centre Utrecht; CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Laila Ritsma
- Center for Cancer Research and Center for Regenerative Medicine; Massachusetts General Hospital; Richard B. Simches Research Center; Harvard Medical School; Boston, MA USA; Broad Institute of Harvard and Massachusetts Institute for Technology; Cambridge, MA USA
| | - Randy J Giedt
- Center for Systems Biology; Massachusetts General Hospital; Richard B. Simches Research Center; Harvard Medical School; Boston, MA USA
| | - Ralph Weissleder
- Center for Systems Biology; Massachusetts General Hospital; Richard B. Simches Research Center; Harvard Medical School; Boston, MA USA; Department of Systems Biology; Harvard Medical School; Boston, MA USA
| | - Jacco van Rheenen
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands; Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Centre Utrecht; CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
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46
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Abstract
To comprehend the complexity of cancer, the biological characteristics acquired during the initiation and progression of tumours were classified as the 'hallmarks of cancer'. Intravital microscopy techniques have been developed to study individual cells that acquire these crucial traits, by visualizing tissues with cellular or subcellular resolution in living animals. In this Review, we highlight the latest intravital microscopy techniques that have been used in living animals (predominantly mice) to unravel fundamental and dynamic aspects of various hallmarks of cancer. In addition, we discuss the application of intravital microscopy techniques to cancer therapy, as well as limitations and future perspectives for these techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia I J Ellenbroek
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands-Hubrecht Institute-KNAW & University Medical Centre Utrecht, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jacco van Rheenen
- Cancer Genomics Netherlands-Hubrecht Institute-KNAW & University Medical Centre Utrecht, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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47
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Conway JRW, Carragher NO, Timpson P. Developments in preclinical cancer imaging: innovating the discovery of therapeutics. Nat Rev Cancer 2014; 14:314-28. [PMID: 24739578 DOI: 10.1038/nrc3724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Integrating biological imaging into early stages of the drug discovery process can provide invaluable readouts of drug activity within complex disease settings, such as cancer. Iterating this approach from initial lead compound identification in vitro to proof-of-principle in vivo analysis represents a key challenge in the drug discovery field. By embracing more complex and informative models in drug discovery, imaging can improve the fidelity and statistical robustness of preclinical cancer studies. In this Review, we highlight how combining advanced imaging with three-dimensional systems and intravital mouse models can provide more informative and disease-relevant platforms for cancer drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R W Conway
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre Sydney, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, New South Wales 2010, Sydney, Australia
| | - Neil O Carragher
- Edinburgh Cancer Research UK Centre, MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH4 2XR, UK
| | - Paul Timpson
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre Sydney, St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, New South Wales 2010, Sydney, Australia
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