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Nikolaeva OV, Rusin LY, Mikhailov KV, Aleoshin VV, De Ley P. Both-strand gene coding in a plastome-like mitogenome of an enoplid nematode. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART B, MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2024; 342:419-424. [PMID: 38318934 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.23241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
The phylum Nematoda remains very poorly sampled for mtDNA, with a strong bias toward parasitic, economically important or model species of the Chromadoria lineage. Most chromadorian mitogenomes share a specific order of genes encoded on one mtDNA strand. However, the few sequenced representatives of the Dorylaimia lineage exhibit a variable order of mtDNA genes encoded on both strands. While the ancestral arrangement of nematode mitogenome remains undefined, no evidence has been reported for Enoplia, the phylum's third early divergent major lineage. We describe the first mitogenome of an enoplian nematode, Campydora demonstrans, and contend that the complete 37-gene repertoire and both-strand gene encoding are ancestral states preserved in Enoplia and Dorylaimia versus the derived mitogenome arrangement in some Chromadoria. The C. demonstrans mitogenome is 17,018 bp in size and contains a noncoding perfect inverted repeat with 2013 bp-long arms, subdividing the mitogenome into two coding regions. This mtDNA arrangement is very rare among animals and instead resembles that of chloroplast genomes in land plants. Our report broadens mtDNA taxonomic sampling of the phylum Nematoda and adds support to the applicability of cox1 gene as a phylogenetic marker for establishing nematode relationships within higher taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga V Nikolaeva
- Belozersky Institute of Physicochemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Leonid Yu Rusin
- Institute for Information Transmission Problems (Kharkevich Institute), Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Kirill V Mikhailov
- Belozersky Institute of Physicochemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
- Institute for Information Transmission Problems (Kharkevich Institute), Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir V Aleoshin
- Belozersky Institute of Physicochemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
- Institute for Information Transmission Problems (Kharkevich Institute), Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Paul De Ley
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology & Weed Science, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, USA
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Zeng JL, Chen HX, Ni XF, Kang JY, Li L. Molecular phylogeny of the family Rhabdiasidae (Nematoda: Rhabditida), with morphology, genetic characterization and mitochondrial genomes of Rhabdias kafunata and R. bufonis. Parasit Vectors 2024; 17:100. [PMID: 38429838 PMCID: PMC10908064 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-024-06201-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The family Rhabdiasidae (Nematoda: Rhabditida) is a globally distributed group of nematode parasites, with over 110 species parasitic mainly in amphibians and reptiles. However, the systematic position of the family Rhabdiasidae in the order Rhabditida remains unsolved, and the evolutionary relationships among its genera are still unclear. Moreover, the present knowledge of the mitochondrial genomes of rhabdiasids remains limited. METHODS Two rhabdiasid species: Rhabdias kafunata Sata, Takeuchi & Nakano, 2020 and R. bufonis (Schrank, 1788) collected from the Asiatic toad Bufo gargarizans Cantor (Amphibia: Anura) in China, were identified based on morphology (light and scanning electron microscopy) and molecular characterization (sequencing of the nuclear 28S and ITS regions and mitochondrial cox1 and 12S genes). The complete mitochondrial genomes of R. kafunata and R. bufonis were also sequenced and annotated for the first time. Moreover, phylogenetic analyses based on the amino acid sequences of 12 protein-coding genes (PCGs) of the mitochondrial genomes were performed to clarify the systematic position of the family Rhabdiasidae in the order Rhabditida using maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI). The phylogenetic analyses based on the 28S + ITS sequences, were also inferred to assess the evolutionary relationships among the genera within Rhabdiasidae. RESULTS The detailed morphology of the cephalic structures, vulva and eggs in R. kafunata and R. bufonis was revealed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for the first time. The characterization of 28S and ITS regions of R. kafunata was reported for the first time. The mitogenomes of R. kafunata and R. bufonis are 15,437 bp and 15,128 bp long, respectively, and both contain 36 genes, including 12 PCGs (missing atp8). Comparative mitogenomics revealed that the gene arrangement of R. kafunata and R. bufonis is different from all of the currently available mitogenomes of nematodes. Phylogenetic analyses based on the ITS + 28S data showed Neoentomelas and Kurilonema as sister lineages, and supported the monophyly of Entomelas, Pneumonema, Serpentirhabdias and Rhabdias. Mitochondrial phylogenomic results supported Rhabdiasidae as a member of the superfamily Rhabditoidea in the suborder Rhabditina, and its occurrance as sister to the family Rhabditidae. CONCLUSIONS The complete mitochondrial genome of R. kafunata and R. bufonis were reported for the first time, and two new gene arrangements of mitogenomes in Nematoda were revealed. Mitogenomic phylogenetic results indicated that the family Rhabdiasidae is a member of Rhabditoidea in Rhabditina, and is closely related to Rhabditidae. Molecular phylogenies based on the ITS + 28S sequence data supported the validity of Kurilonema, and showed that Kurilonema is sister to Neoentomelas. The present phylogenetic results also indicated that the ancestors of rhabdiasids seem to have initially infected reptiles, then spreading to amphibians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Lu Zeng
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment; College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, People's Republic of China
- Hebei Research Center of the Basic Discipline Cell Biology; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui-Xia Chen
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment; College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue-Feng Ni
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment; College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia-Yi Kang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment; College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Li
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment; College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, People's Republic of China.
- Hebei Research Center of the Basic Discipline Cell Biology; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, People's Republic of China.
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Gu XH, Guo N, Chen HX, Sitko J, Li LW, Guo BQ, Li L. Mitogenomic phylogenies suggest the resurrection of the subfamily Porrocaecinae and provide insights into the systematics of the superfamily Ascaridoidea (Nematoda: Ascaridomorpha), with the description of a new species of Porrocaecum. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:275. [PMID: 37563590 PMCID: PMC10416420 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-05889-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The family Toxocaridae is a group of zooparasitic nematodes of veterinary, medical and economic significance. However, the evolutionary relationship of Porrocaecum and Toxocara, both genera currently classified in Toxocaridae, and the monophyly of the Toxocaridae remain under debate. Moreover, the validity of the subgenus Laymanicaecum in the genus Porrocaecum is open to question. Due to the scarcity of an available genetic database, molecular identification of Porrocaecum nematodes is still in its infancy. METHODS A number of Porrocaecum nematodes collected from the Eurasian marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus) (Falconiformes: Accipitridae) in the Czech Republic were identified using integrated morphological methods (light and scanning electron microscopy) and molecular techniques (sequencing and analyzing the nuclear 18S, 28S and ITS regions). The complete mitochondrial genomes of the collected nematode specimens and of Porrocaecum (Laymanicaecum) reticulatum (Linstow, 1899) were sequenced and annotated for the first time. Phylogenetic analyses of ascaridoid nematodes based on the amino acid sequences of 12 protein-coding genes of mitochondrial genomes were performed using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. RESULTS A new species of Porrocaecum, named P. moraveci n. sp., is described based on the morphological and genetic evidence. The mitogenomes of P. moraveci n. sp. and P. reticulatum both contain 36 genes and are 14,517 and 14,210 bp in length, respectively. Comparative mitogenomics revealed that P. moraveci n. sp. represents the first known species with three non-coding regions and that P. reticulatum has the lowest overall A + T content in the mitogenomes of ascaridoid nematodes tested to date. Phylogenetic analyses showed the representatives of Toxocara clustered together with species of the family Ascarididae rather than with Porrocaecum and that P. moraveci n. sp. is a sister to P. reticulatum. CONCLUSIONS The characterization of the complete mitochondrial genomes of P. moraveci n. sp. and P. reticulatum is reported for the first time. Mitogenomic phylogeny analyses indicated that the family Toxocaridae is non-monophyletic and that the genera Porrocaecum and Toxocara do not have an affinity. The validity of the subgenus Laymanicaecum in Porrocaecum was also rejected. Our results suggest that: (i) Toxocaridae should be degraded to a subfamily of the Ascarididae that includes only the genus Toxocara; and (ii) the subfamily Porrocaecinae should be resurrected to include only the genus Porrocaecum. The present study enriches the database of ascaridoid mitogenomes and provides a new insight into the systematics of the superfamily Ascaridoidea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Hong Gu
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei Province, People's Republic of China
- Hebei Research Center of the Basic Discipline Cell Biology, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Ning Guo
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei Province, People's Republic of China
- Hebei Research Center of the Basic Discipline Cell Biology, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui-Xia Chen
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei Province, People's Republic of China
- Hebei Research Center of the Basic Discipline Cell Biology, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiljí Sitko
- Muzeum Komenského V Přerově, 750 02, Přerově, Czech Republic
| | - Lin-Wei Li
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Bing-Qian Guo
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Li
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei Province, People's Republic of China.
- Hebei Research Center of the Basic Discipline Cell Biology, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei Province, People's Republic of China.
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Prevalences and Characteristics of Trichuris Spp. Infection in Sheep in Pastoral Areas of the Tianshan, Xinjiang, China. J Vet Res 2022; 66:591-597. [PMID: 36846028 PMCID: PMC9944990 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2022-0056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Nematodes of the Trichuris genus are commonly reported parasites that can cause trichuriasis in many animals, which leads to inflammation, intestinal bleeding and reductions of productivity in livestock. Knowledge of the prevalence of Trichuris infestation in the Tianshan ovine population and of the nematode species parasitising the population is not exhaustive, and this study aimed to expand the knowledge. Material and Methods A total of 1,216 sheep slaughtered in five pasture areas in the Tianshan Mountains of Xinjiang were investigated and a phylogenetic analysis based on the mitochondrial cox1 gene was performed to clarify the genetic relationships of the various Trichuris species. Results Sheep totalling 1,047 were infected with Trichuris spp. establishing the rate at 86.1%. Using a morphological protocol, six documented and one undefined species were identified, namely T. gazellae, T. lani, T. ovina, T. longispiculus, T. concolor, T. discolor and Trichuris sp. Among them, T. gazellae and T. lani were the dominant species, accounting for 34.5% and 31.0% of Trichuris spp., respectively. Phylogenetic analysis divided the detected species of Trichuris spp. into two genetic clades (clade I and clade II). The six documented species that can infect sheep and the undefined species were clustered into clade I, with inter- and intra-species genetic diversity apparent. Conclusion This survey described in detail the morphological characteristics of six known and one undefined species of Trichuris, which not only enriched the taxonomic information on record regarding Trichuris spp., but also provided valuable epidemiological data for the prevention and control of trichuriasis in sheep.
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Doyle SR, Søe MJ, Nejsum P, Betson M, Cooper PJ, Peng L, Zhu XQ, Sanchez A, Matamoros G, Sandoval GAF, Cutillas C, Tchuenté LAT, Mekonnen Z, Ame SM, Namwanje H, Levecke B, Berriman M, Fredensborg BL, Kapel CMO. Population genomics of ancient and modern Trichuris trichiura. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3888. [PMID: 35794092 PMCID: PMC9259628 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31487-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The neglected tropical disease trichuriasis is caused by the whipworm Trichuris trichiura, a soil-transmitted helminth that has infected humans for millennia. Today, T. trichiura infects as many as 500 million people, predominantly in communities with poor sanitary infrastructure enabling sustained faecal-oral transmission. Using whole-genome sequencing of geographically distributed worms collected from human and other primate hosts, together with ancient samples preserved in archaeologically-defined latrines and deposits dated up to one thousand years old, we present the first population genomics study of T. trichiura. We describe the continent-scale genetic structure between whipworms infecting humans and baboons relative to those infecting other primates. Admixture and population demographic analyses support a stepwise distribution of genetic variation that is highest in Uganda, consistent with an African origin and subsequent translocation with human migration. Finally, genome-wide analyses between human samples and between human and non-human primate samples reveal local regions of genetic differentiation between geographically distinct populations. These data provide insight into zoonotic reservoirs of human-infective T. trichiura and will support future efforts toward the implementation of genomic epidemiology of this globally important helminth.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Jensen Søe
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Peter Nejsum
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Martha Betson
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Philip J Cooper
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK
- School of Medicine, Universidad Internacional del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Lifei Peng
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Ana Sanchez
- Department of Health Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Gabriela Matamoros
- Microbiology Research Institute, Ciudad Universitaria, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
| | | | - Cristina Cutillas
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
| | | | - Zeleke Mekonnen
- Institute of Health, School of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Shaali M Ame
- Public Health Laboratory Ivo de Carneri, Pemba, Tanzania
| | | | - Bruno Levecke
- Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Brian Lund Fredensborg
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
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Rivero J, Zurita A, Cutillas C, Callejón R. The Use of MALDI-TOF MS as a Diagnostic Tool for Adult Trichuris Species. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:867919. [PMID: 35647091 PMCID: PMC9132177 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.867919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Trichuriasis is considered a neglected tropical disease, being the second most common helminthiasis in humans. Detection of Trichuris in routine diagnosis is usually done by microscopic detection of eggs in fecal samples. Other molecular analyses are more reliable and could be used, but these analyses are not routinely available in clinical microbiology laboratories. The use of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS) is increasing since the last decades due to its recent evidence as a potential role for reliable identification of microorganisms and a few nematodes. But, for parasites detection, normalized protocols and the acquisition and introduction of new species to the database are required. We carried out a preliminary study confirming the usefulness of MALDI-TOF MS for the rapid and reliable identification of Trichuris suis used as control and the creation of an internal database. To create main spectra profiles (MSPs), the different parts of five whipworms (esophagus and intestine) were used, developing different tests to verify the repeatability and reproducibility of the spectra. Thus, to validate the new internal database, 20 whipworms, separating the esophagus and intestine, were used, of which 100% were accurately identified as T. suis, but could not distinguish between both parts of the worm. Log score values ranged between 1.84 and 2.36, meaning a high-quality identification. The results confirmed that MALDI-TOF MS was able to identify Trichuris species. Additionally, a MALDI-TOF MS profile of T. suis proteome was carried out to develop the first internal database of spectra for the diagnosis of trichuriasis and other Trichuris spp.
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Rivero J, Cutillas C, Callejón R. Trichuris trichiura (Linnaeus, 1771) From Human and Non-human Primates: Morphology, Biometry, Host Specificity, Molecular Characterization, and Phylogeny. Front Vet Sci 2021; 7:626120. [PMID: 33681315 PMCID: PMC7934208 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.626120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Human trichuriasis is a Neglected Tropical Disease, which affects hundreds of millions of persons worldwide. Several studies have reported that non-human primates (NHP) represent important reservoirs for several known zoonotic infectious diseases. In this context, Trichuris infections have been found in a range of NHP species living in natural habitats, including colobus monkeys, macaques, baboons, and chimpanzees. To date, the systematics of the genus Trichuris parasitizing humans and NHP is unclear. During many years, Trichuris trichiura was considered as the whipworm present in humans and primates. Subsequently, molecular studies suggested that Trichuris spp. in humans and NHP represent several species that differ in host specificity. This work examines the current knowledge of T. trichiura and its relationship to whipworm parasites in other primate host species. A phylogenetic hypothesis, based on three mitochondrial genes (cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1, cytochrome b, and large subunit rRNA-encoding gene) and two fragments of ribosomal DNA (Internal Transcribed Spacer 1 and 2), allowed us to define a complex of populations of T. trichiura hosting in a large variety of NHP species, in addition to humans. These populations were divided into four phylogenetic groups with a different degree of host specificity. From these data, we carry out a new morphological and biometrical description of the populations of Trichuris based on data cited by other authors as well as those provided in this study. The presence of T. trichiura is analyzed in several NHP species in captivity from different garden zoos as possible reservoir of trichuriasis for humans. This study contributes to clarify questions that lead to identification of new taxa and will determine parasite transmission routes between these primates, allowing the implementation of appropriate control and prevention measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Rivero
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Cristina Cutillas
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Rocío Callejón
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
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Rivero J, Callejón R, Cutillas C. Complete Mitochondrial Genome of Trichuristrichiura from Macaca sylvanus and Papio papio. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11020126. [PMID: 33562044 PMCID: PMC7915941 DOI: 10.3390/life11020126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2021] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichuriasis is among the most prevalent worldwide parasitism caused by helminths. For many years, Trichuris spp. have been described with a relatively narrow range of both morphological and biometrical features. The use of the complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) is an alternative and powerful molecular method for inferring phylogenies. Here, we present an overview of the contributions of mitogenome for Trichuris spp. from human and non-human primates. In addition, we carry out structural and phylogenetic comparative analyses with genomes of Trichuris species available in public datasets. The complete mt genomes of Trichuris trichiura and Trichuris sp. from Macaca sylvanus and T. trichiura from Papio papio are 14,091 bp, 14,047 bp and 14,089 bp in length, respectively. The three mt genomes are circular and consist of 37 genes—13 PCGs (cox1–3, nad1–6, nad4L, atp6, atp8 and cob), 22 transfer RNA genes (tRNAs), and two rRNAs (rrnL and rrnS). The molecular evidence presented here supports the hypothesis that T. trichiura de M. sylvanus (TMF31) and T. trichiura de P. papio (TPM1) were similar but genetically different with respect to Trichuris sp. from macaques (TMM5). The phylogenetic study also supported the evolution of the different Trichuris species. In conclusion, we suggest the existence of two cryptic species parasitizing M. sylvanus.
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Jones KR. Trichuris spp. in Animals, with Specific Reference to Neo-Tropical Rodents. Vet Sci 2021; 8:15. [PMID: 33494133 PMCID: PMC7909510 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8020015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichuriasis is the clinical disease of animals infected with the parasite of the genus Trichuris. This review attempts to present information on Trichuris spp. infestation in neo-tropical rodents that are utilized for meat consumption by humans. Neo-tropical rodents utilized for meat production can be divided into two categories: those that have been domesticated, which include the guinea pig (Cavia porcellus), and those that are on the verge of domestication, such as the capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), lappe (Cuniculus paca/Agouti paca), and agouti (Dasyprocta leporina). This document reviews the literature on the species of Trichuris that affects the rodents mentioned above, as well as the clinical signs observed. The literature obtained spans over sixty years, from 1951 to 2020. Trichuris spp. was found in these neo-tropical rodents mentioned. However, there is a dearth of information on the species of Trichuris that parasitize these animals. The capybara was the only rodent where some molecular techniques were used to identify a new species named T. cutillasae. In most cases, Trichuris spp. was found in combination with other endoparasites, and was found at a low prevalence in the lappe and guinea pig. The presence of Trichuris spp. ranged from 4.62-53.85% in the agouti, 4.21-10.00% in the lappe, 50% in the capybaras, and 1-31% in guinea pigs. Further work must be done towards molecular identification of various Trichuris spp. present in these rodents, as well as the clinical effect of infection on the performance of agouti, lappe, capybara, and guinea pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kegan Romelle Jones
- Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences (DBVS), School of Veterinary Medicine (SVM), Faculty of Medical Sciences (FMS), University of the West Indies (UWI), Mt. Hope Campus, Trinidad and Tobago;
- Department of Food Production (DFP), Faculty of Food and Agriculture (FFA), University of the West Indies (UWI), St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago
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Nuclear and Mitochondrial Data on Trichuris from Macaca fuscata Support Evidence of Host Specificity. Life (Basel) 2020; 11:life11010018. [PMID: 33396199 PMCID: PMC7823418 DOI: 10.3390/life11010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Whipworms are parasitic intestinal nematodes infecting mammals, and traditionally humans and other primates that have so far been considered infected by Trichuris trichiura. Recent molecular studies report a more complex scenario suggesting the presence of a species complex with several Trichuris taxa specifically infecting only one primate species as well as taxa able to infect a range of primate species. The systematics of the group is important for taxonomic inference, to estimate the relative zoonotic potential, and for conservation purposes. In fact, captive animals living in zoological gardens are usually infected by persistent monoxenous intestinal parasites. Here, two Japanese macaques living in the Bioparco Zoological Garden of Rome were found infected by Trichuris sp. Nematodes were characterized at the molecular level using nuclear (btub and 18S) and mitochondrial (16S and cytb) markers and then compared to Trichuris collected previously in the same location, and to other Trichuris infecting primates. Evidences from mitochondrial and nuclear markers allowed for the identification of Trichuris sp. specific to Macaca fuscata. Results obtained here also described a uniform taxonomic unit of Trichuris, separated but closely related to Trichuris trichiura, thus, emphasizing its zoonotic potential for workers and visitors.
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Wei X, Liu B, Li Y, Wang K, Gao L, Yang Y. A human corneal ulcer caused by Thelazia callipaeda in Southwest China: case report. Parasitol Res 2020; 119:3531-3534. [PMID: 32827103 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06850-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we describe a rare human case with corneal ulcer caused by thelaziosis in a 69-year-old man in Southwest China. A male nematode was discovered and removed from the patient's right eye with a long spicule and further identified by sequencing mitochondrial cox1 gene. The ophthalmologic and molecular biological evidence demonstrates the corneal ulcer caused by T. callipaeda infection, which is mainly distributed in Asian and European countries. Most T. callipaeda infections are emerged in the conjunctiva, leading to conjunctivitis. To the best knowledge of the authors, corneal ulcers caused by T. callipaeda have not been reported yet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxing Wei
- Medical College of Qinghai University, Xining, 810016, People's Republic of China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Liu
- Medical College of Qinghai University, Xining, 810016, People's Republic of China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, People's Republic of China
| | - Yijian Li
- Medical College of Qinghai University, Xining, 810016, People's Republic of China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, People's Republic of China
| | - Ke Wang
- Medical College of Qinghai University, Xining, 810016, People's Republic of China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, People's Republic of China
| | - Lixia Gao
- Medical College of Qinghai University, Xining, 810016, People's Republic of China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuli Yang
- Medical College of Qinghai University, Xining, 810016, People's Republic of China.
- Department of Ophthalmology, Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, People's Republic of China.
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Xie Y, Li Y, Gu X, Liu Y, Zhou X, Wang L, He R, Peng X, Yang G. Molecular characterization of ascaridoid parasites from captive wild carnivores in China using ribosomal and mitochondrial sequences. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:382. [PMID: 32727607 PMCID: PMC7391581 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04254-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite the public health importance of toxocariasis/toxascariasis, only a few species of these ascaridoid parasites from wild canine and feline carnivores have been studied at the molecular level so far. Poor understanding of diversity, host distribution and the potential (zoonotic) transmission of the ascaridoid species among wild animals negatively affects their surveillance and control in natural settings. In this study, we updated previous knowledge by profiling the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of ascaridoid species among eleven wild canine and feline animals on the basis of a combined analysis of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) gene and the partial mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 2 (cox2) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 (nad1) genes. RESULTS In total, three genetically distinct ascaridoid lineages were determined to be present among these wild carnivores sampled, including Toxocara canis in Alopex lagopus and Vulpes vulpes, Toxocara cati in Felis chaus, Prionailurus bengalensis and Catopuma temmincki and Toxascaris leonina in Canis lupus, Panthera tigris altaica, Panthera tigris amoyensis, Panthera tigris tigris, Panthera leo and Lynx lynx. Furthermore, it was evident that T. leonina lineage split into three well-supported subclades depending on their host species, i.e. wild felids, dogs and wolves and foxes, based on integrated genetic and phylogenetic evidence, supporting that a complex of T. leonina other than one species infecting these hosts. CONCLUSIONS These results provide new molecular insights into classification, phylogenetic relationships and epidemiological importance of ascaridoids from wild canids and felids and also highlight the complex of the taxonomy and genetics of Toxascaris in their wild and domestic carnivorous hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Xie
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
| | - Yingxin Li
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Xiaobin Gu
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Yunjian Liu
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Xuan Zhou
- Institute of Animal Genetics and Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Ran He
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Xuerong Peng
- Department of Chemistry, College of Life and Basic Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Guangyou Yang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
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Differentiation of Trichuris species eggs from non-human primates by geometric morphometric analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2020; 12:214-219. [PMID: 32695575 PMCID: PMC7364051 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2020.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Human trichuriasis is a neglected tropical disease which affects millions of people worldwide, mostly living in low socio-economic conditions. Numerous studies have been conducted over the past 10 years to compare the different techniques for T. trichiura eggs detection. Our study provides the first geometric morphometric analysis for the specific detection of eggs of Trichuris sp. isolated from stools of macaque (M. sylvanus), colobus (C. g. kikuyensis), grivets (C. aethiops) and the Brazza's monkey (C. neglectus) from zoos in Spain. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) arises as an efficient method to determine Trichuris spp. eggs. The selected measurements to be included in the PCA were proposed for the first time in the present work, as far as we know, as we could not find previous studies reporting standardized parameters. Morphometrics represents a new methodology to differentiate Trichuris species eggs. Trichuris spp. eggs from macaque, colobus, grivet and Brazza’s monkey were analysed. The measurements included in the PCA were proposed for the first time.
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Cavallero S, Nejsum P, Cutillas C, Callejón R, Doležalová J, Modrý D, D’Amelio S. Insights into the molecular systematics of Trichuris infecting captive primates based on mitochondrial DNA analysis. Vet Parasitol 2019; 272:23-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2019.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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16
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Obanda V, Maingi N, Muchemi G, Ng’ang’a CJ, Angelone S, Archie EA. Infection dynamics of gastrointestinal helminths in sympatric non-human primates, livestock and wild ruminants in Kenya. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0217929. [PMID: 31181093 PMCID: PMC6557494 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gastrointestinal parasites are neglected infections, yet they cause significant burden to animal and human health globally. To date, most studies of gastrointestinal parasites focus on host-parasite systems that involve either a single parasite or a host species. However, when hosts share habitat and resources, they may also cross-transmit generalist gastrointestinal parasites. Here we explore multi-host-parasite interactions in a single ecosystem to understand the infection patterns, especially those linked to livestock-wildlife interfaces and zoonotic risk. METHODS We used both coprological methods (flotation and sedimentation; N = 1,138 fecal samples) and molecular identification techniques (rDNA and mtDNA; N = 18 larvae) to identify gastrointestinal parasites in nine sympatric host species (cattle, sheep, goats, wildebeest, Grant's gazelles, Thomson's gazelles, impala, vervet monkeys and baboons) in the Amboseli ecosystem, Kenya. RESULTS We found that the host community harbored a diverse community of gastrointestinal helminths, including 22 species and/or morphotypes that were heterogeneously distributed across the hosts. Six zoonotic gastrointestinal helminths were identified: Trichuris spp., Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Enterobius spp. Oesophagostomum bifurcum, Strongyloides stercoralis and Strongyloides fuelleborni. The dominant parasite was Trichuris spp, whose ova occurred in two morphological types. Baboons were co-infected with Strongyloides fuelleborni and S. stercoralis. CONCLUSIONS We found that the interface zone shared by wild ungulates, livestock and non-human primates is rich in diversity of gastrointestinal helminths, of which some are extensively shared across the host species. Closely related host species were most likely to be infected by the same parasite species. Several parasites showed genetic sub-structuring according to either geography or host species. Of significance and contrary to expectation, we found that livestock had a higher parasite richness than wild bovids, which is a health risk for both conservation and livestock production. The zoonotic parasites are of public health risk, especially to pastoralist communities living in areas contiguous to wildlife areas. These results expand information on the epidemiology of these parasites and highlights potential zoonotic risk in East African savanna habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Obanda
- Department of Veterinary Services, Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi, Kenya
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Ndichu Maingi
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Gerald Muchemi
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Chege J. Ng’ang’a
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Samer Angelone
- Estación Biológica de Doñana, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Avda, Américo Vespucio s/n, Sevilla, Spain
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies (IEU), University of Zürich Winterthurerstrasse, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Elizabeth A. Archie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana, United States of America
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Phosuk I, Sanpool O, Thanchomnang T, Sadaow L, Rodpai R, Anamnart W, Janwan P, Wijit A, Laymanivong S, Pa Aung WP, Intapan PM, Maleewong W. Molecular Identification of Trichuris suis and Trichuris trichiura Eggs in Human Populations from Thailand, Lao PDR, and Myanmar. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2018; 98:39-44. [PMID: 29165218 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichuris trichiura is a soil-transmitted helminth infecting human populations globally. Human cases caused by Trichuris suis and Trichuris vulpis have also been reported. Molecular identifications of Trichuris species infecting human populations in Lao PDR and Myanmar are lacking. Here, we explored molecular data obtained from Trichuris eggs recovered from human fecal samples from these countries and compared these with new and existing data from Thailand. Nuclear ribosomal DNA (18S and ITS2) sequences were amplified from Trichuris eggs and sequenced. Forty-one samples showed 99-100% similarity in their 18S sequences to published sequences of T. trichiura and one sample showed 99% similarity to a sequence of T. suis. Similarly, 41 samples showed 92-100% similarity in their ITS2 sequences to published sequences of T. trichiura and one sample showed 94-97% similarity to sequences of T. suis. This study is the first molecular confirmation of human infection with T. suis in northeast Thailand and the first molecular confirmation of the species of Trichuris infecting humans in Lao PDR and Myanmar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Issarapong Phosuk
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, and Research and Diagnostic Center for Infectious Diseases, Mekong Health Science Research Institute, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - Oranuch Sanpool
- Faculty of Medicine, Maha Sarakram University, Maha Sarakram, Thailand.,Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, and Research and Diagnostic Center for Infectious Diseases, Mekong Health Science Research Institute, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | | | - Lakkhana Sadaow
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, and Research and Diagnostic Center for Infectious Diseases, Mekong Health Science Research Institute, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - Rutchanee Rodpai
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, and Research and Diagnostic Center for Infectious Diseases, Mekong Health Science Research Institute, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - Witthaya Anamnart
- School of Public Health, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Penchom Janwan
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand.,Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, and Research and Diagnostic Center for Infectious Diseases, Mekong Health Science Research Institute, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - Adulsak Wijit
- Office of Disease Prevention & Control 1st, Ministry of Public Health, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Sakhone Laymanivong
- Centre of Malariology, Parasitology and Entomology, Ministry of Health, Vientiane, Lao PDR.,Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, and Research and Diagnostic Center for Infectious Diseases, Mekong Health Science Research Institute, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - Win Pa Pa Aung
- Department of Microbiology, University of Medicine 2, Ministry of Health and Sport, Yangon, Myanmar.,Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, and Research and Diagnostic Center for Infectious Diseases, Mekong Health Science Research Institute, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - Pewpan M Intapan
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, and Research and Diagnostic Center for Infectious Diseases, Mekong Health Science Research Institute, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - Wanchai Maleewong
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, and Research and Diagnostic Center for Infectious Diseases, Mekong Health Science Research Institute, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
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Xie Y, Zhao B, Hoberg EP, Li M, Zhou X, Gu X, Lai W, Peng X, Yang G. Genetic characterisation and phylogenetic status of whipworms (Trichuris spp.) from captive non-human primates in China, determined by nuclear and mitochondrial sequencing. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:516. [PMID: 30236150 PMCID: PMC6149069 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3100-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Whipworms (Nematoda: Trichuridae), among the most common soil-transmitted helminths (STHs), can cause the socioeconomically important disease trichuriasis in various mammalian hosts including humans and non-human primates. For many years, Trichuris from non-human primates has been assigned to the same species as the one infecting humans Trichuris trichiura. More recently, several molecular reports challenged this assumption following recognition of a Trichuris species complex observed in humans and non-human primates. A refined concept for species limits within Trichuris contributes to an understanding of diversity and the potential (zoonotic) transmission among humans and non-human primates. In this study, we expanded previous investigations by exploring the diversity of Trichuris among eight primates including three Asian autochthonous species (i.e. Rhinopithecus roxellana, Rhinopithecus bieti and Nomascus leucogenys). Species-level identification, whether novel or assignable to known lineages of Trichuris, was based on analyses of nuclear internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) genes. Results In total, seven genetically distinct subgroups of whipworms were determined to be present among the primates sampled. Most Trichuris lineages, including Subgroups 1, 1’, 3, 5 and 6, showed a broad host range and were not restricted to particular primate species; in addition to T. trichiura, a complex of Trichuris species was shown infecting primates. Furthermore, it was assumed that Trichuris spp. from either N. leucogenys and P. hamadryas or R. roxellana and R. bieti, respectively, were conspecific. Each pair was indicated to be a discrete lineage of Trichuris, designated, respectively, as Subgroups 1 or 1’ and 2, based on integrated genetic and phylogenetic evidence. Conclusion These results emphasise that the taxonomy and genetic variations of Trichuris are more complicated than previously acknowledged. These cumulative molecular and phylogenetic data provide a better understanding of the taxonomy, genetics and evolutionary biology of the whipworms. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-3100-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Xie
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Bo Zhao
- Chengdu Zoo, Chengdu, 610081, Sichuan, China
| | - Eric P Hoberg
- Division of Parasitology, Museum of Southwestern Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
| | - Mei Li
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Xuan Zhou
- Institute of Animal Genetics and Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Xiaobin Gu
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Weimin Lai
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Xuerong Peng
- Department of Chemistry, College of Life and Basic Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Guangyou Yang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
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Morphological and molecular confirmation of the validity of Trichuris rhinopiptheroxella in the endangered golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana). J Helminthol 2018; 93:601-607. [PMID: 29986779 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x18000500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) is an endangered species endemic to China. Relatively little is known about the taxonomic status of soil-transmitted helminths (STH) in these monkeys. Trichuris spp. (syn. Trichocephalus) are among the most important STHs, causing significant socio-economic losses and public health concerns. To date, five Trichuris species have been reported in golden monkeys, including a novel species, T. rhinopiptheroxella, based on morphology. In the present study, molecular and morphological analysis was conducted on adult Trichuris worms obtained from a dead golden snub-nosed monkey, to better understand their taxonomic status. Morphology indicated that the adult Trichuris worms were similar to T. rhinopiptheroxella. To further ascertain their phylogenetic position, the complete mitochondrial (mt) genome of these worms was sequenced and characterized. The mt genome of T. rhinopiptheroxella is 14,186 bp, encoding 37 genes. Phylogenetic analysis based on the concatenated amino acids of 12 protein-coding genes (with the exception of atp8) indicated that T. rhinopiptheroxella was genetically distinct and exhibited 27.5-27.8% genetic distance between T. rhinopiptheroxella and other Trichuris spp. Our results support T. rhinopiptheroxella as a valid Trichuris species and suggest that mt DNA could serve as a marker for future studies on the classification, evolution and molecular epidemiology of Trichuris spp. from golden snub-nosed monkeys.
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Kim T, Kern E, Park C, Nadler SA, Bae YJ, Park JK. The bipartite mitochondrial genome of Ruizia karukerae (Rhigonematomorpha, Nematoda). Sci Rep 2018; 8:7482. [PMID: 29749383 PMCID: PMC5945635 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-25759-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial genes and whole mitochondrial genome sequences are widely used as molecular markers in studying population genetics and resolving both deep and shallow nodes in phylogenetics. In animals the mitochondrial genome is generally composed of a single chromosome, but mystifying exceptions sometimes occur. We determined the complete mitochondrial genome of the millipede-parasitic nematode Ruizia karukerae and found its mitochondrial genome consists of two circular chromosomes, which is highly unusual in bilateral animals. Chromosome I is 7,659 bp and includes six protein-coding genes, two rRNA genes and nine tRNA genes. Chromosome II comprises 7,647 bp, with seven protein-coding genes and 16 tRNA genes. Interestingly, both chromosomes share a 1,010 bp sequence containing duplicate copies of cox2 and three tRNA genes (trnD, trnG and trnH), and the nucleotide sequences between the duplicated homologous gene copies are nearly identical, suggesting a possible recent genesis for this bipartite mitochondrial genome. Given that little is known about the formation, maintenance or evolution of abnormal mitochondrial genome structures, R. karukerae mtDNA may provide an important early glimpse into this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taeho Kim
- Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Elizabeth Kern
- Division of EcoScience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Chungoo Park
- School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61186, Republic of Korea
| | - Steven A Nadler
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Yeon Jae Bae
- Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Joong-Ki Park
- Division of EcoScience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea.
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Yao C, Walkush J, Shim D, Cruz K, Ketzis J. Molecular species identification of Trichuris trichiura in African green monkey on St. Kitts, West Indies. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2017; 11:22-26. [PMID: 31014613 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2017.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Revised: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/12/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The population of African green monkeys (AGM, Chlorocebus aethiops sabaeus) on St. Kitts, West Indies is believed to be as large as or greater than the human population. Interactions with humans are frequent and the pathogens carried by AGM, such as Trichuris spp., may pose a risk to humans. The objectives of this study were to assess the use of molecular methods for diagnosing Trichuris spp. in AGM and compare its DNA sequences to those of Trichuris spp. found in other non-human primates and humans. Fecal samples were collected from trapped and individually housed AGM between January and December 2015 and analysed using fecal flotation with Sheather's sugar flotation solution and PCR amplification and DNA sequencing of 18S rRNA and ITS2 fragments. Phylogenetic analysis was performed. 91% (81/89) and 55.4% (31/56) were Trichuris spp. positive by fecal flotation and PCR, respectively. Both AGM-NADH1 gene and T. trichiura-18S rRNA gene showed no variations in sequence and were 100% identical to corresponding sequences deposited in GenBank. Nevertheless Trichuris ITS2 showed some diversities among 12 sequences, which was <5%. Phylogenetic analysis of ITS2 put Trichuris spp. in Kittitian AGM into the same clades of T. trichiura found in human and other non-human primates in many other geographical regions. These data confirm that AGM are reservoirs for T. trichiura in humans. We suggest a one health approach to curtail enteric parasitic infections in human populations in the insular country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoqun Yao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences & One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, St. Kitts, West Indies.
| | - Jamie Walkush
- Department of Biomedical Sciences & One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, St. Kitts, West Indies.
| | - Dallas Shim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences & One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, St. Kitts, West Indies.
| | - Katalina Cruz
- Department of Biomedical Sciences & One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, St. Kitts, West Indies.
| | - Jennifer Ketzis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences & One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, St. Kitts, West Indies.
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Kim J, Kern E, Kim T, Sim M, Kim J, Kim Y, Park C, Nadler SA, Park JK. Phylogenetic analysis of two Plectus mitochondrial genomes (Nematoda: Plectida) supports a sister group relationship between Plectida and Rhabditida within Chromadorea. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2017; 107:90-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2016.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 10/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Callejón R, Robles MDR, Panei CJ, Cutillas C. Molecular diversification of Trichuris spp. from Sigmodontinae (Cricetidae) rodents from Argentina based on mitochondrial DNA sequences. Parasitol Res 2016; 115:2933-45. [PMID: 27083190 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-5045-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A molecular phylogenetic hypothesis is presented for the genus Trichuris based on sequence data from mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 (cox1) and cytochrome b (cob). The taxa consisted of nine populations of whipworm from five species of Sigmodontinae rodents from Argentina. Bayesian Inference, Maximum Parsimony, and Maximum Likelihood methods were used to infer phylogenies for each gene separately but also for the combined mitochondrial data and the combined mitochondrial and nuclear dataset. Phylogenetic results based on cox1 and cob mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) revealed three clades strongly resolved corresponding to three different species (Trichuris navonae, Trichuris bainae, and Trichuris pardinasi) showing phylogeographic variation, but relationships among Trichuris species were poorly resolved. Phylogenetic reconstruction based on concatenated sequences had greater phylogenetic resolution for delimiting species and populations intra-specific of Trichuris than those based on partitioned genes. Thus, populations of T. bainae and T. pardinasi could be affected by geographical factors and co-divergence parasite-host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocío Callejón
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Prof. García González 2, Sevilla, 41012, Spain
| | - María Del Rosario Robles
- Centro de Estudios Parasitológicos y de Vectores (CEPAVE), CCT-CONICET-La Plata/Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carlos Javier Panei
- Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Cristina Cutillas
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Prof. García González 2, Sevilla, 41012, Spain.
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Hawash MBF, Betson M, Al-Jubury A, Ketzis J, LeeWillingham A, Bertelsen MF, Cooper PJ, Littlewood DTJ, Zhu XQ, Nejsum P. Whipworms in humans and pigs: origins and demography. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:37. [PMID: 26800683 PMCID: PMC4724142 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1325-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Trichuris suis and T. trichiura are two different whipworm species that infect pigs and humans, respectively. T. suis is found in pigs worldwide while T. trichiura is responsible for nearly 460 million infections in people, mainly in areas of poor sanitation in tropical and subtropical areas. The evolutionary relationship and the historical factors responsible for this worldwide distribution are poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to reconstruct the demographic history of Trichuris in humans and pigs, the evolutionary origin of Trichuris in these hosts and factors responsible for parasite dispersal globally. Methods Parts of the mitochondrial nad1 and rrnL genes were sequenced followed by population genetic and phylogenetic analyses. Populations of Trichuris examined were recovered from humans (n = 31), pigs (n = 58) and non-human primates (n = 49) in different countries on different continents, namely Denmark, USA, Uganda, Ecuador, China and St. Kitts (Caribbean). Additional sequences available from GenBank were incorporated into the analyses. Results We found no differentiation between human-derived Trichuris in Uganda and the majority of the Trichuris samples from non-human primates suggesting a common African origin of the parasite, which then was transmitted to Asia and further to South America. On the other hand, there was no differentiation between pig-derived Trichuris from Europe and the New World suggesting dispersal relates to human activities by transporting pigs and their parasites through colonisation and trade. Evidence for recent pig transport from China to Ecuador and from Europe to Uganda was also observed from their parasites. In contrast, there was high genetic differentiation between the pig Trichuris in Denmark and China in concordance with the host genetics. Conclusions We found evidence for an African origin of T. trichiura which were then transmitted with human ancestors to Asia and further to South America. A host shift to pigs may have occurred in Asia from where T. suis seems to have been transmitted globally by a combination of natural host dispersal and anthropogenic factors. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1325-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed B F Hawash
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Copenhagen University, Dyrlaegevej 100, DK-1870, Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark. .,Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt.
| | - Martha Betson
- Department of Production and Population Health, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK. .,School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK.
| | - Azmi Al-Jubury
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Copenhagen University, Dyrlaegevej 100, DK-1870, Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Jennifer Ketzis
- Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, West Indies, Basseterre, St Kitts and Nevis.
| | - Arve LeeWillingham
- Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, West Indies, Basseterre, St Kitts and Nevis.
| | - Mads F Bertelsen
- Centre for Zoo and Wild Animal Health, Copenhagen Zoo, Frederiksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Philip J Cooper
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK.
| | | | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, P R China.
| | - Peter Nejsum
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Copenhagen University, Dyrlaegevej 100, DK-1870, Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Dolezalova J, Obornik M, Hajduskova E, Jirku M, Petrzelkova KJ, Bolechova P, Cutillas C, Callejon R, Jozef J, Berankova Z, Modry D. How many species of whipworms do we share? Whipworms from man and other primates form two phylogenetic lineages. Folia Parasitol (Praha) 2015; 62. [PMID: 26668135 DOI: 10.14411/fp.2015.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Dolezalova
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Pathology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Obornik
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic.,Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Hajduskova
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Milan Jirku
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Klara J Petrzelkova
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic.,Institute of Vertebrate Biology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Liberec Zoo, Liberec, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Bolechova
- Liberec Zoo, Liberec, Czech Republic.,Department of Husbandry and Ethology of Animals, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Cristina Cutillas
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Sevilla University, Sevilla, Spain; 10 Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Rocio Callejon
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Sevilla University, Sevilla, Spain; 10 Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | | | | | - David Modry
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
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26
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Kim T, Kim J, Nadler SA, Park JK. The complete mitochondrial genome of Koerneria sudhausi (Diplogasteromorpha: Nematoda) supports monophyly of Diplogasteromorpha within Rhabditomorpha. Curr Genet 2015; 62:391-403. [PMID: 26581631 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-015-0536-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Revised: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Testing hypotheses of monophyly for different nematode groups in the context of broad representation of nematode diversity is central to understanding the patterns and processes of nematode evolution. Herein sequence information from mitochondrial genomes is used to test the monophyly of diplogasterids, which includes an important nematode model organism. The complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Koerneria sudhausi, a representative of Diplogasteromorpha, was determined and used for phylogenetic analyses along with 60 other nematode species. The mtDNA of K. sudhausi is comprised of 16,005 bp that includes 36 genes (12 protein-coding genes, 2 ribosomal RNA genes and 22 transfer RNA genes) encoded in the same direction. Phylogenetic trees inferred from amino acid and nucleotide sequence data for the 12 protein-coding genes strongly supported the sister relationship of K. sudhausi with Pristionchus pacificus, supporting Diplogasteromorpha. The gene order of K. sudhausi is identical to that most commonly found in members of the Rhabditomorpha + Ascaridomorpha + Diplogasteromorpha clade, with an exception of some tRNA translocations. Both the gene order pattern and sequence-based phylogenetic analyses support a close relationship between the diplogasterid species and Rhabditomorpha. The nesting of the two diplogasteromorph species within Rhabditomorpha is consistent with most molecular phylogenies for the group, but inconsistent with certain morphology-based hypotheses that asserted phylogenetic affinity between diplogasteromorphs and tylenchomorphs. Phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial genome sequences strongly supports monophyly of the diplogasteromorpha.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taeho Kim
- Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 136-713, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiyeon Kim
- Division of EcoScience, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 120-750, Republic of Korea
| | - Steven A Nadler
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Joong-Ki Park
- Division of EcoScience, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 120-750, Republic of Korea.
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Human Trichuriasis: Whipworm Genetics, Phylogeny, Transmission and Future Research Directions. CURRENT TROPICAL MEDICINE REPORTS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s40475-015-0062-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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28
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Hawash MBF, Andersen LO, Gasser RB, Stensvold CR, Nejsum P. Mitochondrial Genome Analyses Suggest Multiple Trichuris Species in Humans, Baboons, and Pigs from Different Geographical Regions. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0004059. [PMID: 26367282 PMCID: PMC4569395 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The whipworms Trichuris trichiura and Trichuris suis are two parasitic nematodes of humans and pigs, respectively. Although whipworms in human and non-human primates historically have been referred to as T. trichiura, recent reports suggest that several Trichuris spp. are found in primates. Methods and Findings We sequenced and annotated complete mitochondrial genomes of Trichuris recovered from a human in Uganda, an olive baboon in the US, a hamadryas baboon in Denmark, and two pigs from Denmark and Uganda. Comparative analyses using other published mitochondrial genomes of Trichuris recovered from a human and a porcine host in China and from a françois’ leaf-monkey (China) were performed, including phylogenetic analyses and pairwise genetic and amino acid distances. Genetic and protein distances between human Trichuris in Uganda and China were high (~19% and 15%, respectively) suggesting that they represented different species. Trichuris from the olive baboon in US was genetically related to human Trichuris in China, while the other from the hamadryas baboon in Denmark was nearly identical to human Trichuris from Uganda. Baboon-derived Trichuris was genetically distinct from Trichuris from françois’ leaf monkey, suggesting multiple whipworm species circulating among non-human primates. The genetic and protein distances between pig Trichuris from Denmark and other regions were roughly 9% and 6%, respectively, while Chinese and Ugandan whipworms were more closely related. Conclusion and Significance Our results indicate that Trichuris species infecting humans and pigs are phylogenetically distinct across geographical regions, which might have important implications for the implementation of suitable and effective control strategies in different regions. Moreover, we provide support for the hypothesis that Trichuris infecting primates represents a complex of cryptic species with some species being able to infect both humans and non-human primates. Trichuris trichiura and Trichuris suis are whipworms found in humans and pigs, respectively, causing morbidity in humans and being associated with production losses in pigs. Although Trichuris from non-human primates is attributed to T. trichiura, hence considered the same species as the one infecting humans, several recent reports question this assumption. Morphologically similar parasites that have a wide global distribution and/or those capable of infecting several host species may comprise several ‘hidden’ species. In this study, we sequenced, annotated, and compared the mitochondrial genomes (including published genomes) of Trichuris obtained from different hosts in different geographical regions, including humans (Uganda and China), pigs (China, Uganda, and Denmark) and two types of non-human primates (baboons and françois’ leaf monkey). We found high genetic distinctiveness between human Trichuris from China and Uganda. Likewise, pig Trichuris from Denmark and other regions also showed considerable, although lower, genetic diversity. This suggests that both pig- and human-derived Trichuris may represent different species with potential differences in endemicity, which may have important implications for implementing effective control strategies. Our data also suggests that Trichuris infecting primates comprises several species and may be transmitted from non-human primates to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed B. F. Hawash
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Lee O. Andersen
- Department of Microbiology and Infection Control, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Robin B. Gasser
- Department of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christen Rune Stensvold
- Department of Microbiology and Infection Control, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Peter Nejsum
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
- * E-mail:
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29
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Callejón R, Cutillas C, Nadler SA. Nuclear and mitochondrial genes for inferring Trichuris phylogeny. Parasitol Res 2015; 114:4591-9. [PMID: 26341800 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-015-4705-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Nucleotide sequences of the triose phosphate isomerase (TPI) gene (624 bp) and mitochondrial cytochrome b (cob) gene (520 bp) were obtained by PCR and evaluated for utility in inferring the phylogenetic relationships among Trichuris species. Published sequences of one other nuclear gene (18S or SSU rRNA, 1816-1846 bp) and one additional mitochondrial (mtDNA) gene (cytochrome oxidase 1, cox1, 342 bp) were also analyzed. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference methods were used to infer phylogenies for each gene separately but also for the combined mitochondrial data (two genes), the combined nuclear data (two genes), and the total evidence (four gene) dataset. Few Trichuris clades were uniformly resolved across separate analyses of individual genes. For the mtDNA, the cob gene trees had greater phylogenetic resolution and tended to have higher support values than the cox1 analyses. For nuclear genes, the SSU gene trees had slightly greater resolution and support values than the TPI analyses, but TPI was the only gene with reliable support for the deepest nodes in the tree. Combined analyses of genes yielded strongly supported clades in most cases, with the exception of the relationship among Trichuris clades 1, 2, and 3, which showed conflicting results between nuclear and mitochondrial genes. Both the TPI and cob genes proved valuable for inferring Trichuris relationships, with greatest resolution and support values achieved through combined analysis of multiple genes. Based on the phylogeny of the combined analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial genes, parsimony mapping of definitive host utilization depicts artiodactyls as the ancestral hosts for these Trichuris, with host-shifts into primates, rodents, and Carnivora.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocío Callejón
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, 41012, Seville, Spain
| | - Cristina Cutillas
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, 41012, Seville, Spain
| | - Steven A Nadler
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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Mitochondrial genomes of Trichinella species and genotypes – a basis for diagnosis, and systematic and epidemiological explorations. Int J Parasitol 2015; 44:1073-80. [PMID: 25245252 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2014.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Revised: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the present study we sequenced or re-sequenced, assembled and annotated 15 mitochondrial genomes representing the 12 currently recognised taxa of Trichinella using a deep sequencing-coupled approach. We then defined and compared the gene order in individual mitochondrial genomes (14 to 17.7 kb), evaluated genetic differences among species/genotypes and re-assessed the relationships among these taxa using the mitochondrial nucleic acid or amino acid sequence data sets. In addition, a rich source of mitochondrial genetic markers was defined that could be used in future systematic, epidemiological and population genetic studies of Trichinella. The sequencing-bioinformatic approach employed herein should be applicable to a wide range of eukaryotic parasites.
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31
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Cavallero S, De Liberato C, Friedrich KG, Di Cave D, Masella V, D'Amelio S, Berrilli F. Genetic heterogeneity and phylogeny of Trichuris spp. from captive non-human primates based on ribosomal DNA sequence data. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2015; 34:450-6. [PMID: 26066463 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2015.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Revised: 04/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Nematodes of the genus Trichuris, known as whipworms, are recognized to infect numerous mammalian species including humans and non-human primates. Several Trichuris spp. have been described and species designation/identification is traditionally based on host-affiliation, although cross-infection and hybridization events may complicate species boundaries. The main aims of the present study were to genetically characterize adult Trichuris specimens from captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) and grivets (Chlorocebus aethiops), using the ribosomal DNA (ITS) as molecular marker and to investigate the phylogeny and the extent of genetic variation also by comparison with data on isolates from other humans, non-human primates and other hosts. The phylogenetic analysis of Trichuris sequences from M. fuscata and C. aethiops provided evidences of distinct clades and subclades thus advocating the existence of additional separated taxa. Neighbor Joining and Bayesian trees suggest that specimens from M. fuscata may be distinct from, but related to Trichuris trichiura, while a close relationship is suggested between the subclade formed by the specimens from C. aethiops and the subclade formed by T. suis. The tendency to associate Trichuris sp. to host species can lead to misleading taxonomic interpretations (i.e. whipworms found in primates are identified as T. trichiura). The results here obtained confirm previous evidences suggesting the existence of Trichuris spp. other than T. trichiura infecting non-human living primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Cavallero
- Sapienza University of Rome, Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Claudio De Liberato
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Regioni Lazio e Toscana, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy
| | - Klaus G Friedrich
- Fondazione Bioparco, Viale del Giardino Zoologico, 00197 Rome, Italy
| | - David Di Cave
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, TorVergata University, Via Montpellier 1, 00133, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Masella
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, TorVergata University, Via Montpellier 1, 00133, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano D'Amelio
- Sapienza University of Rome, Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Federica Berrilli
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, TorVergata University, Via Montpellier 1, 00133, Rome, Italy
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32
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Liu GH, Jia YQ, Wang YN, Zhao GH, Zhu XQ. The complete mitochondrial genome of the gullet worm Gongylonema pulchrum: gene content, arrangement, composition and phylogenetic implications. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:100. [PMID: 25884563 PMCID: PMC4340675 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-0697-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Gongylonema pulchrum (Nematoda: Gongylonematidae), a thread-like spirurid gullet worm, infects a range of mammalian definitive hosts, including cattle, pigs, equines, goats, primates and humans, and can cause gongylonemiasis. Methods In the present study, the complete mitochondrial (mt) genome of G. pulchrum was obtained using Long-range PCR and subsequent primer walking. The phylogenetic position of G. pulchrum within the Spiruromorpha was established using Bayesian analyses of the protein-coding genes at the amino acid level. Results The length of this AT-rich (75.94%) mt genome is 13,798 bp. It contains 12 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNA genes, 22 transfer RNA genes and one non-coding region. The gene arrangement is the same as those of Thelazia callipaeda (Thelaziidae) and Setaria digitata (Onchocercidae), but distinct from that of Heliconema longissimum (Physalopteridae). Phylogenetic analyses, based on the concatenated amino acid sequence data for all 12 protein-coding genes using Bayesian inference (BI) method, showed that G. pulchrum (Gongylonematidae) was more closely related to Spirocerca lupi (Spiruroidea) than other members of the infraorder Spiruromorpha. Conclusions The present study represents the first mt genome sequence for the family Gongylonematidae, which provides the opportunity to develop novel genetic markers for studies of epidemiology, population genetics and systematics of this nematode of human and animal health significance. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-015-0697-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Hua Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, Peoples Republic of China.
| | - Yan-Qing Jia
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Province, Yangling, 712100, Peoples Republic of China.
| | - Ya-Nan Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Province, Yangling, 712100, Peoples Republic of China.
| | - Guang-Hui Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Province, Yangling, 712100, Peoples Republic of China.
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, Peoples Republic of China.
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33
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Kouassi RYW, McGraw SW, Yao PK, Abou-Bacar A, Brunet J, Pesson B, Bonfoh B, N’goran EK, Candolfi E. Diversity and prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in seven non-human primates of the Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. Parasite 2015; 22:1. [PMID: 25619957 PMCID: PMC4306024 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2015001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasites and infectious diseases are well-known threats to primate populations. The main objective of this study was to provide baseline data on fecal parasites in the cercopithecid monkeys inhabiting Côte d'Ivoire's Taï National Park. Seven of eight cercopithecid species present in the park were sampled: Cercopithecus diana, Cercopithecus campbelli, Cercopithecus petaurista, Procolobus badius, Procolobus verus, Colobus polykomos, and Cercocebus atys. We collected 3142 monkey stool samples between November 2009 and December 2010. Stool samples were processed by direct wet mount examination, formalin-ethyl acetate concentration, and MIF (merthiolate, iodine, formalin) concentration methods. Slides were examined under microscope and parasite identification was based on the morphology of cysts, eggs, and adult worms. A total of 23 species of parasites was recovered including 9 protozoa (Entamoeba coli, Entamoeba histolytica/dispar, Entamoeba hartmanni, Endolimax nana, Iodamoeba butschlii, Chilomastix mesnili, Giardia sp., Balantidium coli, and Blastocystis sp.), 13 nematodes (Oesophagostomum sp., Ancylostoma sp., Anatrichosoma sp., Capillariidae Gen. sp. 1, Capillariidae Gen. sp. 2, Chitwoodspirura sp., Subulura sp., spirurids [cf Protospirura muricola], Ternidens sp., Strongyloides sp., Trichostrongylus sp., and Trichuris sp.), and 1 trematode (Dicrocoelium sp.). Diversity indices and parasite richness were high for all monkey taxa, but C. diana, C. petaurista, C. atys, and C. campbelli exhibited a greater diversity of parasite species and a more equitable distribution. The parasitological data reported are the first available for these cercopithecid species within Taï National Park.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Yao Wa Kouassi
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Unité de Formation et de Recherche Biosciences, Université Félix Houphouët Boigny 22 BP 770 Abidjan 22 Côte d’Ivoire
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Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d’Ivoire 01 BP 1303 Abidjan 01 Côte d’Ivoire
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Laboratoire de Parasitologie et de Mycologie Médicale, Plateau Technique de Microbiologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg 1 rue Koeberlé 67000
Strasbourg France
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Institut de Parasitologie et de Pathologie Tropicale, EA 7292, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg 3 rue Koeberlé 67000
Strasbourg France
| | - Scott William McGraw
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Department of Anthropology, Ohio State University, 4064 Smith Laboratory 174 West 18th Avenue Columbus Ohio
43210 USA
| | - Patrick Kouassi Yao
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Unité de Formation et de Recherche Biosciences, Université Félix Houphouët Boigny 22 BP 770 Abidjan 22 Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Ahmed Abou-Bacar
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Laboratoire de Parasitologie et de Mycologie Médicale, Plateau Technique de Microbiologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg 1 rue Koeberlé 67000
Strasbourg France
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Institut de Parasitologie et de Pathologie Tropicale, EA 7292, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg 3 rue Koeberlé 67000
Strasbourg France
| | - Julie Brunet
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Laboratoire de Parasitologie et de Mycologie Médicale, Plateau Technique de Microbiologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg 1 rue Koeberlé 67000
Strasbourg France
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Laboratoire de Parasitologie, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Strasbourg 74 route du Rhin 67401
Illkirch cedex France
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Institut de Parasitologie et de Pathologie Tropicale, EA 7292, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg 3 rue Koeberlé 67000
Strasbourg France
| | - Bernard Pesson
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Laboratoire de Parasitologie et de Mycologie Médicale, Plateau Technique de Microbiologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg 1 rue Koeberlé 67000
Strasbourg France
| | - Bassirou Bonfoh
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Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d’Ivoire 01 BP 1303 Abidjan 01 Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Eliezer Kouakou N’goran
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Unité de Formation et de Recherche Biosciences, Université Félix Houphouët Boigny 22 BP 770 Abidjan 22 Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Ermanno Candolfi
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Laboratoire de Parasitologie et de Mycologie Médicale, Plateau Technique de Microbiologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg 1 rue Koeberlé 67000
Strasbourg France
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Institut de Parasitologie et de Pathologie Tropicale, EA 7292, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg 3 rue Koeberlé 67000
Strasbourg France
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Ghai RR, Simons ND, Chapman CA, Omeja PA, Davies TJ, Ting N, Goldberg TL. Hidden population structure and cross-species transmission of whipworms (Trichuris sp.) in humans and non-human primates in Uganda. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e3256. [PMID: 25340752 PMCID: PMC4207677 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Whipworms (Trichuris sp.) are a globally distributed genus of parasitic helminths that infect a diversity of mammalian hosts. Molecular methods have successfully resolved porcine whipworm, Trichuris suis, from primate whipworm, T. trichiura. However, it remains unclear whether T. trichiura is a multi-host parasite capable of infecting a wide taxonomic breadth of primate hosts or a complex of host specific parasites that infect one or two closely related hosts. METHODS AND FINDINGS We examined the phylogenetic structure of whipworms in a multi-species community of non-human primates and humans in Western Uganda, using both traditional microscopy and molecular methods. A newly developed nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method applied to non-invasively collected fecal samples detected Trichuris with 100% sensitivity and 97% specificity relative to microscopy. Infection rates varied significantly among host species, from 13.3% in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to 88.9% in olive baboons (Papio anubis). Phylogenetic analyses based on nucleotide sequences of the Trichuris internal transcribed spacer regions 1 and 2 of ribosomal DNA revealed three co-circulating Trichuris groups. Notably, one group was detected only in humans, while another infected all screened host species, indicating that whipworms from this group are transmitted among wild primates and humans. CONCLUSIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE Our results suggest that the host range of Trichuris varies by taxonomic group, with some groups showing host specificity, and others showing host generality. In particular, one Trichuris taxon should be considered a multi-host pathogen that is capable of infecting wild primates and humans. This challenges past assumptions about the host specificity of this and similar helminth parasites and raises concerns about animal and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ria R. Ghai
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Noah D. Simons
- Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Colin A. Chapman
- Department of Anthropology and McGill School of Environment, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, New York, New York, United States of America
- Makerere University Biological Field Station, Fort Portal, Uganda
| | - Patrick A. Omeja
- Makerere University Biological Field Station, Fort Portal, Uganda
| | | | - Nelson Ting
- Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
- Institute for Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Tony L. Goldberg
- Makerere University Biological Field Station, Fort Portal, Uganda
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences and Global Health Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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35
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Evolutionary History of Terrestrial Pathogens and Endoparasites as Revealed in Fossils and Subfossils. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1155/2014/181353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The present work uses fossils and subfossils to decipher the origin and evolution of terrestrial pathogens and endoparasites. Fossils, as interpreted by morphology or specific features of their hosts, furnish minimum dates for the origin of infectious agents, coevolution with hosts, and geographical locations. Subfossils, those that can be C14 dated (roughly under 50,000 years) and are identified by morphology as well as molecular and immunological techniques, provide time periods when humans became infected with various diseases. The pathogen groups surveyed include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and select multicellular endoparasites including nematodes, trematodes, cestodes, and insect parasitoids in the terrestrial environment.
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Hansen TVA, Thamsborg SM, Olsen A, Prichard RK, Nejsum P. Genetic variations in the beta-tubulin gene and the internal transcribed spacer 2 region of Trichuris species from man and baboons. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:236. [PMID: 23938038 PMCID: PMC3751491 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The whipworm Trichuris trichiura has been estimated to infect 604 - 795 million people worldwide. The current control strategy against trichuriasis using the benzimidazoles (BZs) albendazole (400 mg) or mebendazole (500 mg) as single-dose treatment is not satisfactory. The occurrence of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in codons 167, 198 or 200 of the beta-tubulin gene has been reported to convey BZ-resistance in intestinal nematodes of veterinary importance. It was hypothesised that the low susceptibility of T. trichiura to BZ could be due to a natural occurrence of such SNPs. The aim of this study was to investigate whether these SNPs were present in the beta-tubulin gene of Trichuris spp. from humans and baboons. As a secondary objective, the degree of identity between T. trichiura from humans and Trichuris spp. from baboons was evaluated based on the beta-tubulin gene and the internal transcribed spacer 2 region (ITS2). METHODS Nucleotide sequences of the beta-tubulin gene were generated by PCR using degenerate primers, specific primers and DNA from worms and eggs of T. trichiura and worms of Trichuris spp. from baboons. The ITS2 region was amplified using adult Trichuris spp. from baboons. PCR products were sequenced and analysed. The beta-tubulin fragments were studied for SNPs in codons 167, 198 or 200 and the ITS2 amplicons were compared with GenBank records of T. trichiura. RESULTS No SNPs in codons 167, 198 or 200 were identified in any of the analysed Trichuris spp. from humans and baboons. Based on the ITS2 region, the similarity between Trichuris spp. from baboons and GenBank records of T. trichiura was found to be 98 - 99%. CONCLUSIONS Single nucleotide polymorphisms in codon 167, 198 and 200, known to confer BZ-resistance in other nematodes, were absent in the studied material. This study does not provide data that could explain previous reports of poor BZ treatment efficacy in terms of polymorphism in these codons of beta-tubulin. Based on a fragment of the beta-tubulin gene and the ITS2 region sequenced, it was found that T. trichiura from humans and Trichuris spp. isolated from baboons are closely related and may be the same species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina VA Hansen
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlægevej 100, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Stig M Thamsborg
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlægevej 100, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Annette Olsen
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlægevej 100, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Roger K Prichard
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Ste. Anne-de-Bellevue, Canada
| | - Peter Nejsum
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlægevej 100, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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