Galectin-9 enhances cytokine secretion, but suppresses survival and degranulation, in human mast cell line

Galectin-9 interacts with Vamp-3 to regulate cytokine secretion in dendritic cells

Intracellular vesicle transport is essential for cellular homeostasis and is partially mediated by SNARE proteins. Endosomal trafficking to the plasma membrane ensures cytokine secretion in dendritic cells (DCs) and the initiation of immune responses. Despite its critical importance, the specific molecular components that regulate DC cytokine secretion are poorly characterised. Galectin-9, a ß-galactoside-binding protein, has emerged as a novel cellular modulator although its exact intracellular roles in regulating (immune) cell homeostasis and vesicle transport are virtually unknown. We investigated galectin-9 function in primary human DCs and report that galectin-9 is essential for intracellular cytokine trafficking to the cell surface. Galectin-9-depleted DCs accumulate cytokine-containing vesicles in the Golgi complex that eventually undergo lysosomal degradation. We observed galectin-9 to molecularly interact with Vamp-3 using immunoprecipitation-mass-spectrometry and identified galectin-9 was required for rerouting Vamp-3-containing endosomes upon DC activation as the underlying mechanism. Overall, this study identifies galectin-9 as a necessary mechanistic component for intracellular trafficking. This may impact our general understanding of vesicle transport and sheds new light into the multiple roles galectins play in governing cell function.

Human galectin-9 potently enhances SARS-CoV-2 replication and inflammation in airway epithelial cells

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has caused a global economic and health crisis. Recently, plasma levels of galectin-9 (Gal-9), a β-galactoside-binding lectin involved in immune regulation and viral immunopathogenesis, were reported to be elevated in the setting of severe COVID-19 disease. However, the impact of Gal-9 on SARS-CoV-2 infection and immunopathology remained to be elucidated. In this study, we demonstrate that Gal-9 treatment potently enhances SARS-CoV-2 replication in human airway epithelial cells (AECs), including immortalized AECs and primary AECs cultured at the air-liquid interface. Gal-9-glycan interactions promote SARS-CoV-2 attachment and entry into AECs in an angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)-dependent manner, enhancing the binding of the viral spike protein to ACE2. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that Gal-9 and SARS-CoV-2 infection synergistically induced the expression of key pro-inflammatory programs in AECs, including the IL-6, IL-8, IL-17, EIF2, and TNFα signaling pathways. Our findings suggest that manipulation of Gal-9 should be explored as a therapeutic strategy for SARS-CoV-2 infection.

The sweet side of wound healing: galectins as promising therapeutic targets in hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and maturation/remodeling

INTRODUCTION

Understanding the molecular and cellular processes involved in skin wound healing may pave the way for the development of innovative approaches to transforming the identified natural effectors into therapeutic tools. Based on the extensive involvement of the ga(lactoside-binding)lectin family in (patho)physiological processes, it has been well established that galectins are involved in a wide range of cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions.

AREAS COVERED

In the present paper, we provide an overview of the biological role of galectins in repair and regeneration, focusing on four main phases (hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and maturation/remodeling) of skin repair using basic wound models (open excision vs. sutured incision).

EXPERT OPINION

The reported data make a strong case for directing further efforts to treat excisional and incisional wounds differently. Functions of galectins essentially result from their modular presentation. In fact, Gal-1 seems to play a role in the early phases of healing (anti-inflammatory) and wound contraction, Gal-3 accelerates re-epithelization and increases tensile strength (scar inductor). Galectins have also become subject of redesigning by engineering to optimize the activity. Clinically relevant, these new tools derived from the carbohydrate recognition domain platform may also prove helpful for other purposes, such as potent antibacterial agglutinins and opsonins.

Galectin-9: A novel promoter of atherosclerosis progression

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Atherosclerosis is widely accepted to be an inflammatory disease driven by lipid accumulation and leukocyte recruitment. More recently, galectins, a family of β-galactoside binding proteins, have been shown to play a role in leukocyte recruitment among other immunomodulatory functions. Galectin (Gal) -9, a tandem repeat type galectin expressed by the endothelium in inflammatory environments, has been proposed to promote leukocyte recruitment. However, the role of Gal-9 in the context of monocyte recruitment remains elusive.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Here, we characterise the immunomodulatory role of Gal-9 in context of atherosclerosis. We show that ApoE-/-Gal-9-/- mice have a significantly reduced aortic plaque burden compared to their ApoE-/- littermate controls after 12 weeks of high fat diet. RNA sequencing data from two independent studies reveal Lgals9 expression in leukocyte clusters isolated from murine atherosclerotic plaques. Additionally, soluble Gal-9 protein induces monocyte activation and a pro-inflammatory phenotype in macrophages. Furthermore, we show that immobilised recombinant Gal-9 acts as capture and adhesion molecule for CD14+ monocytes in a β2-integrin and glycan dependent manner, while adhesion of monocytes to stimulated endothelium is reduced when Gal-9 is knocked down. Gal-9 also facilitates enhanced recruitment of leukocytes from peripheral arterial disease (PAD) patients compared to healthy young and aged controls. We further characterise the endothelium as source of circulating Gal-9, which is increased in plasma of PAD patients compared to healthy controls.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight a pathological role for Gal-9 as promoter of monocyte recruitment and atherosclerotic plaque progression, making it a novel target in the prevention of plaque formation and progression.

Human Galectin-9 Potently Enhances SARS-CoV-2 Replication and Inflammation in Airway Epithelial Cells

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has caused a global economic and health crisis. Recently, plasma levels of galectin-9 (Gal-9), a β-galactoside-binding lectin involved in immune regulation and viral immunopathogenesis, were reported to be elevated in the setting of severe COVID-19 disease. However, the impact of Gal-9 on SARS-CoV-2 infection and immunopathology remained to be elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that Gal-9 treatment potently enhances SARS-CoV-2 replication in human airway epithelial cells (AECs), including primary AECs in air-liquid interface (ALI) culture. Gal-9-glycan interactions promote SARS-CoV-2 attachment and entry into AECs in an ACE2-dependent manner, enhancing the binding affinity of the viral spike protein to ACE2. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that Gal-9 and SARS-CoV-2 infection synergistically induce the expression of key pro-inflammatory programs in AECs including the IL-6, IL-8, IL-17, EIF2, and TNFα signaling pathways. Our findings suggest that manipulation of Gal-9 should be explored as a therapeutic strategy for SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Importance

COVID-19 continues to have a major global health and economic impact. Identifying host molecular determinants that modulate SARS-CoV-2 infectivity and pathology is a key step in discovering novel therapeutic approaches for COVID-19. Several recent studies have revealed that plasma concentrations of the human β-galactoside-binding protein galectin-9 (Gal-9) are highly elevated in COVID-19 patients. In this study, we investigated the impact of Gal-9 on SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis ex vivo in airway epithelial cells (AECs), the critical initial targets of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our findings reveal that Gal-9 potently enhances SARS-CoV-2 replication in AECs, interacting with glycans to enhance the binding between viral particles and entry receptors on the target cell surface. Moreover, we determined that Gal-9 accelerates and exacerbates several virus-induced pro-inflammatory programs in AECs that are established signature characteristics of COVID-19 disease and SARS-CoV-2-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Our findings suggest that Gal-9 is a promising pharmacological target for COVID-19 therapies.

Galectin-9, a Player in Cytokine Release Syndrome and a Surrogate Diagnostic Biomarker in SARS-CoV-2 Infection

The outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 infection has enormously impacted our lives. Clinical evidence has implicated the emergence of cytokine release syndrome as the prominent cause of mortality in COVID-19 patients. In this study, we observed massive elevation of plasma Galectin-9 (Gal-9) in COVID-19 patients compared to healthy controls (HCs). By using the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, we found that a baseline of 2,042 pg/ml plasma Gal-9 can differentiate SARS-CoV-2-infected from noninfected individuals with high specificity/sensitivity (95%). Analysis of 30 cytokines and chemokines detected a positive correlation of the plasma Gal-9 with C-reactive protein (CRP) and proinflammatory cytokines/chemokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), IP-10, MIP-1α, and MCP-1 but an inverse correlation with transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) in COVID-19 patients. In agreement, we found enhanced production of IL-6 and TNF-α by monocytes and NK cells of COVID-19 patients once treated with the recombinant human Gal-9 in vitro. Also, we observed that although the cell-membrane expression of Gal-9 on monocytes does not change in COVID-19 patients, those with higher Gal-9 expression exhibit an activated phenotype. Furthermore, we noted significant downregulation of surface Gal-9 in neutrophils from COVID-19 patients compared to HCs. Our further investigations indicated that immune activation following SARS-CoV-2 infection results in Gal-9 shedding from neutrophils. The strong correlation of Gal-9 with proinflammatory mediators suggests that inhibition of Gal-9 may severe as a therapeutic approach in COVID-19 infection. Besides, the plasma Gal-9 measurement may be used as a surrogate diagnostic biomarker in COVID-19 patients.

Mast Cells and Skin and Breast Cancers: A Complicated and Microenvironment-Dependent Role

Mast cells are important sentinel cells in host defense against infection and major effector cells in allergic disease. The role of these cells in cancer settings has been widely debated. The diverse range of mast cell functions in both immunity and tissue remodeling events, such as angiogenesis, provides multiple opportunities for mast cells to modify the tumor microenvironment. In this review, we consider both skin and breast cancer settings to address the controversy surrounding the importance of mast cells in the host response to tumors. We specifically address the key mediators produced by mast cells which impact tumor development. The role of environmental challenges in modifying mast cell responses and opportunities to modify mast cell responses to enhance anti-tumor immunity are also considered. While the mast cell's role in many cancer contexts is complicated and poorly understood, the activities of these tissue resident and radioresistant cells can provide important opportunities to enhance anti-cancer responses and limit cancer development.

The Role of Galectin-9 as Mediator of Atopic Dermatitis: Effect on Keratinocytes

Galectin-9 (Gal-9) is a beta-galactoside-binding protein with a variety of biological functions related to immune response. However, in allergic diseases, its mechanism of action is not fully understood. This study evaluates the expression pattern of Gal-9 in patients with atopic dermatitis (AD), in ovalbumin (OVA)-induced experimental atopic dermatitis (AD) in mice, as well as its effect on human keratinocytes. The skin of OVA-immunized BALB/c mice was challenged with drops containing OVA on days 11, 14-18, and 21-24. HaCaT cells were cultured in the following experimental conditions: control (growth medium only) or stimulated with TNF-α/IFN-γ, or IL-4, or IL-17 with or without Gal-9 treatment. AD was characterized by increased levels of Gal-9 in mouse and human skin, especially in the epidermis, and with a marked influx of Gal-9 positive eosinophils and mast cells compared to the control group. Gal-9 showed an immunomodulatory effect on keratinocytes by decreasing the release of IL-6 by IL-4-stimulated keratinocytes or increasing the IL-6 and RANTES levels by IL-17- or TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated cells, respectively. Under IL-17, Gal-9 treatment also altered the proliferation rate of cells. Overall, increased levels of Gal-9 in AD skin contribute to the control of inflammatory response and the proliferative process of keratinocytes, suggesting this lectin as a relevant therapeutic target.

Proteomic blood profiling in mild, severe and critical COVID-19 patients

The recent SARS-CoV-2 pandemic manifests itself as a mild respiratory tract infection in most individuals, leading to COVID-19 disease. However, in some infected individuals, this can progress to severe pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), leading to multi-organ failure and death. This study explores the proteomic differences between mild, severe, and critical COVID-19 positive patients to further understand the disease progression, identify proteins associated with disease severity, and identify potential therapeutic targets. Blood protein profiling was performed on 59 COVID-19 mild (n = 26), severe (n = 9) or critical (n = 24) cases and 28 controls using the OLINK inflammation, autoimmune, cardiovascular and neurology panels. Differential expression analysis was performed within and between disease groups to generate nine different analyses. From the 368 proteins measured per individual, more than 75% were observed to be significantly perturbed in COVID-19 cases. Six proteins (IL6, CKAP4, Gal-9, IL-1ra, LILRB4 and PD-L1) were identified to be associated with disease severity. The results have been made readily available through an interactive web-based application for instant data exploration and visualization, and can be accessed at https://phidatalab-shiny.rosalind.kcl.ac.uk/COVID19/ . Our results demonstrate that dynamic changes in blood proteins associated with disease severity can potentially be used as early biomarkers to monitor disease severity in COVID-19 and serve as potential therapeutic targets.

Soluble TIM3 and Its Ligands Galectin-9 and CEACAM1 Are in Disequilibrium During Alcohol-Related Liver Disease and Promote Impairment of Anti-bacterial Immunity

Background and Aims

Immunoregulatory checkpoint receptors (CR) contribute to the profound immunoparesis observed in alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) and in vitro neutralization of inhibitory-CRs TIM3/PD1 on anti-bacterial T-cells can rescue innate and adaptive anti-bacterial immunity. Recently described soluble-CR forms can modulate immunity in inflammatory conditions, but the contributions of soluble-TIM3 and soluble-PD1 and other soluble-CRs to immune derangements in ALD remain unclear.

Methods

In Alcoholic Hepatitis (AH; n = 19), alcohol-related cirrhosis (ARC; n = 53) and healthy control (HC; n = 27) subjects, we measured by Luminex technology (i) plasma levels of 16 soluble-CRs, 12 pro/anti-inflammatory cytokines and markers of gut bacterial translocation; (ii) pre-hepatic, post-hepatic and non-hepatic soluble-CR plasma levels in ARC patients undergoing TIPS; (iii) soluble-CRs production from ethanol-treated immunocompetent precision cut human liver slices (PCLS); (iv) whole-blood soluble-CR expression upon bacterial challenge. By FACS, we assessed the relationship between soluble-TIM3 and membrane-TIM3 and rescue of immunity in bacterial-challenged PBMCs.

Results

Soluble-TIM3 was the dominant plasma soluble-CR in ALD vs. HC (p = 0.00002) and multivariate analysis identified it as the main driver of differences between groups. Soluble-CRs were strongly correlated with pro-inflammatory cytokines, gut bacterial translocation markers and clinical indices of disease severity. Ethanol exposure or bacterial challenge did not induce soluble-TIM3 production from PCLS nor from whole-blood. Bacterial challenge prompted membrane-TIM3 hyperexpression on PBMCs from ALD patient's vs. HC (p < 0.002) and was inversely correlated with plasma soluble-TIM3 levels in matched patients. TIM3 ligands soluble-Galectin-9 and soluble-CEACAM1 were elevated in ALD plasma (AH > ARC; p < 0.002). In vitro neutralization of Galectin-9 and soluble-CEACAM1 improved the defective anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory cytokine production from E. coli-challenged PBMCs in ALD patients.

Conclusions

Alcohol-related liver disease patients exhibit supra-physiological plasma levels of soluble-TIM3, particularly those with greater disease severity. This is also associated with increased levels of soluble TIM3-ligands and membrane-TIM3 expression on immune cells. Soluble-TIM3 can block the TIM3-ligand synapse and improve anti-bacterial immunity; however, the increased levels of soluble TIM3-binding ligands in patients with ALD negate any potential immunostimulatory effects. We believe that anti-TIM3 neutralizing antibodies currently in Phase I clinical trials or soluble-TIM3 should be investigated further for their ability to enhance anti-bacterial immunity. These agents could potentially represent an innovative immune-based supportive approach to rescue anti-bacterial defenses in ALD patients.

Galectin-9 as a biomarker of disease severity

Galectin-9 (Gal-9) is a β-galactoside binding lectin known for its immunomodulatory role in various microbial infections. Gal-9 is expressed in all organ systems and localized in the nucleus, cell surface, cytoplasm and the extracellular matrix. It mediates host-pathogen interactions and regulates cell signalling via binding to its receptors. Gal-9 is involved in many physiological functions such as cell growth, differentiation, adhesion, communication and death. However, recent studies have emphasized on the elevated levels of Gal-9 in autoimmune disorders, viral infections, parasitic invasion, cancer, acute liver failure, atopic dermatitis, chronic kidney disease, type-2 diabetes, coronary artery disease, atherosclerosis and benign infertility-related gynecological disorders. In this paper we have reviewed the potential of Gal-9 as a reliable, sensitive and non-invasive biomarker of disease severity. Tracking changes in Gal-9 levels and its implementation as a biomarker in clinical practice will be an important tool to monitor disease activity and facilitate personalized treatment decisions.

Oral Administration of Fucoidan Can Exert Anti-Allergic Activity after Allergen Sensitization by Enhancement of Galectin-9 Secretion in Blood

A previous study revealed that fucoidan inhibited mast cell degranulation through the upregulation of galectin-9 in blood. The purpose of this study is to elucidate its mechanism using ovalbumin (OVA) induced anaphylaxis model mice (BALB/c, Female, 5-week-old) and mast cell line (RBL-2H3 cells). Oral administration of fucoidan after sensitization with OVA/Al(OH)₃ inhibited reduction of rectal temperature induced by activation of mast cells. Fucoidan increased galectin-9 mRNA expression only in colonic epithelial cells. These results suggested that fucoidan could suppress the allergic symptoms in sensitized mice by inducing galectin-9 production from colonic epithelial cells. In addition, to check the influence of galectin 9 on the degranulation of mast cells, RBL-2H3 cell lines were treated directly with recombinant galectin-9. As expected, galectin-9 inhibited degranulation of RBL-2H3 cells pre-bound with IgE. Moreover, the residual amounts of IgE on RBL-2H3 cells were decreased by an addition of galectin-9. It was demonstrated that galectin-9 could remove IgE even if IgE was already bound to mast cells and suppress the mast cells degranulation induced by antigen. This study shows that fucoidan might become an effective therapeutic agent for patients already developed type I allergic diseases.

Phosphorylation: A Fast Switch For Checkpoint Signaling

Checkpoint signaling involves a variety of upstream and downstream factors that participate in the regulation of checkpoint expression, activation, and degradation. During the process, phosphorylation plays a critical role. Phosphorylation is one of the most well-documented post-translational modifications of proteins. Of note, the importance of phosphorylation has been emphasized in aspects of cell activities, including proliferation, metabolism, and differentiation. Here we summarize how phosphorylation of specific molecules affects the immune activities with preference in tumor immunity. Of course, immune checkpoints are given extra attention in this book. There are many common pathways that are involved in signaling of different checkpoints. Some of them are integrated and presented as common activities in the early part of this chapter, especially those associated with PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4, because investigations concerning them are particularly abundant and variant. Their distinct regulation is supplementarily discussed in their respective section. As for checkpoints that are so far not well explored, their related phosphorylation modulations are listed separately in the later part. We hope to provide a clear and systematic view of the phosphorylation-modulated immune signaling.

Study on screening potential allergenic proteins from infant milk powders based on human mast cell membrane chromatography and histamine release assays

Cow's milk allergy is mainly observed in infants and young children. Most allergic reactions affect the skin, followed by the gastrointestinal and respiratory systems. Conventional diagnosis is based on positive allergy studies and evaluation of parameters including IgE and IgG1 levels, acute allergic skin response and anaphylactic shock reactions. We developed a cell membrane chromatographic (CMC) method based on human mast cells (HMC-1) for screening potential allergens in infant formula milk powders (IFMP). HMC-1 cell membranes were extracted and mixed with silica to prepare cell membrane chromatography columns (10 mm × 2 mm i.d., 5 µm). Under the conditions of 0.2 mL/min flow rate and 214 nm detection wavelength, human breast milk showed no retention. However, IFMP showed clear retention. The retained fractions were collected and analyzed through matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). Four major milk proteins, i.e., α-casein, β-casein, α-lactalbumin, and β-lactoglobulin A, were identified. Furthermore, these proteins and β-lactoglobulin B showed clear retention on HMC-1/CMC columns. To test the degranulation effects of the five proteins, histamine and β-hexosaminidase release assays were carried out. All five proteins induced HMC-1 cells to release histamine and β-hexosaminidase. Also, we established a reversed phase liquid chromatographic (RPLC) method for the determination of the five proteins in IFMP and the results showed that 90% proteins in IFMP were α-casein and β-casein. We concluded that cow's milk proteins may be potential allergens and caseins cause more β-casein allergic risk than other proteins. This conclusion was consistent with other studies.

Non-Digestible Oligosaccharides Can Suppress Basophil Degranulation in Whole Blood of Peanut-Allergic Patients

Background

Dietary non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDOs) have a protective effect against allergic manifestations in children at risk. Dietary intervention with NDOs promotes the colonization of beneficial bacteria in the gut and enhances serum galectin-9 levels in mice and atopic children. Next to this, NDOs also directly affect immune cells and low amounts may reach the blood. We investigated whether pre-incubation of whole blood from peanut-allergic patients with NDOs or galectin-9 can affect basophil degranulation.

Methods

Heparinized blood samples from 15 peanut-allergic adult patients were pre-incubated with a mixture of short-chain galacto-oligosaccharides and long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides (scGOS/lcFOS), scFOS/lcFOS, or galectin-9 (1 or 5 µg/mL) at 37°C in the presence of IL-3 (0.75 ng/mL). After 2, 6, or 24 h, a basophil activation test was performed. Expression of FcεRI on basophils, plasma cytokine, and chemokine concentrations before degranulation were determined after 24 h.

Results

Pre-incubation with scGOS/lcFOS, scFOS/lcFOS, or galectin-9 reduced anti-IgE-mediated basophil degranulation. scFOS/lcFOS or 5 µg/mL galectin-9 also decreased peanut-specific basophil degranulation by approximately 20%, mainly in whole blood from female patients. Inhibitory effects were not related to diminished FcεRI expression on basophils. Galectin-9 was increased in plasma after pre-incubation with scGOS/lcFOS, and both NDOs and 5 µg/mL galectin-9 increased MCP-1 production.

Conclusion and clinical relevance

The prebiotic mixture scFOS/lcFOS and galectin-9 can contribute to decreased degranulation of basophils in vitro in peanut-allergic patients. The exact mechanism needs to be elucidated, but these NDOs might be useful in reducing allergic symptoms.

Secretion of Galectin-9 as a DAMP during Dengue Virus Infection in THP-1 Cells

Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are endogenous cellular molecules released to the extracellular environment in response to stress conditions such as virus infection. Galectins are β-galactoside-binding proteins that are widely expressed in cells and tissues of the immune system, are localized in the cell cytoplasm, and have roles in inflammatory responses and immune responses against infection. Elevated levels of galectin-9 (Gal-9) in natural human infections have been documented in numerous reports. To investigate the effect of dengue virus (DENV) infection on expression of endogenous Gal-9, monocytic THP-1 cells were infected with varying doses of DENV-3 (multiplicity of infection (MOI) 0.01, 0.03 and 0.1) and incubated at varying time points (Day 1, Day 2, Day 3). Results showed augmentation of Gal-9 levels in the supernatant, reduction of Gal-9 levels in the cells and decreased expression of LGALS9 mRNA, while DENV-3 mRNA copies for all three doses remained stable through time. Dengue virus induced the secretion of Gal-9 as a danger response; in turn, Gal-9 and other inflammatory factors, and stimulated effector responses may have limited further viral replication. The results in this pilot experiment add to the evidence of Gal-9 as a potential DAMP.

TIM-3 is not essential for development of airway inflammation induced by house dust mite antigens

Background

T cell immunoglobulin domain and mucin domain-containing molecule 3 (TIM-3), which is preferentially expressed on Th1 cells rather than Th2 cells, is considered to be a negative regulator of Th1 cell function. This suggests that TIM-3 indirectly enhances Th2-type immune responses by suppressing Th1 cell function.

Methods

To investigate TIM-3's possible involvement in Th2-type acute and chronic airway inflammation, wild-type and TIM-3-deficient (TIM-3^−/−) mice were sensitized and challenged with a house dust mite (HDM) extract. Airway inflammation and the number of inflammatory cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALFs) in the mice were determined by histological analysis and with a hemocytometer, respectively. Expression of mRNA in the lungs was determined by quantitative PCR, while the levels of cytokines in the BALFs and IgE in sera were determined by ELISA.

Results

Despite constitutive expression of TIM-3 mRNA in the lungs, the number of eosinophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALFs) and the score of pulmonary inflammation were comparable between wild-type and TIM-3^−/− mice during both acute and chronic HDM-induced airway inflammation. On the other hand, the number of lymphocytes in the BALFs of TIM-3^−/− mice was significantly increased compared with wild-type mice during HDM-induced chronic, but not acute, airway inflammation, while the levels of Th2 cytokines in the BALFs and HDM-specific IgG1 and IgG2a and total IgE in the sera were comparable in both groups.

Conclusions

Our findings indicate that, in mice, TIM-3 is not essential for development of HDM-induced acute or chronic allergic airway inflammation, although it appears to be involved in reduced lymphocyte recruitment during HDM-induced chronic allergic airway inflammation.

Post-sensitization administration of non-digestible oligosaccharides and Bifidobacterium breve M-16V reduces allergic symptoms in mice

To support dietary management of severe cow's milk allergic infants, a synbiotic mixture of non-digestible oligosaccharides and Bifidobacterium breve M-16V (B. breve) was designed from source materials that are completely cow's milk-free. It was investigated whether this specific synbiotic concept can reduce an established food allergic response in a research model for hen's egg allergy. Mice were orally sensitized once a week for 5 weeks to ovalbumin (OVA) using cholera toxin (CT) as an adjuvant. Non-sensitized mice received CT in PBS only. Sensitized mice were fed a control diet or a diet enriched with short-chain- (scFOS) and long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides (lcFOS), B. breve or scFOSlcFOS + B. breve for 3 weeks starting after the last sensitization. Non-sensitized mice received the control diet. Anaphylactic shock symptoms, acute allergic skin responses and serum specific IgE, mMCP-1 and galectin-9 were measured upon OVA challenge. Activated Th2-, Th1-cells and regulatory T-cells were quantified in spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) and cytokine profiles were analyzed. Short chain fatty acids (SCFA) were measured in ceacal samples. The acute allergic skin response was reduced in mice fed the scFOSlcFOS + B. breve diet compared to mice fed any of the other diets. A reduction in mast cell degranulation (mMCP-1) and anaphylactic shock symptoms was also observed in these mice. Unstimulated splenocyte cultures produced increased levels of IL10 and IFNg in mice fed the scFOSlcFOS + B. breve diet. Correspondingly, increased percentages of activated Th1 cells were observed in the spleen. Allergen-specific re-stimulation of splenocytes showed a decrease in IL5 production. In summary; post-sensitization administration of scFOSlcFOS + B. breve was effective in reducing allergic symptoms after allergen challenge. These effects coincided with changes in regulatory and effector T-cell subsets and increases in the SCFA propionic acid. These results suggest immune modulatory benefits of dietary intervention with a unique combination of scFOSlcFOS + B. breve in established food allergy. Whether these effects translate to human applications is subject for ongoing clinical studies.

Purification of galectin-1 mutants using an immobilized Galactoseβ1-4Fucose affinity adsorbent

Galectins are a family of lectins characterized by their carbohydrate recognition domains containing eight conserved amino acid residues, which allows the binding of galectin to β-galactoside sugars such as Galβ1-4GlcNAc. Since galectin-glycan interactions occur extracellularly, recombinant galectins are often used for the functional analysis of these interactions. Although it is relatively easy to purify galectins via affinity to Galβ1-4GlcNAc using affinity adsorbents such as asialofetuin-Sepharose, it could be difficult to do so with mutated galectins, which may have reduced affinity towards their endogenous ligands. However, this is not the case with Caenorhabditis elegans galectin LEC-6; binding to its endogenous recognition unit Galβ1-4Fuc, a unique disaccharide found only in invertebrates, is not necessarily affected by point mutations of the eight well-conserved amino acids. In this study, we constructed mutants of mouse galectin-1 carrying substitutions of each of the eight conserved amino acid residues (H44F, N46D, R48H, V59A, N61D, W68F, E71Q, and R73H) and examined their affinity for Galβ1-4GlcNAc and Galβ1-4Fuc. These mutants, except W68F, had very low affinity for asialofetuin-Sepharose; however, most of them (with the exception of H44F and R48H) could be purified using Galβ1-4Fuc-Sepharose. The affinity of the purified mutant galectins for glycans containing Galβ1-4Fuc or Galβ1-4GlcNAc moieties was quantitatively examined by frontal affinity chromatography, and the results indicated that the mutants retained the affinity only for Galβ1-4Fuc. Given that other mammalian galectins are known to bind Galβ1-4Fuc, our data suggest that immobilized Galβ1-4Fuc ligands could be generally used for easy one-step affinity purification of mutant galectins.

Mast cell mediators: their differential release and the secretory pathways involved

Mast cells (MC) are widely distributed throughout the body and are common at mucosal surfaces, a major host-environment interface. MC are functionally and phenotypically heterogeneous depending on the microenvironment in which they mature. Although MC have been classically viewed as effector cells of IgE-mediated allergic diseases, they are also recognized as important in host defense, innate and acquired immunity, homeostatic responses, and immunoregulation. MC activation can induce release of pre-formed mediators such as histamine from their granules, as well as release of de novo synthesized lipid mediators, cytokines, and chemokines that play diverse roles, not only in allergic reactions but also in numerous physiological and pathophysiological responses. Indeed, MC release their mediators in a discriminating and chronological manner, depending upon the stimuli involved and their signaling cascades (e.g., IgE-mediated or Toll-like receptor-mediated). However, the precise mechanisms underlying differential mediator release in response to these stimuli are poorly known. This review summarizes our knowledge of MC mediators and will focus on what is known about the discriminatory release of these mediators dependent upon diverse stimuli, MC phenotypes, and species of origin, as well as on the intracellular synthesis, storage, and secretory processes involved.