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Schiffler FB, Pereira AHB, Moreira SB, Arruda IF, Moreira FRR, D’arc M, Claro IM, Pissinatti TDA, Cavalcante LTDF, Miranda TDS, Cosentino MAC, de Oliveira RC, Fernandes J, Assis MRDS, de Oliveira JG, da Silva TAC, Galliez RM, Faffe DS, de Jesus JG, Sobreira Bezerra da Silva M, Bezerra MF, Ferreira Junior ODC, Tanuri A, Castiñeiras TM, Aguiar RS, Faria NR, de Almeida AP, Pissinatti A, Sabino EC, Amendoeira MRR, de Lemos ERS, Ubiali DG, Santos AFA. Lessons from a Multilaboratorial Task Force for Diagnosis of a Fatal Toxoplasmosis Outbreak in Captive Primates in Brazil. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2888. [PMID: 38138032 PMCID: PMC10745312 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11122888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is an important zoonotic disease caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii and is especially fatal for neotropical primates. In Brazil, the Ministry of Health is responsible for national epizootic surveillance, but some diseases are still neglected. Here, we present an integrated investigation of an outbreak that occurred during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic among eleven neotropical primates housed at a primatology center in Brazil. After presenting non-specific clinical signs, all animals died within four days. A wide range of pathogens were evaluated, and we successfully identified T. gondii as the causative agent within four days after necropsies. The liver was the most affected organ, presenting hemorrhage and hepatocellular necrosis. Tachyzoites and bradyzoite cysts were observed in histological examinations and immunohistochemistry in different organs; in addition, parasitic DNA was detected through PCR in blood samples from all specimens evaluated. A high prevalence of Escherichia coli was also observed, indicating sepsis. This case highlights some of the obstacles faced by the current Brazilian surveillance system. A diagnosis was obtained through the integrated action of researchers since investigation for toxoplasmosis is currently absent in national guidelines. An interdisciplinary investigation could be a possible model for future epizootic investigations in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francine Bittencourt Schiffler
- Laboratório de Diversidade e Doenças Virais (LDDV), Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-617, RJ, Brazil; (F.B.S.); (M.D.); (L.T.d.F.C.); (T.d.S.M.); (M.A.C.C.)
| | - Asheley Henrique Barbosa Pereira
- Setor de Anatomia Patológica (SAP), Departamento de Epidemiologia e Saúde Pública, Instituto de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica 23890-000, RJ, Brazil; (A.H.B.P.); (D.G.U.)
| | - Silvia Bahadian Moreira
- Centro de Primatologia do Rio de Janeiro (CPRJ), Instituto Estadual do Ambiente, Guapimirim 25940-000, RJ, Brazil; (S.B.M.); (A.P.)
| | - Igor Falco Arruda
- Laboratório de Toxoplasmose e outras Protozooses (LabTOXO), Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (I.F.A.); (M.R.R.A.)
| | - Filipe Romero Rebello Moreira
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Abdul Latif Jameel Institute for Disease and Emergency Analytics (J-IDEA), Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK; (F.R.R.M.); (I.M.C.); (N.R.F.)
- Laboratório de Virologia Molecular (LVM), Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-617, RJ, Brazil; (O.d.C.F.J.); (A.T.)
| | - Mirela D’arc
- Laboratório de Diversidade e Doenças Virais (LDDV), Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-617, RJ, Brazil; (F.B.S.); (M.D.); (L.T.d.F.C.); (T.d.S.M.); (M.A.C.C.)
| | - Ingra Morales Claro
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Abdul Latif Jameel Institute for Disease and Emergency Analytics (J-IDEA), Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK; (F.R.R.M.); (I.M.C.); (N.R.F.)
- Instituto de Medicina Tropical (IMT), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05403-000, SP, Brazil; (J.G.d.J.); (E.C.S.)
| | - Thalita de Abreu Pissinatti
- Serviço de Criação de Primatas Não Humanos (SCPrim), Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biomodelos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 26382-462, RJ, Brazil;
| | - Liliane Tavares de Faria Cavalcante
- Laboratório de Diversidade e Doenças Virais (LDDV), Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-617, RJ, Brazil; (F.B.S.); (M.D.); (L.T.d.F.C.); (T.d.S.M.); (M.A.C.C.)
| | - Thamiris dos Santos Miranda
- Laboratório de Diversidade e Doenças Virais (LDDV), Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-617, RJ, Brazil; (F.B.S.); (M.D.); (L.T.d.F.C.); (T.d.S.M.); (M.A.C.C.)
| | - Matheus Augusto Calvano Cosentino
- Laboratório de Diversidade e Doenças Virais (LDDV), Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-617, RJ, Brazil; (F.B.S.); (M.D.); (L.T.d.F.C.); (T.d.S.M.); (M.A.C.C.)
| | - Renata Carvalho de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (R.C.d.O.); (J.F.); (M.R.d.S.A.); (J.G.d.O.); (T.A.C.d.S.); (E.R.S.d.L.)
| | - Jorlan Fernandes
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (R.C.d.O.); (J.F.); (M.R.d.S.A.); (J.G.d.O.); (T.A.C.d.S.); (E.R.S.d.L.)
| | - Matheus Ribeiro da Silva Assis
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (R.C.d.O.); (J.F.); (M.R.d.S.A.); (J.G.d.O.); (T.A.C.d.S.); (E.R.S.d.L.)
| | - Jonathan Gonçalves de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (R.C.d.O.); (J.F.); (M.R.d.S.A.); (J.G.d.O.); (T.A.C.d.S.); (E.R.S.d.L.)
| | - Thayssa Alves Coelho da Silva
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (R.C.d.O.); (J.F.); (M.R.d.S.A.); (J.G.d.O.); (T.A.C.d.S.); (E.R.S.d.L.)
| | - Rafael Mello Galliez
- Núcleo de Enfrentamento e Estudos de Doenças Infecciosas Emergentes e Reemergentes (NEEDIER), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-599, RJ, Brazil; (R.M.G.); (D.S.F.); (T.M.C.)
| | - Debora Souza Faffe
- Núcleo de Enfrentamento e Estudos de Doenças Infecciosas Emergentes e Reemergentes (NEEDIER), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-599, RJ, Brazil; (R.M.G.); (D.S.F.); (T.M.C.)
| | - Jaqueline Goes de Jesus
- Instituto de Medicina Tropical (IMT), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05403-000, SP, Brazil; (J.G.d.J.); (E.C.S.)
| | - Marise Sobreira Bezerra da Silva
- Serviço de Referência Nacional em Peste, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Recife 50740-465, PE, Brazil; (M.S.B.d.S.); (M.F.B.); (A.P.d.A.)
| | - Matheus Filgueira Bezerra
- Serviço de Referência Nacional em Peste, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Recife 50740-465, PE, Brazil; (M.S.B.d.S.); (M.F.B.); (A.P.d.A.)
| | - Orlando da Costa Ferreira Junior
- Laboratório de Virologia Molecular (LVM), Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-617, RJ, Brazil; (O.d.C.F.J.); (A.T.)
| | - Amilcar Tanuri
- Laboratório de Virologia Molecular (LVM), Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-617, RJ, Brazil; (O.d.C.F.J.); (A.T.)
| | - Terezinha Marta Castiñeiras
- Núcleo de Enfrentamento e Estudos de Doenças Infecciosas Emergentes e Reemergentes (NEEDIER), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-599, RJ, Brazil; (R.M.G.); (D.S.F.); (T.M.C.)
| | - Renato Santana Aguiar
- Laboratório de Biologia Integrativa, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, MG, Brazil;
- Instituto D’OR de Pesquisa e Ensino (ID’or), Rio de Janeiro 22281-100, RJ, Brazil
| | - Nuno Rodrigues Faria
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Abdul Latif Jameel Institute for Disease and Emergency Analytics (J-IDEA), Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK; (F.R.R.M.); (I.M.C.); (N.R.F.)
- Instituto de Medicina Tropical (IMT), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05403-000, SP, Brazil; (J.G.d.J.); (E.C.S.)
| | - Alzira Paiva de Almeida
- Serviço de Referência Nacional em Peste, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Recife 50740-465, PE, Brazil; (M.S.B.d.S.); (M.F.B.); (A.P.d.A.)
| | - Alcides Pissinatti
- Centro de Primatologia do Rio de Janeiro (CPRJ), Instituto Estadual do Ambiente, Guapimirim 25940-000, RJ, Brazil; (S.B.M.); (A.P.)
| | - Ester Cerdeira Sabino
- Instituto de Medicina Tropical (IMT), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05403-000, SP, Brazil; (J.G.d.J.); (E.C.S.)
| | - Maria Regina Reis Amendoeira
- Laboratório de Toxoplasmose e outras Protozooses (LabTOXO), Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (I.F.A.); (M.R.R.A.)
| | - Elba Regina Sampaio de Lemos
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (R.C.d.O.); (J.F.); (M.R.d.S.A.); (J.G.d.O.); (T.A.C.d.S.); (E.R.S.d.L.)
| | - Daniel Guimarães Ubiali
- Setor de Anatomia Patológica (SAP), Departamento de Epidemiologia e Saúde Pública, Instituto de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica 23890-000, RJ, Brazil; (A.H.B.P.); (D.G.U.)
| | - André F. A. Santos
- Laboratório de Diversidade e Doenças Virais (LDDV), Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-617, RJ, Brazil; (F.B.S.); (M.D.); (L.T.d.F.C.); (T.d.S.M.); (M.A.C.C.)
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Targa LS, dos Santos EH, Yamamoto L, Barreira GA, Rodrigues KA, Rocha MC, Kanunfre KA, Okay TS. Toxoplasma gondii SAG2, SAG3 and GRA6 alleles and single nucleotide polymorphism in congenital infections with known parasite load and clinical outcome. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2023; 65:e8. [PMID: 36722670 PMCID: PMC9886222 DOI: 10.1590/s1678-9946202365008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Amniotic fluid DNA samples were genotyped by multilocus-nested-PCR-RFLP, but only three of 11 markers amplified 113 of 122 (92.6%) samples, resulting in 12 untyped and 101 partial non-archetypal genotypes. The 101 typed samples were subdivided into four groups: G1 with 73 samples (5'and 3' SAG2 allele I + SAG3 allele III + GRA6 allele III), 53 had parasite load ≤ 102 parasites/mL (43 asymptomatic, 10 mild infections), 17 had load > 102 and ≤ 103 (one mild, 13 moderate and three severe), and three had load > 103 parasites/mL (three severe); G2 with 22 samples (5'and 3' SAG2 allele I + SAG3 allele III), all parasite load levels ≤ 102 parasites/mL (18 asymptomatic and four mild); G3 with five samples (5' and 3' SAG2 allele I + SAG3 allele II), parasite load ≤ 102 parasites/mL (three asymptomatic and two mild); G4 with one sample (5' and 3' SAG2 allele II + SAG3 allele II + GRA6 allele I), a parasite load < 102 parasites/mL in an asymptomatic infant. After DNA sequencing, restriction sites confirmed SAG2, SAG3 and GRA6 alleles in 98.7%, 100% and 100% of the cases, respectively, while single nucleotide polymorphisms confirmed 90% of 5'-SAG2 allele I; 98.7% of 3'-SAG2 allele I; 98% of SAG-3 allele III, but only 40% of GRA6 allele III results. For the moment, partial non-archetypal genotypes of parasites did not show any relationship with either parasite load in amniotic fluid samples or clinical outcome of infants at the age of 12 months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lília Spaleta Targa
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, Laboratório de Soroepidemiologia e Imunobiologia, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Emilly Henrique dos Santos
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, Laboratório de Soroepidemiologia e Imunobiologia, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil,Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Pediatria, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lidia Yamamoto
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, Laboratório de Soroepidemiologia e Imunobiologia, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Acca Barreira
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, Laboratório de Soroepidemiologia e Imunobiologia, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil,Faculdade Israelita de Ciências da Saúde Albert Einstein, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Karen Alessandra Rodrigues
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, Laboratório de Soroepidemiologia e Imunobiologia, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil,Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Pediatria, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mussya Cisotto Rocha
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, Laboratório de Soroepidemiologia e Imunobiologia, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Kelly Aparecida Kanunfre
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, Laboratório de Soroepidemiologia e Imunobiologia, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Thelma Suely Okay
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, Laboratório de Soroepidemiologia e Imunobiologia, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil,Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Pediatria, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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3
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Reis Amendoeira MR, Arruda IF, Moreira SB, Ubiali DG, da Silva Barbosa A, Jesus Pena HF, Barbosa Pereira AH, Nascimento da Silveira C, Bonifácio TF, Clemes YS, de Abreu Pissinatti T, Andrade dos Santos AF, Pissinatti A. Isolation and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from a captive black-and-gold howler monkey (Alouatta caraya Humboldt, 1812) in Brazil. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2022; 19:187-190. [PMID: 36204655 PMCID: PMC9530404 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2022.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii was isolated in mice from different tissues of a captive black-and-gold howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) kept in a colony at the Primatology Center of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, and it was genotypically characterized based on using PCR-RFLP and Microsatellite Analysis (MS), later on. T. gondii was successfully isolated from inocula deriving from heart, liver and tissue pool (heart, liver, lungs, axillary lymph nodes and cerebellum) samples. The isolate was named TgBgHmBrRJ1. The high virulence of the aforementioned strain was observed in infected mice. Non-archetypal genotype (ToxoDB PCR-RFLP #206) was obtained through PCR-RFLP. This genotype had been previously described in 12 isolates from different hosts, also in Southeastern Brazil, a fact that indicates likely high circulation of this genotype in this region. The isolate was also classified as non-archetypal, based on MS genotyping, as well as presented genotypic identity close to that of strains isolated from free-range non-symptomatic chickens (TgCkBr244,245,278,279) in Espírito Santo State. It is worth emphasizing that despite the large number of reports about clinical toxoplasmosis in neotropical primates in Brazil, this is just the second isolate of this parasite ever reported in this group of animals. Toxoplasma gondii was isolated in a murine model from Alouatta caraya in captivity. An intermediate virulence of the isolated in the infected murine model was verified. A non-archetypal genotype (ToxoDB PCR-RFLP #206) was obtained by PCR-RFLP. This is the second isolation of T. gondii from a non-human primate in Brazil. For the first time, this genotype was associated with clinical disease in a host.
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Deiró AGDJ, do Prado DP, Sousa IP, Rocha DDS, Bezerra RA, Gaiotto FA, Albuquerque GR, Munhoz AD. Presence of atypical genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii isolated from cats in the state of Bahia, Northeast of Brazil. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0253630. [PMID: 34610028 PMCID: PMC8491887 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0253630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, 20 blood, heart, and brain samples were collected from euthanized cats at the Zoonosis Control Centers and Veterinary Clinics in the state of Bahia, Brazil. The sera were examined for anti-T. gondii antibodies using the indirect hemagglutination test. The brains and hearts of seven seropositive cats were ground, and peptide digestion was performed for bioassay in mice. Toxoplasma gondii was isolated in 5/7 (71.42%) of seropositive cats. In these isolates, the parasite was genotyped using the Polymerase chain reaction, associated with the DNA fragment polymorphism obtained by restriction enzyme PCR-RFLP technique with 11 markers (SAG1, 5’-SAG2, 3’-SAG2, alt. SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, Apico, and CS3) and 15 microsatellite markers (TUB-2, W35, TgM-A, B18, B17, M33, IV.1, XI.1, M48, M102, N60, N82, AA, N61, N83). The analysis of the isolates by PCR-RFLP revealed five distinct genotypes. Three of these genotypes have never been reported before; one corresponded to the TgDgCo13 genotype, and one incomplete genotype. In genotyping analysis using microsatellite markers, it was observed that the isolates showed atypical alleles in the typing and fingerprint markers. This revealed five atypical genotypes. The typing marker B17 showed the highest degree of atypia. This study is the first to report the genotyping of T. gondii obtained from naturally infected cats in Bahia, Northeast Brazil. The genotypes found in this study were different from those found in other studies conducted in Bahia, which included different species of animals. None of the clonal lineages I, II, or III were found. This study demonstrates the diversity of T. gondii in the study region, with the presence of unusual genotypes, reaffirming the genetic variability of the parasite in Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Iuri Prates Sousa
- Graduate Student in Veterinary Medicine, Santa Cruz State University, Ilhéus (BA), Brazil
| | - Daniele de Santana Rocha
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Ilhéus (BA), Brazil
| | | | - Fernanda Amato Gaiotto
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, Center for Biotechnology and Genetics, Santa Cruz State University, Ilhéus (BA), Brazil
| | | | - Alexandre Dias Munhoz
- Graduation Program in Animal Science, Santa Cruz State University, Ilhéus (BA), Brazil
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Toxoplasma gondii in South America: a differentiated pattern of spread, population structure and clinical manifestations. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:3065-3076. [PMID: 34390383 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-021-07282-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa. It has a worldwide distribution and can infect a wide variety of intermediate hosts, including humans. In South America, toxoplasmosis shows high health impacts, and the incidence of the disease is frequently reported and more severe than in other regions, such as Europe. Although most T. gondii infections are asymptomatic, severe manifestations can occur in cases of congenital toxoplasmosis and immunocompromised individuals. In South America, the ocular disease in immunocompetent individuals is also frequently reported. Treatment for any clinical manifestation of toxoplasmosis consists of the combination of sulfadiazine (SDZ) and pyrimethamine (PYR). However, failures in the treatment of toxoplasmosis have been reported, especially in South America, suggesting the acquisition of resistance against SDZ and PYR. Another paradigm present in the literature is that once infected with T. gondii, the host is immunologically protected from further reinfections. However, some studies indicate cases of congenital transmission of T. gondii from immunocompetent pregnant women with chronic infection, suggesting the possibility of reinfection in humans. Thus, in this review, we will cover several aspects of South American T. gondii isolates, such as genetic characterization, disease manifestation, host reinfection and drug resistance.
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Machado DMR, de Barros LD, de Souza Lima Nino B, de Souza Pollo A, Dos Santos Silva AC, Perles L, André MR, Zacarias Machado R, Garcia JL, Lux Hoppe EG. Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild boars (Sus scrofa) from the State of São Paulo, Brazil: Serology, molecular characterization, and hunter's perception on toxoplasmosis. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2021; 23:100534. [PMID: 33678387 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2021.100534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The consumption of wild boar meat, common in many countries, became popular in Brazil after the hunting of these animals was authorized in 2013. The meat of these animals is often consumed by hunters and their social groups, and their offal is occasionally used as supplemental food in the diet of hunting dogs. Given the high frequency of foodborne diseases related to wild boar meat consumption in other countries, including toxoplasmosis, knowledge on these diseases is essential for risk assessment and elaboration of education campaigns for the exposed public. Thus, this study aimed diagnosing, isolating, and genotyping Toxoplasma gondii in hunted wild boars. For that, we obtained samples of serum and tissues (brain, tongue, diaphragm, and heart) from 26 wild boar hunted in three areas in São Paulo State, Brazil, based on convenience sampling strategy. The serum samples were submitted to the indirect immunofluorescence reaction test (IFAT) test while the tissue samples (n = 22) were used to perform a bioassay in mice to isolate the parasite. The isolated samples were genetically characterized by PCR-RFLP with SAG1, 5' and 3' SAG2, alt.SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico markers. Questionnaires were also formulated and applied to wildlife hunters to assess knowledge about toxoplasmosis. The seroprevalence of T. gondii was 76.9% (20/26), with titers ranging from 16 to 1024. Viable parasites accounted for 4.5% (1/22) of the samples. The ToxoDB #6 genotype of TgJava1 alone was detected. Most interviewed hunters, 84.2% (16/19) consume game meat and a few of them (15.7%; 3/19) prefer undercooked meat. Also, 15.7% (3/19) of the hunters reported supplementing their hunting dogs' diet with wild boar meat and/or offal. As antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 76.9% (20/26) of the studied wild boars, we concluded that infection by T. gondii is frequent in wild boars used for human and animal consumption in the studied areas. Although genotype #6 is commonly found in Brazil in domestic animals, wild animals, and humans, causing everything from mild clinical symptoms to death, this study found, for the first time, the detection of this genotype in wild boars. These results also reaffirm the importance of these animals as a possible source of T. gondii infection for humans and domestic animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dália Monique Ribeiro Machado
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz Daniel de Barros
- Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Jardim Portal de Versalhes 1, 86057-970 Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Beatriz de Souza Lima Nino
- Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Jardim Portal de Versalhes 1, 86057-970 Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Andressa de Souza Pollo
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ana Clécia Dos Santos Silva
- Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Jardim Portal de Versalhes 1, 86057-970 Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Lívia Perles
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcos Rogério André
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rosângela Zacarias Machado
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João Luis Garcia
- Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Jardim Portal de Versalhes 1, 86057-970 Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Estevam Guilherme Lux Hoppe
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil.
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7
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Toxoplasma gondii isolated from a Brazilian patient with rare pulmonary toxoplasmosis has a novel genotype and is closely related to Amazonian isolates. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:1109-1113. [PMID: 33420622 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-07008-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Pulmonary toxoplasmosis is rare in immunocompetent patients. Herein, a Toxoplasma gondii strain isolated in Brazil from an immunocompetent patient who had severe pulmonary involvement was biologically and molecularly characterized for the first time. The TgHumIMTBr1 isolate was bioassayed in mice showing a virulent phenotype. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) genotyping using 11 markers [SAG1, SAG2 (5´3´SAG2 and alt. SAG2), SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, Apico and CS3] revealed a new non-archetypal genotype assigned as #312. Genotyping using ROP18/ROP5 markers exhibited the virulent combination of alleles 4 and 1. Microsatellite analysis using 15 markers (TUB2, W35, TgM-A, B18, B17, M33, IV.1, X1.1, N60, N82, AA, N61, N83, M48 and M102) revealed an atypical genotype with three unique alleles and a rare combination of alleles 246 (W35) and 203 (TgM-A) that is typical of the Amazon region. Non-archetypal genotypes with unique alleles may function in the occurrence of severe toxoplasmosis in immunocompetent patients in Brazil. Attempts to isolate or molecularly detect T. gondii for further genotyping studies would contribute to the understanding of causes related to the severity of toxoplasmosis in immunocompetent patients.
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Casartelli-Alves L, Pereira SA, Ferreira LC, de Macedo Couto R, Schubach TMP, Amendoeira MRR, da Silva RC, Langoni H, Millar PR, Menezes RC. Genetic and histopathological characterization of Toxoplasma gondii genotypes isolated from free-range chickens reared in the metropolitan region of Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:665-677. [PMID: 33415402 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-07011-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to genetically characterize Toxoplasma gondii isolates obtained from free-range chickens reared in the metropolitan region of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and to evaluate the morbidity and histological changes associated with these isolates in mice. A mouse bioassay was used to isolate T. gondii from a pool of tissue samples (brain, heart, and thigh muscles) collected from 163 chickens. The 36 isolates obtained were genetically characterized by restriction fragment polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis of the SAG1, 5'-3'SAG2, aSAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, Apico, and CS3 genomic regions. Seventeen atypical genotypes were identified and nine of them were reported for the first time. All identified genotypes caused clinical signs and histological changes in mice, with the majority being associated with high cumulative morbidity (65%) and severe or very severe histological changes (76%). The exclusive identification of atypical genotypes, with a predominance of new genotypes, indicates great genetic diversity of T. gondii in the region studied. In addition, the finding that all identified genotypes caused clinical signs and often severe histological changes in mice suggests potentially relevant virulence of these strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana Casartelli-Alves
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Avenida Brasil, 4365, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Sandro Antonio Pereira
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Avenida Brasil, 4365, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Luiz Cláudio Ferreira
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Avenida Brasil, 4365, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo de Macedo Couto
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Avenida Brasil, 4365, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Tânia Maria Pacheco Schubach
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Avenida Brasil, 4365, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Rodrigo Costa da Silva
- Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade do Oeste Paulista, Presidente Prudente, SP, Brazil
| | - Hélio Langoni
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Riddell Millar
- Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rua Prof. Hernani Pires de Melo, 101, Niterói, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Rodrigo Caldas Menezes
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Avenida Brasil, 4365, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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9
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Santana CH, de Oliveira AR, Dos Santos DO, Pimentel SP, de Souza LDR, Moreira LGA, Braz HMB, de Carvalho TP, Lopes CEB, Oliveira JBS, de Paula NF, de Carvalho MPN, Alves BF, Pena HFJ, Santos RL. Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in a lethal toxoplasmosis outbreak affecting captive howler monkeys (Alouatta sp.). J Med Primatol 2020; 50:99-107. [PMID: 33283281 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic disease that affects humans and warm-blooded animals. This study describes an outbreak of toxoplasmosis in howler monkeys (Alouatta sp.) and survival of capuchins (Sapajus apella), under the same environmental conditions. METHODS Howler monkeys were submitted to post-mortem examination. Tissue samples were processed to histopathology and immunohistochemistry to detect lesions and tachyzoites of Toxoplasma gondii. Tissue samples were also frozen and submitted to PCR and genotyping of T. gondii. RESULTS Typical lesions were observed in several organs including the liver, lymph node, and brain, with intralesional cysts and tachyzoites of T. gondii demonstrated by immunohistochemistry. T. gondii genomic sequences were amplified by PCR, and genotyping characterized the same T. gondii clone in all howler monkeys. CONCLUSIONS Our results support the notion that some species of neotropical primates are highly susceptible to toxoplasmosis and the hypothesis that capuchins (S. apella) may be resistant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa Helena Santana
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Ayisa Rodrigues de Oliveira
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Daniel O Dos Santos
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Samantha Pinheiro Pimentel
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Lucas Dos Reis de Souza
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Larissa Giannini Alves Moreira
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Heloísia Maria Bressan Braz
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Thaynara Parente de Carvalho
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Carlos Eduardo Bastos Lopes
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Jefferson Bruno Soares Oliveira
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Nayara Ferreira de Paula
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Pires Nogueira de Carvalho
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Bruna Farias Alves
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal (VPS), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Hilda Fátima Jesus Pena
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal (VPS), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Renato Lima Santos
- Escola de Veterinária, Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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10
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Witter R, Pena HFJ, Maia MO, de Magalhães AO, Morgado TO, Colodel EM, Barros DA, Igarashi M, Gennari SM, Pacheco RC. Isolation and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in the Midwestern Brazil revealed high genetic diversity and new genotypes. Acta Trop 2020; 212:105681. [PMID: 32926845 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We aimed to describe the genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii strains isolated from domestic animals, wildlife and humans in the Midwestern Brazil. For this purpose, fragments of tissue samples (heart, brain and lung) from 35 dogs, four cats, 105 wildlife, and amniotic fluids from eight pregnant women were collected and submitted to mouse bioassay test. In a total, 22 isolates from nine dogs, one cat, ten wild animals and two women were obtained. The DNA was extracted from T. gondii isolates (lungs and brains of infected mice) and from "primary samples" (aliquots of tissue homogenate from wild animals and amniotic fluids from pregnant women) in order to screen using a Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) targeting a repeated 529-base pairs fragment of the T. gondii genome. All positive PCR samples were genotyped using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. To the best of our knowledge, this was the first study to report isolates of T. gondii from Leopardus pardalis, Crax fasciolata, and Dasyprocta azarae. Moreover, multilocus PCR-RFLP revealed 11 T. gondii RFLP genotypes, comprising nine previously described, including the archetypal lineage #2 type III (n = 1); two clonal Brazilian lineages, #6 type BrI (n = 1) and #8 type BrIII (n = 5); #14 (n = 2), #41 (n = 1), #108 (n = 1), #140 (n = 2), #166 (n = 4), #190 (n = 1), one potentially mixed, and two new described genotypes in two isolates. Our results confirmed the high diversity of T. gondii strains in Brazil, including identical genotypes circulating among humans, domestic dogs and wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rute Witter
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias-PPGVET, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária-FAVET, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso-UFMT, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil; Instituto Federal de Rondônia-IFRO, campus Jaru, Jaru, RO, Brazil
| | - Hilda Fátima Jesus Pena
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal-VPS, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia-FMVZ, Universidade de São Paulo-USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Maerle Oliveira Maia
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias-PPGVET, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária-FAVET, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso-UFMT, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | - Aline Oliveira de Magalhães
- Programa de Residência Uniprofissional em Medicina Veterinária-PRUMV, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária-FAVET, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso-UFMT, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | - Thaís Oliveira Morgado
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias-PPGVET, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária-FAVET, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso-UFMT, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | - Edson Moleta Colodel
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias-PPGVET, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária-FAVET, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso-UFMT, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | - Daniela Araujo Barros
- Faculdade de Medicina-FM, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso-UFMT, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | - Michelle Igarashi
- Faculdade de Medicina-FM, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso-UFMT, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | - Solange Maria Gennari
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal-VPS, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia-FMVZ, Universidade de São Paulo-USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Programa de Pós-graduação em Medicina e Bem-Estar Animal, Universidade de Santo Amaro - UNISA, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Richard Campos Pacheco
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias-PPGVET, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária-FAVET, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso-UFMT, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
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11
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Andrade JMDA, de Oliveira CBS, Meurer YDSR, Santana JE, de Almeida YGB, Vilela Dos Santos P, de Souza DMS, Costa GDP, Talvani A, Palomino GM, Freitas JCDOC, de Andrade-Neto VF. Genetic polymorphism in IL17RA induces susceptibility to Toxoplasma gondii infection in Brazilian pregnant women. Acta Trop 2020; 211:105594. [PMID: 32598917 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Congenital toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasite which can cause fetal death/abortion and can induce damage in the brain and eyes of the infected babies. The environmental and genetic factors associated with T. gondii and the maternal immune response, drive part of the pathogenesis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Thus, in this study, we aimed to investigate the allelic and genotypic frequencies of specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the IL17A and IL17RA genes, as well as the production of IL-17A, IL-33, and CCL2 in pregnant women, from the State of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil, further relating these along with the clinical parameters, to the toxoplasmosis infection. Through PCR-RFLP techniques, two SNPs implicated in Th17 immune response, IL17A rs2275913 (G> A) and IL17RA rs4819554 (A> G) modulation were evaluated in pregnant women, either infected or not infected by T. gondii. These women were also evaluated in terms of plasma release of CCL2, IL-33, and IL-17A which relate to hypertension, number of abortions, and ethnic pattern. The results showed that the G-allele of the SNP rs2275913 (IL17A) appeared to be protective in this population, while the rs4819554 (IL17RA) SNP G allele was associated with greater susceptibility to T. gondii infection [ρ value = 0.025; OR = 2.815 (1.118-7.089); CI = 95%]. None of the cytokines had any influence on the analyzed parameters (abortion and hypertension). In conclusion, our data suggest an immunogenic evidence of susceptibility to T. gondii infection driven by the rs4819554 (IL17RA) SNP G allele in Brazilian pregnant women. Further studies are needed to reinforce this trial marker in populations from distinct geographical areas as well as to confirm the protective pattern related to the G-allele of the SNP rs2275913 (IL17A) in pregnant women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joelma Maria de Araujo Andrade
- Laboratory of Malaria and Toxoplasmosis Biology/LABMAT, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Bioscience Center, Federal University of the Rio Grande do Norte. Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil; Postgraduate Program of Biological Science, Bioscience Center, Federal University of the Rio Grande do Norte. Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
| | - Claudio Bruno Silva de Oliveira
- Laboratory of Malaria and Toxoplasmosis Biology/LABMAT, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Bioscience Center, Federal University of the Rio Grande do Norte. Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Priscilla Vilela Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Immunobiology of Inflammation, DECBI/ICEB and Post-graduate Program of Health and Nutrition, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Débora Maria Soares de Souza
- Laboratory of Immunobiology of Inflammation, DECBI/ICEB and Post-graduate Program of Health and Nutrition, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Guilherme de Paula Costa
- Laboratory of Immunobiology of Inflammation, DECBI/ICEB and Post-graduate Program of Health and Nutrition, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - André Talvani
- Laboratory of Immunobiology of Inflammation, DECBI/ICEB and Post-graduate Program of Health and Nutrition, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Martelli Palomino
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Federal University of the Rio Grande do Norte. Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
| | | | - Valter Ferreira de Andrade-Neto
- Laboratory of Malaria and Toxoplasmosis Biology/LABMAT, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Bioscience Center, Federal University of the Rio Grande do Norte. Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
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12
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Dubey JP, Murata FHA, Cerqueira-Cézar CK, Kwok OCH, Yang Y, Su C. Toxoplasma gondii infections in dogs: 2009-2020. Vet Parasitol 2020; 287:109223. [PMID: 33160144 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. The present review summarizes worldwide information on the prevalence of clinical and subclinical infections, epidemiology, diagnosis, and genetic diversity of T. gondii in dogs (Canis familiaris) from 2009-2020. Seroprevalence estimates of T. gondii worldwide were tabulated. Reports of high seroprevalence in canine population and high congenital transmission of T. gondii in dogs in Brazil are reviewed. Most reports from China were published in Chinese, and these reports are now summarized here. Dogs have an additional importance in some countries such as China, Vietnam, and Nigeria; whereas in many cities dog meat is sold commercially for human consumption and given to felids, and transmission of T. gondii could occur if meat is not cooked properly. Dogs can ingest T. gondii-infected cat feces and these oocysts remain viable after passage through the digestive tract of the dog; T. gondii DNA was found in feces of dogs from New York City parks in USA. Most clinical canine cases of toxoplasmosis were in immunosuppressed dogs, and ulcerative dermatitis was one of the main presentations. Genetic diversity based on PCR-RFLP markers using DNA derived from 133 viable T. gondii isolates from dogs from several countries is discussed. T. gondii strains from Asia and Americas were more genetically diverse than those from Africa. This review will be of interest to biologists, parasitologists, veterinarians, and public health workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jitender P Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA.
| | - Fernando H A Murata
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - Camila K Cerqueira-Cézar
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - Oliver C H Kwok
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - Yurong Yang
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Chunlei Su
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0845, USA
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13
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Fernández-Escobar M, Calero-Bernal R, Benavides J, Regidor-Cerrillo J, Guerrero-Molina MC, Gutiérrez-Expósito D, Collantes-Fernández E, Ortega-Mora LM. Isolation and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in Spanish sheep flocks. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:396. [PMID: 32758283 PMCID: PMC7404076 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04275-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Toxoplasma gondii is a major cause of abortion in small ruminants and presents a zoonotic risk when undercooked meat containing cysts is consumed. The aim of the present study was to investigate the genetic diversity among the T. gondii strains circulating in ovine livestock in Spain. Methods Selected samples collected from abortion outbreaks due to toxoplasmosis (n = 31) and from chronically infected adult sheep at slaughterhouses (n = 50) in different Spanish regions were bioassayed in mice, aiming at parasite isolation. In addition, all original clinical samples and the resulting isolates were genotyped by multi-nested PCR-RFLP analysis of 11 molecular markers and by PCR-DNA sequencing of portions of the SAG3, GRA6 and GRA7 genes. Results As a result, 30 isolates were obtained from 9 Spanish regions: 10 isolates from abortion-derived samples and 20 isolates from adult myocardial tissues. Overall, 3 genotypes were found: ToxoDB#3 (type II PRU variant) in 90% (27/30) of isolates, ToxoDB#2 (clonal type III) in 6.7% (2/30), and ToxoDB#1 (clonal type II) in 3.3% (1/30). When T. gondii-positive tissue samples (n = 151) were directly subjected to RFLP genotyping, complete restriction profiles were obtained for 33% of samples, and up to 98% of the specimens belonged to the type II PRU variant. A foetal brain showed a clonal type II pattern, and four specimens showed unexpected type I alleles at the SAG3 marker, including two foetal brains that showed I + II alleles as co-infection events. Amplicons of SAG3, GRA6 and GRA7 obtained from isolates and clinical samples were subjected to sequencing, allowing us to confirm RFLP results and to detect different single-nucleotide polymorphisms. Conclusions The present study informed the existence of a predominant type II PRU variant genotype (ToxoDB#3) infecting domestic sheep in Spain, in both abortion cases and chronic infections in adults, coexisting with other clonal (ToxoDB#1 and ToxoDB#2), much less frequent genotypes, as well as polymorphic strains as revealed by clinical sample genotyping. The use of multilocus sequence typing aided in accurately estimating T. gondii intragenotype diversity. ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes Fernández-Escobar
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rafael Calero-Bernal
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Julio Benavides
- Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-ULE), 24346, León, Spain
| | - Javier Regidor-Cerrillo
- SALUVET-innova S.L, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Cristina Guerrero-Molina
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Esther Collantes-Fernández
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis Miguel Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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14
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Epidemiologic significance of Toxoplasma gondii infections in chickens ( Gallus domesticus): the past decade. Parasitology 2020; 147:1263-1289. [PMID: 32660653 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182020001134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. Domestic free-range chickens (Gallus domesticus) are excellent sentinels of environmental contamination with T. gondii oocysts because they feed on the ground. Chickens can be easily infected with T. gondii; however, clinical toxoplasmosis is rare in these hosts. Chickens are comparatively inexpensive and thus are good sentinel animals for T. gondii infections on the farms. Here, the authors reviewed prevalence, the persistence of infection, clinical disease, epidemiology and genetic diversity of T. gondii strains isolated from chickens worldwide for the past decade. Data on phenotypic and molecular characteristics of 794 viable T. gondii strains from chickens are discussed, including new data on T. gondii isolates from chickens in Brazil. This paper will be of interest to biologists, epidemiologists, veterinarians and parasitologists.
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Lahmar I, Lachkhem A, Babba O, Slama D, Trabelsi A, Passebosc-Faure K, Dardé ML, Babba H. First isolation and molecular characterization of Toxoplasma gondii strains from human congenital toxoplasmosis cases in Monastir, Tunisia. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1963. [PMID: 32029843 PMCID: PMC7004985 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-59060-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoon parasite that can cause severe clinical problems such as congenital toxoplasmosis. The distribution of T. gondii genotypes varies from one geographic area to another. So far, little is known about the parasite genotypes in Tunisia, North Africa. The present study aimed isolating and genotyping T. gondii from the amniotic fluid (AF) and placenta of pregnant women in Monastir, Tunisia. Amniotic fluid and/or placenta from 80 women who acquired toxoplasma infection during pregnancy were tested by PCR and/or mouse bioassay. Genotyping of T. gondii isolates from these samples was performed with 15 microsatellite markers. Four viable T. gondii strains were isolated from either the AF or placenta of four women. Specifically, strains TUN001-MON1 and TUN002-MON2 were isolated from both the AF and placenta, TUN003-AHA from only the placenta, and TUN004-NEL from only the AF. The four viable strains were not virulent for mice. Genotyping revealed that the four strains were type II strains. This is the first report on isolation and genotyping of T. gondii from AF human samples in Tunisia. Further studies focused on T. gondii genotyping on a larger number of human cases and on animals in Tunisia are needed to improve the knowledge and epidemiology of toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibtissem Lahmar
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie Médicale et Moléculaire (code LR12ES08), Département de Biologie Clinique B, Faculté de Pharmacie de Monastir, Université de Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia.
| | - Arwa Lachkhem
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie Médicale et Moléculaire (code LR12ES08), Département de Biologie Clinique B, Faculté de Pharmacie de Monastir, Université de Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Oussama Babba
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie Médicale et Moléculaire (code LR12ES08), Département de Biologie Clinique B, Faculté de Pharmacie de Monastir, Université de Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Darine Slama
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie Médicale et Moléculaire (code LR12ES08), Département de Biologie Clinique B, Faculté de Pharmacie de Monastir, Université de Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Aida Trabelsi
- Centre de Maternité et de Néonatologie de Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Karine Passebosc-Faure
- Centre National de Référence (CNR) Toxoplasmose/Toxoplasma Biological Center (BRC), Centre Hospitalier-Universitaire Dupuytren, Limoges, France
| | - Marie Laure Dardé
- Centre National de Référence (CNR) Toxoplasmose/Toxoplasma Biological Center (BRC), Centre Hospitalier-Universitaire Dupuytren, Limoges, France.,Université de Limoges, Faculté de Médecine, INSERM UMR 1094, Neuroépidémiologie tropicale, Limoges, France
| | - Hamouda Babba
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie Médicale et Moléculaire (code LR12ES08), Département de Biologie Clinique B, Faculté de Pharmacie de Monastir, Université de Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia.,Centre de Maternité et de Néonatologie de Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
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Minuzzi CE, Portella LP, Bräunig P, Sangioni LA, Ludwig A, Ramos LS, Pacheco L, Silva CR, Pacheco FC, Menegolla IA, Farinha LB, Kist PP, Breganó RM, Nino BDSL, Cardoso Martins FD, Monica TC, Ferreira FP, Britto I, Signori A, Medici KC, Freire RL, Garcia JL, Navarro IT, Difante CM, Flores Vogel FS. Isolation and molecular characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from placental tissues of pregnant women who received toxoplasmosis treatment during an outbreak in southern Brazil. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0228442. [PMID: 31999785 PMCID: PMC6992202 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan that has great genetic diversity and is prevalent worldwide. In 2018, an outbreak of toxoplasmosis occurred in Santa Maria, Brazil, which was considered the largest outbreak ever described in the world. This paper describes the isolation and molecular characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from the placenta of two pregnant women with acute toxoplasmosis who had live births and were receiving treatment for toxoplasmosis during the outbreak. For this, placental tissue samples from two patients underwent isolation by mice bioassay, conventional PCR and genotyping using PCR-RFLP with twelve markers. Both samples were positive in isolation in mice. The isolate was lethal to mice, suggesting high virulence. In addition, the samples were positive in conventional PCR and isolates submitted to PCR-RFLP genotyping presented an atypical genotype, which had never been described before. This research contributes to the elucidation of this great outbreak in Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila E. Minuzzi
- Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias (Ladopar), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Luiza Pires Portella
- Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias (Ladopar), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Patricia Bräunig
- Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias (Ladopar), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Luis Antonio Sangioni
- Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias (Ladopar), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Aline Ludwig
- Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias (Ladopar), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Liliane Pacheco
- Hospital Universitário de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - Camila Ribeiro Silva
- CIEVS/DAT/CEVS/ Secretaria da Saúde do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
| | - Flávia Caselli Pacheco
- CIEVS/DAT/CEVS/ Secretaria da Saúde do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
| | | | | | - Priscila Pauli Kist
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
| | - Regina Mitsuka Breganó
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
| | | | | | - Thais Cabral Monica
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Pinto Ferreira
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
| | - Isadora Britto
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
| | - Ariana Signori
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
| | - Kerlei Cristina Medici
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
| | - Roberta Lemos Freire
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
| | - João Luis Garcia
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
| | - Italmar Teodorico Navarro
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
| | - Cledison Marcio Difante
- Superintendência de Vigilância em Saúde, Secretaria Municipal de Saúde, Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - Fernanda Silveira Flores Vogel
- Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias (Ladopar), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
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Valenzuela-Moreno LF, Rico-Torres CP, Cedillo-Peláez C, Luna-Pastén H, Méndez-Cruz ST, Reyes-García ME, Correa D, Alves BF, Pena HFJ, Caballero-Ortega H. Stray dogs in the tropical state of Chiapas, Mexico, harbour atypical and novel genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii. Int J Parasitol 2019; 50:85-90. [PMID: 31863764 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2019.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii remains a relevant topic of study, since genotypes can be related to the presentation and severity of toxoplasmosis. To date, 292 restriction fragment length polymorphism genotypes have been described around the world. Serosurveys in southeastern Mexico have documented exposure in over 70% of people and certain animals. Recently, we have described new genotypes and mixed infections in feral cats from Quintana Roo. Thus, the aim of this study was to genotype T. gondii and to describe its genetic variability, from naturally infected stray dogs of Chiapas, which has different geographical and climatic conditions from those found at the Yucatan Peninsula and the other parts of the country. Eleven stray dogs were captured and bled to obtain DNA, and then they were euthanized to perform necropsies and to collect target tissues. Diagnosis of T. gondii was done by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and endpoint PCR. Genotyping was carried out, amplifying 12 polymorphic markers and 15 microsatellites. Atypical SAG3 gene products were cloned and sequenced. All blood samples of dogs were positive to T. gondii DNA by PCR. Two isolates were obtained from pooled heart and diaphragm tissue of two dogs. Two complete PCR-RFLP genotypes were identified (type BrIII and #28). Four animals had mixed infections. A new RFLP atypical allele for the SAG3 marker was observed; cloning and sequencing analysis of this locus revealed mixed infection by a strain identical to GT1, and one type I × II intragenic recombinant. The microsatellite analysis revealed that both isolates are atypical. Thus, atypical new genotypes of T. gondii and mixed infections were found in dogs of Chiapas. The results found here and in genotyping studies in México suggest that the southeastern region favours wide genetic diversity of T. gondii and the possible presence of virulent genotypes such as those found in central and South America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Fernando Valenzuela-Moreno
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Colonia Insurgentes-Cuicuilco, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04530 Ciudad de México, Mexico; Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias de la Producción y de la Salud Animal, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 3000, Circuito Exterior S/N Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04510 Ciudad Universitaria, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Claudia Patricia Rico-Torres
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Colonia Insurgentes-Cuicuilco, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04530 Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Carlos Cedillo-Peláez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Colonia Insurgentes-Cuicuilco, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04530 Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Héctor Luna-Pastén
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Colonia Insurgentes-Cuicuilco, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04530 Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Sara Teresa Méndez-Cruz
- Laboratorio de Bioquímica Genética, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Colonia Insurgentes-Cuicuilco, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04530 Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - María Eréndira Reyes-García
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología de Pequeños Rumiantes y Patología, FMVZ-UNACH, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - Dolores Correa
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Colonia Insurgentes-Cuicuilco, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04530 Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Bruna Farias Alves
- Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Hilda Fátima Jesus Pena
- Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Heriberto Caballero-Ortega
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Colonia Insurgentes-Cuicuilco, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04530 Ciudad de México, Mexico.
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18
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Gencay YE, Gökpınar S, Babür C, YILDIZ K. Koyun orijinli Toxoplasma gondii izolatlarının multilocus PCR-RFLP yöntemi ile genotiplendirilmesi. ANKARA UNIVERSITESI VETERINER FAKULTESI DERGISI 2019. [DOI: 10.33988/auvfd.469526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Hajissa K, Zakaria R, Suppian R, Mohamed Z. Epitope-based vaccine as a universal vaccination strategy against Toxoplasma gondii infection: A mini-review. J Adv Vet Anim Res 2019; 6:174-182. [PMID: 31453188 PMCID: PMC6702889 DOI: 10.5455/javar.2019.f329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 02/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the significant progress in the recent efforts toward developing an effective vaccine against toxoplasmosis, the search for new protective vaccination strategy still remains a challenge and elusive goal because it becomes the appropriate way to prevent the disease. Various experimental approaches in the past few years showed that developing a potential vaccine against the disease can be achievable. The combination of multi-epitopes expressing different stages of the parasite life cycle has become an optimal strategy for acquiring a potent, safe, and effective vaccine. Epitope-based vaccines have gained attention as alternative vaccine candidates due to their ability of inducing protective immune responses. This mini-review highlights the current status and the prospects of Toxoplasma gondii vaccine development along with the application of epitope-based vaccine in the future parasite immunization as a novel under development and evaluation strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalid Hajissa
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Parasitology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Robaiza Zakaria
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Parasitology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Rapeah Suppian
- Biomedicine Program, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Zeehaida Mohamed
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Parasitology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
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20
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Rêgo WMF, Costa JGL, Baraviera RCA, Pinto LV, Bessa GL, Lopes REN, Silveira JAG, Vitor RWA. Genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii isolates obtained from free-living wild birds rescued in Southeastern Brazil. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2018; 7:432-438. [PMID: 30479944 PMCID: PMC6240670 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2018.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies carried out in Brazil have shown that strains from the same Toxoplasma gondii genotype can infect humans, domestic animals (dogs and cats) and animals slaughtered for human consumption (pigs, sheep, goats, and chickens), suggesting a common infection route. However, little is known about the importance of free-living wild birds within this epidemiological context. The objective of this work was to isolate, genotype, and evaluate the virulence for mice of new isolates of T. gondii obtained from free-living wild birds from the state of Minas Gerais, Southeastern Brazil. From August 2016 to June 2017, T. gondii was isolated from the hearts and brains collected from 6 out of 45 free-living wild birds, namely, a roadside hawk (Rupornis magnirostris), a campo flicker (Colaptes campestris), a southern caracara (Caracara plancus) and a tropical screech-owl (Megascops choliba), all rescued in Belo Horizonte. One isolate was obtained from a toco toucan (Ramphastos toco), rescued in Cristiano Otoni, and another was obtained from southern caracara, rescued in Santa Luzia. Five different genotypes were identified by PCR-RFLP. A unique genotype was shared in two different isolates obtained from a southern caracara and a toco toucan. This genotype has never been previously described in any other host or place. Three isolates were classified as of intermediary virulence and three isolates as avirulent for mice. The combined analysis of alleles ROP18/ROP5 (a serine/threonine kinase, and a polymorphic pseudokinase, respectively) was effective in determining the virulence of five of all the isolates with the exception of that from R. magnirostris. Atypical isolates of T. gondii obtained from free-living wild birds rescued in the state of Minas Gerais share the same genotypes of strains that infect humans, domestic animals, and animals slaughtered for human consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- W M F Rêgo
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - J G L Costa
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - R C A Baraviera
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - L V Pinto
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - G L Bessa
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - R E N Lopes
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - J A G Silveira
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - R W A Vitor
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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Human toxoplasmosis: a systematic review for genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii in clinical samples. Epidemiol Infect 2018; 147:e36. [PMID: 30394261 PMCID: PMC6518561 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268818002947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) as an obligate intracellular protozoan with a worldwide distribution can infect virtually all warm-blooded animals and humans. This study aims to provide a summary of the available data on genotypes of T. gondii in human. Five databases including MEDLINE in PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, Web of Science and Google Scholar were searched for the T. gondii genotyping in human during 1995-August 2017. Next, we screened all the articles based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Overall, 26 studies were eligible regarding genotyping T. gondii in human samples. In clonal genotyping, 167 out of 286 cases (58%) were infected with type II. Genetic characterisation of T. gondii isolates displayed that type II was the most predominant genotype in human with the prevalence of 64.3%, 62.1% and 41.7% in patients with AIDS, congenital and ocular toxoplasmosis, respectively. In ToxoDB genotyping, most individuals were infected with genotypes #9 and #65 (21.2%). Based on these results, genotype profile of T. gondii isolates is different throughout the world. The strains in Asian and African countries are characterised by low genetic diversity, while in North and South America a wide diversity of this parasite is found. In countries without any data (e.g. Australia, Western and Southern Africa and Western Asia), identification of T. gondii genotypes might discover higher genetic diversity.
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Pardini L, Bernstein M, Carral LA, Kaufer FJ, Dellarupe A, Gos ML, Campero LM, Moré G, Messina MT, Schneider MV, Freuler CB, Durlach RA, Unzaga JM, Venturini MC. Congenital human toxoplasmosis caused by non-clonal Toxoplasma gondii genotypes in Argentina. Parasitol Int 2018; 68:48-52. [PMID: 30304711 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2018.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis, a worldwide distributed zoonosis, can be transmitted congenitally affecting fetuses and developing variable clinical signs. Different Toxoplasma gondii genotypes and infective dose are related factors with different clinical manifestations. Several studies indicate that atypical strains could produce more severe clinical manifestations compared to typical strains. Umbilical cord blood (n = 37) and placenta (n = 19) were collected at birth from women with acute T. gondii infection and processed for isolation by mice bioassay. Six isolates were obtained and identified as TgHm14-4Arg, TgHm15-02Arg, TgHm16-01Arg, TgHm16-02Arg, TgHm17-01Arg and TgHm17-02Arg. Three genotypes described previously on Toxo-DB were identified: #138 identified in chickens from Brazil, #182 isolated from eared doves from Brazil, #14 from wallaby kangaroos and chickens from Argentina, chickens from Brazil, Colombia, Chile and Venezuela, cats and dogs from Brazil and Colombia and also coyotes from USA indicating worldwide distribution of these genotypes. Two new allele combinations were obtained showing high genotypes diversity in Argentina. Four of the isolates (TgHm14-4Arg, TgHm15-02Arg, TgHm16-01Arg, TgHm16-02Arg) and two of them (TgHm17-01Arg, TgHm17-02Arg) produced chronic and acute infections in mice, respectively. Until now, seven T. gondii isolates have been obtained from humans in Argentina, and all were atypical or non-clonal genotypes. The identification of atypical strains causing congenital toxoplasmosis and circulating in our region, make important to perform the serological screenings according Argentine Consensus of Toxoplasmosis and to apply and monitoring treatments earlier in pregnancy. To achieve this aim, it is necessary to inform general population about T. gondii infection, diagnostics and control measures. These results should serve to generate awareness about congenital toxoplasmosis in South America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lais Pardini
- Laboratorio de Inmunoparasitología, FCV-UNLP, La Plata, Argentina; CONICET, Argentina.
| | - Mariana Bernstein
- Laboratorio de Inmunoparasitología, FCV-UNLP, La Plata, Argentina; CONICET, Argentina
| | - Liliana A Carral
- Centro de Toxoplasmosis, Hospital Alemán, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Andrea Dellarupe
- Laboratorio de Inmunoparasitología, FCV-UNLP, La Plata, Argentina; CONICET, Argentina
| | - María L Gos
- Laboratorio de Inmunoparasitología, FCV-UNLP, La Plata, Argentina; CONICET, Argentina
| | - Lucía M Campero
- Laboratorio de Inmunoparasitología, FCV-UNLP, La Plata, Argentina; CONICET, Argentina
| | - Gastón Moré
- Laboratorio de Inmunoparasitología, FCV-UNLP, La Plata, Argentina; CONICET, Argentina
| | - Matías T Messina
- Centro de Toxoplasmosis, Hospital Alemán, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | | | | | - Juan M Unzaga
- Laboratorio de Inmunoparasitología, FCV-UNLP, La Plata, Argentina
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Brandão de Mattos CC, Siqueira RC, Frederico FB, Ferreira IMR, Ferreira AIC, Previato M, Pereira-Chioccola VL, de Mattos LC. Toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis caused by Toxoplasma gondii strain ToxoDB#65. Acta Trop 2018; 185:419-421. [PMID: 29859747 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Ocular toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii, is the most common cause of inflammation in the back of the eye. Analysis of the infecting strain may provide information regarding disease behavior and recurrence. Here, we describe clinical and epidemiological data for toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis in two Brazilian women infected by T. gondii strain ToxoDB#65, living in an urban region of São Paulo State, Brazil.
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Rocha DS, Nilsson MG, Maciel BM, Pena HFJ, Alves BF, Silva AV, Gondim LFP, Albuquerque GR. Genetic Diversity ofToxoplasma gondiiIsolates From Free-Range Chickens In Bahia, Brazil. J Parasitol 2018; 104:377-382. [DOI: 10.1645/18-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Daniele S. Rocha
- Departamento de Ciências Agrárias e Ambientais, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Mariana G. Nilsson
- Departamento de Ciências Agrárias e Ambientais, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Bianca M. Maciel
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Hilda F. J. Pena
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bruna F. Alves
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Aristeu V. Silva
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, BA, Brazil
| | - Luís F. P. Gondim
- Escola de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - George R. Albuquerque
- Departamento de Ciências Agrárias e Ambientais, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
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Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii: The advantages of variable number tandem repeats within coding regions. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 65:226-230. [PMID: 30048811 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2017] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan which is widely distributed. Infection occurs as a result of ingestion of uncooked meat and exposure to cat feces. Immunocompetent individuals are generally asymptomatic, while severe disease may occur in immunocompromised subjects and in congenital toxoplasmosis, which is caused by transplacental acquisition of T. gondii. Genetic diversity of T. gondii has often been studied using a PCR-RFLP scheme based on nine molecular markers. These studies led to the description of a clonal population structure with three main lineages (I, II and III) in North America and Europe and higher genetic diversity in South America. The aim of this study was to develop molecular markers that could allow the discrimination of genetic variants within each clonal lineage. We analyzed the genome of T. gondii to identify genes containing variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). The coding sequences of T. gondii ME49 genome were processed with Tandem Repeat Finder software. A panel of candidate markers was selected based on the following parameters: the repeat unit size (>9 bp) and composition (to avoid single and dinucleotide runs), the number of copies (<20), and the absence of introns within the repeat region. The selected panel of eight molecular markers was analyzed in PRU and RH strains. As a first step, the variability of the sequence size allowed us to differentiate PRU from ME49 (two type II strains) and RH from GT1 (two type I strains). Additionally, amplification products from PRU and RH strains were sequenced to study intra-lineage variability. Aside from size polymorphisms in the amplification products we were able to identify sequence variability in polymorphic markers.
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Typical Brazilian genotype of Toxoplasma gondii isolated from a horse destined for human consumption in Europe from a slaughterhouse. Parasitol Res 2018; 117:3305-3308. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-018-5999-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Ferreira TCR, Buery JC, Moreira NIB, Santos CB, Costa JGL, Pinto LV, Baraviera RCDA, Vitor RWA, Fux B. Toxoplasma gondii: isolation, biological and molecular characterisation of samples from free-range Gallus gallus domesticus from countryside Southeast Brazil. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 27:384-389. [PMID: 29846444 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-296120180028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii presents a high prevalence worldwide, infecting several animals. Felines are considered the definitive hosts and among the intermediate hosts we highlight mammals and birds. The man can become infected by ingesting tissue cysts present in birds and mammals. Biological and molecular aspects of T. gondii allows a better understanding of the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis. This work is a serologic screening of 58 chickens grown (Gallus gallus domesticus) for human consumption in Espírito Santo State, by means of indirect haemagglutination assay (IHA). Thirteen chickens tested positive for anti-T. gondii antibodies. The heart and brain of five positive chickens were harvested, treated with pepsin and inoculated separately, in two Swiss mice, intraperitoneally. Tachyzoites were observed in the peritoneum of all the animals, between seven and 10 days after the inoculum. Ten isolates were obtained and biologically characterised in BALB/c mice inoculated with 101 to 104 tachyzoites. All isolates were classified as virulent or intermediately virulent. Isolates were genotyped by means of polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis, revealing three different genotypes. None of the isolates exhibited the clonal type I, II or III genotype. No genotypic differences were observed between the isolates from the brain or heart from the same bird.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamiris Cristine Ribeiro Ferreira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Doenças Infecciosas, Núcleo de Doenças Infecciosas, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, ES, Brasil.,Unidade de Medicina Tropical, Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, ES, Brasil
| | - Julyana Cerqueira Buery
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Doenças Infecciosas, Núcleo de Doenças Infecciosas, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, ES, Brasil.,Unidade de Medicina Tropical, Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, ES, Brasil
| | - Narcisa Imaculada Brant Moreira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Doenças Infecciosas, Núcleo de Doenças Infecciosas, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, ES, Brasil.,Unidade de Medicina Tropical, Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, ES, Brasil
| | - Claudiney Biral Santos
- Unidade de Medicina Tropical, Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, ES, Brasil
| | - Júlia Gatti Ladeia Costa
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Lorena Velozo Pinto
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | | | | | - Blima Fux
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Doenças Infecciosas, Núcleo de Doenças Infecciosas, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, ES, Brasil.,Unidade de Medicina Tropical, Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, ES, Brasil
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28
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Hou ZF, Su SJ, Liu DD, Wang LL, Jia CL, Zhao ZX, Ma YF, Li QQ, Xu JJ, Tao JP. Prevalence, risk factors and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in sick pigs and stray cats in Jiangsu Province, eastern China. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 60:17-25. [PMID: 29452292 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasitic protozoan with a worldwide distribution. The parasites in edible tissues of pigs and oocysts from cats are the major sources of T. gondii infection in humans. However, there are no data from sick pigs in veterinary clinics or from stray cats in Jiangsu Province, eastern China. In total, biological samples from 141 sick pigs and 64 stray cats were collected from this region. The rate of T. gondii infection in sick pigs was 46.81% using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and the overall prevalence of toxoplasmosis in stray cats was 34.38% by PCR and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). T. gondii was significantly more prevalent in lungs and heart than in liver and spleen (P < 0.05). Age and geographic region were considered to be the main risk factors associated with T. gondii infection in these pigs. The DNA samples from 17 sick pigs and seven stray cats, were successfully genotyped by multilocus PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) with 10 genetic markers [SAG1, SAG2 (5'-3'SAG2, alt. SAG2), SAG3, GRA6, PK1, c22-8, c29-2, BTUB, L358 and Apico]. Six distinct genotypes were found, which were designated ToxoDB PCR-RFLP genotypes #9 (Chinese I), #10 (Type I), #213, and #89, and New 1 and New 2. Chinese I is the most prevalent T. gondii genotype in this region. The two new genotypes (designated New 1 and New 2) are reported and the ToxoDB PCR-RFLP genotype #89 is found for the first time in China. Such information will be useful for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of porcine toxoplasmosis in Jiangsu Province, eastern China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao-Feng Hou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225000, PR China; Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, 225000, PR China
| | - Shi-Jie Su
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225000, PR China; Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, 225000, PR China
| | - Dan-Dan Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225000, PR China; Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, 225000, PR China
| | - Le-le Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225000, PR China; Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, 225000, PR China
| | - Chuan-Li Jia
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225000, PR China; Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, 225000, PR China
| | - Zhen-Xing Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225000, PR China; Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, 225000, PR China
| | - Yi-Fei Ma
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225000, PR China; Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, 225000, PR China
| | - Qiao-Qiao Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225000, PR China; Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, 225000, PR China
| | - Jin-Jun Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225000, PR China; Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, 225000, PR China
| | - Jian-Ping Tao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225000, PR China; Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, 225000, PR China.
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Kinetics of parasite distribution after reinfection with genetically distinct strains of Toxoplasma gondii. Exp Parasitol 2017; 184:22-30. [PMID: 29146488 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2017.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2017] [Revised: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Recent data shows that prior infection by Toxoplasma gondii does not protect the host from subsequent reinfection even after the development of immunological memory. Although animal models for T. gondii reinfection were proposed after cases of natural human reinfection were described, little is known about the events that occur immediately after challenge. To further understand these events, BALB/c mice were chronically infected with D8 non-virulent strain (genotype ToxoDB#8 BrIII) and challenged with two different virulent strains: EGS (genotype ToxoDB #229) or CH3 strain (genotype ToxoDB #19). Primary infection protected animals from lethal challenge and morbidity was reduced. Reinfection was confirmed by PCR-RFLP, showing differences in the way the parasites spread in challenged animals. Parasites reached the lungs during early infection and a parasitism delay in the intestine was observed in D8+CH3 group. Parasites from challenge strains were not detected in the brain of D8+CH3 and in the intestine and brain of D8+EGS group. Previous infection with D8 strain of T. gondii protected against lethal challenges, but it did not prevent parasite spread to some organs.
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30
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Oliveira CBSD. Polymorphisms in Toxoplasma gondii: role of atypical strains in unusual clinical manifestations of toxoplasmosis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2017; 50:578-579. [PMID: 28954089 DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0216-2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Bruno Silva de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Biologia da Malária e Toxoplasmose, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil
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31
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Rêgo WMF, Costa JGL, Baraviera RCA, Pinto LV, Bessa GL, Lopes REN, Vitor RWA. Association of ROP18 and ROP5 was efficient as a marker of virulence in atypical isolates of Toxoplasma gondii obtained from pigs and goats in Piauí, Brazil. Vet Parasitol 2017; 247:19-25. [PMID: 29080759 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Revised: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies indicate that proteins GRA15, ROP5, ROP16, ROP17, and ROP18 of Toxoplasma gondii are involved in the process of interaction, cellular invasion, and immune response of the host. Among these proteins, alleles of the polymorphic ROP18 and ROP5 seem to be directly associated with T. gondii virulence in mice. The purpose of this work was to isolate and genotype T. gondii from pig, goat, and sheep slaughtered for human consumption in the state of Piauí, Northeastern Brazil and relate the variability of genes that express virulence proteins of the parasite to virulence in mice. T. gondii was isolated from 16 pigs and 9 goats. The parasite was not isolated from sheep samples. Eleven different genotypes were identified using PCR-RFLP. A unique genotype not yet described in any other host and or anywhere else was common to three pig isolates. Eighteen isolates (72%) were characterized as avirulent, four (16%) as intermediate virulence and three (12%) as virulent to mice. The combined analysis of ROP18 and ROP5 in the isolates studied in Piauí, showed four different allele associations: 4/3 (virulent strains), 3/3, 3/1, and 2/3 (avirulent strains). The association 2/3 was not previously described in the literature. Our results indicated that GRA15, ROP16, and ROP17 alleles were not associated with T. gondii virulence in mice. Pigs and goats raised and slaughtered for human consumption in the state of Piauí are infected with isolates of T. gondii presenting different genotypes. We concluded that the virulence protein ROP18, analyzed alone or in combination with ROP5, was effective in determining virulence for mice for the new isolates of T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- W M F Rêgo
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP: 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - J G L Costa
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP: 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - R C A Baraviera
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP: 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - L V Pinto
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP: 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - G L Bessa
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP: 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - R E N Lopes
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP: 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - R W A Vitor
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB-UFMG), CEP: 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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da Silva JR, Maciel BM, de Santana Souza Santos LKN, Carvalho FS, de Santana Rocha D, Lopes CWG, Albuquerque GR. Isolation and Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in Brazilian Dogs. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2017; 55:239-246. [PMID: 28719948 PMCID: PMC5523891 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2017.55.3.239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Strains of Toxoplasma gondii in Brazil are highly genetically diverse compared to strains from North America and Europe. Dogs are epidemiologically important because they act as sentinels for T. gondii infections in humans and are good indicators of environmental contamination. The aim of this study was to isolate and genetically characterize T. gondii strains from tissues of naturally infected Brazilian dogs. For this study, 21 blood samples were collected from dogs at the Zoonosis Control Centers of Ilhéus and Itabuna cities, Bahia, Brazil. The sera were examined for T. gondii antibodies using the indirect hemagglutination test. Brains and hearts of seropositive dogs were bioassayed in mice to isolate and characterize T. gondii parasites by PCR-RFLP using 10 genetic markers (SAG1, newSAG2, SAG3, BTUB, c22-8, c29-2, GRA6, PK1, APICO, and L358). However, T. gondii was isolated from only 4 (57.1%) dogs, designated TgDgBr6, 13, 17, and 21. All strains were virulent, causing clinical changes (rough hair coat, lethargy, and abdominal distention) and the death of all mice within 8-20 days after inoculation. Genetic analysis of these 4 T. gondii isolates revealed 4 distinct genotypes with different clonal lineage combinations (types I, II, and III) and 2 atypical alleles. Using PCR-RFLP with several markers, this study contributes to evaluations of the genetic diversity of strains circulating in Brazil.
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Oliveira CB, Meurer YS, Andrade JM, Costa ME, Andrade MM, Silva LA, Lanza DC, Vítor RW, Andrade-Neto VF. Pathogenicity and phenotypic sulfadiazine resistance of Toxoplasma gondii isolates obtained from livestock in northeastern Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2017; 111:391-8. [PMID: 27276184 PMCID: PMC4909038 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760150459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is the causative protozoan agent of toxoplasmosis,
which is a common infection that is widely distributed worldwide. Studies revealed
stronger clonal strains in North America and Europe and genetic diversity in South
American strains. Our study aimed to differentiate the pathogenicity and sulfadiazine
resistance of three T. gondiiisolates obtained from livestock
intended for human consumption. The cytopathic effects of the T.
gondii isolates were evaluated. The pathogenicity was determined by
polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) using a
CS3 marker and in a rodent model in vivo. Phenotypic sulfadiazine resistance was
measured using a kinetic curve of drug activity in Swiss mice. IgM and IgG were
measured by ELISA, and the dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS) gene sequence was
analysed. The cytopathic effects and the PCR-RFLP profiles from chickens indicated a
different infection source. The Ck3 isolate displayed more cytopathic effects in
vitro than the Ck2 and ME49 strains. Additionally, the Ck2 isolate induced a
differential humoral immune response compared to ME49. The Ck3 and Pg1 isolates, but
not the Ck2 isolate, showed sulfadiazine resistance in the sensitivity assay. We did
not find any DHPS gene polymorphisms in the mouse samples. These atypical
pathogenicity and sulfadiazine resistance profiles were not previously reported and
served as a warning to local health authorities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Bs Oliveira
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Natal RN , Brasil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Biologia da Malária e Toxoplasmose, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Ywlliane Sr Meurer
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Natal RN , Brasil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Biologia da Malária e Toxoplasmose, Natal, RN, Brasil.,Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Fisiologia, Laboratório de Estudos da Memória, Natal RN , Brasil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Fisiologia, Laboratório de Estudos da Memória, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Joelma Ma Andrade
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Natal RN , Brasil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Biologia da Malária e Toxoplasmose, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Maria Esm Costa
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Bioquímica, Natal RN , Brasil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Bioquímica, Laboratório de Biologia Molecular Aplicada, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Milena Mc Andrade
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Natal RN , Brasil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Biologia da Malária e Toxoplasmose, Natal, RN, Brasil.,Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, Belo Horizonte MG , Brasil, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Letícia A Silva
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, Belo Horizonte MG , Brasil, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Daniel Cf Lanza
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Bioquímica, Natal RN , Brasil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Bioquímica, Laboratório de Biologia Molecular Aplicada, Natal, RN, Brasil
| | - Ricardo Wa Vítor
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, Belo Horizonte MG , Brasil, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Valter F Andrade-Neto
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Natal RN , Brasil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Biologia da Malária e Toxoplasmose, Natal, RN, Brasil
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Silva LA, Reis-Cunha JL, Bartholomeu DC, Vítor RWA. Genetic Polymorphisms and Phenotypic Profiles of Sulfadiazine-Resistant and Sensitive Toxoplasma gondii Isolates Obtained from Newborns with Congenital Toxoplasmosis in Minas Gerais, Brazil. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170689. [PMID: 28118394 PMCID: PMC5261777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Previous Toxoplasma gondii studies revealed that mutations in the dhps (dihydropteroate synthase) gene are associated with resistance to sulfonamides. Although Brazilian strains are genotypically different, very limited data are available regarding the susceptibility of strains obtained from human to sulfonamides. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of sulfadiazine (SDZ) against Brazilian isolates of T. gondii and verify whether isolates present polymorphisms in the dhps gene. We also investigated whether the virulence-phenotype and/or genotype were associated with the profile of susceptibility to SDZ. Methods Five T. gondii isolates obtained from newborns with congenital toxoplasmosis were used to verify susceptibility. Mice were infected with 104 tachyzoites and orally treated with different doses of SDZ. The mortality curve was evaluated by the Log-rank test. The presence of polymorphisms in the dhps gene was verified using sequencing. A descriptive analysis for 11 Brazilian isolates was used to assess the association between susceptibility, genotype, and virulence-phenotype. Results Statistical analysis showed that TgCTBr03, 07, 08, and 16 isolates were susceptible to SDZ, whereas TgCTBr11 isolate presented a profile of resistance to SDZ. Nineteen polymorphisms were identified in dhps exons. Seven polymorphisms corresponded to non-synonymous mutations, with four being new mutations, described for the first time in this study. No association was found between the profile of susceptibility and the virulence-phenotype or genotype of the parasite. Conclusions There is a high variability in the susceptibilities of Brazilian T. gondii strains to SDZ, with evidence of drug resistance. Despite the large number of polymorphisms identified, the profile of susceptibility to SDZ was not associated with any of the dhps variants identified in this study. Other genetic factors, not yet determined, may be associated with the resistance to SDZ; thus, further studies are needed as a basis for a more adequate toxoplasmosis treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Letícia Azevedo Silva
- Laboratório de Toxoplasmose, Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - João Luís Reis-Cunha
- Laboratório de Genômica de Parasitos, Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Daniella Castanheira Bartholomeu
- Laboratório de Genômica de Parasitos, Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Ricardo Wagner Almeida Vítor
- Laboratório de Toxoplasmose, Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil
- * E-mail:
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Pardini L, Moré G, Rudzinski M, Gos ML, Campero LM, Meyer A, Bernstein M, Unzaga JM, Venturini MC. Toxoplasma gondii isolates from chickens in an area with human toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Exp Parasitol 2016; 166:16-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2016.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Revised: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Is Toxoplasma gondii type related to clinical outcome in human congenital infection? Systematic and critical review. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2016; 35:1079-88. [PMID: 27146878 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-016-2656-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
In human congenital toxoplasmosis the effects of parasite burden and pregnancy time at infection on clinical outcome are well known, but there is controversy regarding the role of Toxoplasma gondii type. Through a systematic review of the literature, we aimed to discern if T. gondii type has a role on clinical outcome in human congenital toxoplasmosis. We built up a database of congenital toxoplasmosis from reports of cases, case series and screening-based cohorts, which had information about parasite type, gestation time at maternal infection and/or clinical outcome in the product. Then, we obtained frequencies for loci used to genotype geographical origin of cases and types found. Also, odds ratios were calculated for association between time of maternal infection or parasite type on outcome. Type II parasites were the most common in Europe, Asia and Africa, while in America there were mainly atypical strains. More newborns with clinical problems were born from mothers infected during the first half of gestation than from those acquiring the parasite after week 24, regardless of parasite genotype (92.9 vs. 16.1 %, OR = 67.9, CI95 25.4-181.6). Type I and atypical parasites were associated with clinical problems as opposed to types II and III, regardless of pregnancy period at infection (86.9 vs. 72.9 %, OR = 2.47, CI95 1.1-5.4). A significant and remarkable tendency of type I parasites to be present during early pregnancy was also observed (94.4 vs. 5.6 %, P < 0.009). In addition to parasite burden and period of gestation, T. gondii genotype seems involved in CT clinical outcome.
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Bastos da Silva I, Batista TPDA, Martines RB, Kanamura CT, Ferreira IMR, Vidal JE, Pereira-Chioccola VL. Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii: DNA extraction from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded autopsy tissues from AIDS patients who died by severe disseminated toxoplasmosis. Exp Parasitol 2016; 165:16-21. [PMID: 26969767 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2016.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Revised: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the genetic features of Toxoplasma gondii isolated directly in autopsies of HIV-infected patients who died with severe disseminated toxoplasmosis. This retrospective analysis was conducted in a cohort of 15 HIV-infected patients with clinical and laboratory data. They had previous cerebral toxoplasmosis at least 6 months before the disseminated toxoplasmosis episode. The hypothesis was that they were infected with highly virulent parasites due to the condition in which they died. T. gondii genotyping was done directly in DNA extracted from 30 autopsy brain and lung samples (2 per patient) and mutilocus PCR-RFLP genotyping was done using 12 molecular markers. The 30 clinical samples were genotyped successfully in 8 or more loci and six suggestive genotypes were identified. One of them was Toxo DB #11, previously identified in different domestic animals and virulent in experimental animals. The other five suggestive genotypes identified in 14 patients were not described. TgHuDis1 was the most frequent and was determined in 8 patients. TgHuDis3 and TgHuDis5 were identified in two patients each. TgHuDis2 and TgHuDis4 have been identified in one patient each. These suggestive genotypes could be considered as virulent, since they caused severe tissue damage and had similar characteristics as Toxo # DB 11.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inara Bastos da Silva
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Parasitas e Fungos, Centro de Parasitologia e Micologia, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Isabelle Martins Ribeiro Ferreira
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Parasitas e Fungos, Centro de Parasitologia e Micologia, São Paulo, Brazil; Supervisão de Vigilância em Saúde de Santo Amaro/Cidade Ademar, Prefeitura Municipal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jose Ernesto Vidal
- Instituto de Infectologia Emilio Ribas, São Paulo, Brazil; Departamento de Moléstias Infecciosas e Parasitárias do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Vera Lucia Pereira-Chioccola
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Parasitas e Fungos, Centro de Parasitologia e Micologia, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Ajzenberg D. 1995-2015: it is time to celebrate 20 years of (intensive) genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii strains. Future Microbiol 2016; 10:689-91. [PMID: 26000645 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.15.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Ajzenberg
- 1Centre National de Référence (CNR) Toxoplasmose/Toxoplasma Biological Resource Center (BRC), Centre Hospitalier-Universitaire Dupuytren, Limoges, 87042, France.,2INSERM UMR_S 1094, Neuroépidémiologie Tropicale, Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Limoges, Limoges, 87025, France
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Vijaykumar BR, Lekshmi SU, Sai Kant R, Vaigundan D, Mahadevan A, Rajendran C, Shankar SK, Jayshree RS. Genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from autopsy proven cases of AIDS associated cerebral toxoplasmosis in South India. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2016; 39:106-112. [PMID: 26802459 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2016.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Revised: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T.gondii) infection can be devastating in the immunodeficient causing high morbidity and mortality. Due to limited availability of both diagnostic facilities and Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), toxoplasmosis continues to be a significant problem amongst Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) patients in India. While scanty literature is available on T. gondii isolates in animals in India, little is known about the genetic diversity of the parasite in humans. Therefore, the present study investigated the genetic diversity of T. gondii in 25 confirmed cases of cerebral toxoplasmosis developing on the background of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection/AIDS. PCR DNA sequencing was performed at four important genetic loci of T. gondii: BTUB, GRA6, alternative SAG2 (alt SAG2) and SAG3 on DNA from tissues obtained at postmortem. The amplified products from all the cases were successfully sequenced except at one locus for one case. Results of the present study suggest that majority of the patients (22/25; 88%) in South India are infected with strains that are recombinants of type II/III and/or strains representing T. gondii different from the archetypal lineages I, II, and III. In addition, clonal types III, MAS, and MAS variant genotypes were encountered. No clonal type I or II was seen in the present study. In addition, variants were observed at alt SAG2 and SAG3 but BTUB and GRA6 were highly conserved. Single nucleotide polymorphisms were observed mainly at two loci which are coding for surface antigens at alt SAG2 and SAG3. In conclusion, the present study reveals genetic diversity in India amongst strains of T. gondii from clinical cases of toxoplasmosis which is in accordance with other recent studies showing a high rate of genetic diversity in this parasite across the globe. There is a need to genotype T. gondii from different forms of toxoplasmosis in humans in India.
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Affiliation(s)
- B R Vijaykumar
- Department of Microbiology, Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology, Dr. M. H. Marigowda Road, Bangalore 560029, India.
| | - Swathi U Lekshmi
- Department of Microbiology, Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology, Dr. M. H. Marigowda Road, Bangalore 560029, India.
| | - R Sai Kant
- Department of Microbiology, Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology, Dr. M. H. Marigowda Road, Bangalore 560029, India.
| | - D Vaigundan
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, Sri Devaraj Urs Academy of Higher Education and Research, Tamaka, Kolar 563101, India.
| | - Anita Mahadevan
- Department of Neuropathology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Dr. M. H. Marigowda Road, Bangalore 560029, India.
| | - C Rajendran
- Defence Food Research Laboratory, Defence Research & Development Organisation, Siddhartha Nagar, Mysore 570011, India.
| | - S K Shankar
- Department of Neuropathology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Dr. M. H. Marigowda Road, Bangalore 560029, India.
| | - R S Jayshree
- Department of Microbiology, Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology, Dr. M. H. Marigowda Road, Bangalore 560029, India.
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Previato M, Frederico FB, Murata FHA, Siqueira RC, Barbosa AP, Silveira-Carvalho AP, Meira CDS, Pereira-Chioccola VL, Gava R, Martins Neto PP, de Mattos LC, de Mattos CCB. A Brazilian report using serological and molecular diagnosis to monitoring acute ocular toxoplasmosis. BMC Res Notes 2015; 8:746. [PMID: 26643197 PMCID: PMC4671220 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-015-1650-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Toxoplasmosis was recently included as a neglected disease by the Center for Disease Control. Ocular toxoplasmosis is one clinical presentation of congenital or acquired infection. The laboratory diagnosis is being used worldwide to support the clinical diagnosis and imaging. The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of serology and molecular methods to monitor acute OT in immunocompetent patients during treatment. Methods Five immunocompetent patients were clinically diagnosed with acute OT. The clinical evaluation was performed by ophthalmologic examination using the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study, best-corrected visual acuity, slit lamp biomicroscopy, fundoscopic examination with indirect binocular ophthalmoscopy color fundus photography, fluorescein angiography and spectral optical coherence tomography (OCT). Serology were performed by ELISA (IgA, IgM, IgG) and confirmed by ELFA (IgG, IgM). Molecular diagnoses were performed in peripheral blood by cPCR using the Toxoplasma gondiiB1 gene as the marker. Follow-up exams were performed on day +15 and day +45. Results Only five non-immunocompromised male patients completed the follow up and their data were used for analysis. The mean age was 41.2 ± 11.3 years (median: 35; range 31–54 years). All of them were positive for IgG antibodies but with different profiles for IgM and IgA, as well as PCR. For all patients the OCT exam showed active lesions with the inner retinal layers being abnormally hyper-reflective with full-thickness disorganization of the retinal reflective layers, which assumed a blurred reflective appearance and the retina was thickened. Conclusions The presence of IgA and IgM confirmed the acute infection and thus was in agreement with the clinical evaluation. Our results show the adopted treatment modified the serological profile of IgM antibodies and the PCR results, but not the IgG and IgA antibodies and that imaging is a good tool to follow-up patients. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13104-015-1650-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Previato
- Immunogenetics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto-FAMERP, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil. .,FAMERP Toxoplasma Research Group, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil.
| | - Fábio Batista Frederico
- Retinopathy Outpatient Clinic, Hospital de Base da Fundação Faculdade Regional de Medicina-HB-FUNFARME, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5544, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil. .,FAMERP Toxoplasma Research Group, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil.
| | - Fernando Henrique Antunes Murata
- Immunogenetics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto-FAMERP, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil. .,FAMERP Toxoplasma Research Group, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil.
| | - Rubens Camargo Siqueira
- Immunogenetics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto-FAMERP, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil.
| | - Amanda Pires Barbosa
- Retinopathy Outpatient Clinic, Hospital de Base da Fundação Faculdade Regional de Medicina-HB-FUNFARME, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5544, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil. .,FAMERP Toxoplasma Research Group, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil.
| | - Aparecida Perpétuo Silveira-Carvalho
- Immunogenetics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto-FAMERP, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil.
| | - Cristina da Silva Meira
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, of Parasites and Fungi, Instituto Adolfo Lutz-IAL, Aenida Dr Arnaldo,355, São Paulo, São Paulo state, 01246-000, Brazil. .,IAL Toxoplasma Research Group, Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Avenida Dr Arnaldo, 355, São Paulo, Sao Paulo state, 01246-000, Brazil.
| | - Vera Lúcia Pereira-Chioccola
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, of Parasites and Fungi, Instituto Adolfo Lutz-IAL, Aenida Dr Arnaldo,355, São Paulo, São Paulo state, 01246-000, Brazil. .,IAL Toxoplasma Research Group, Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Avenida Dr Arnaldo, 355, São Paulo, Sao Paulo state, 01246-000, Brazil.
| | - Ricardo Gava
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, of Parasites and Fungi, Instituto Adolfo Lutz-IAL, Aenida Dr Arnaldo,355, São Paulo, São Paulo state, 01246-000, Brazil. .,IAL Toxoplasma Research Group, Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Avenida Dr Arnaldo, 355, São Paulo, Sao Paulo state, 01246-000, Brazil.
| | - Plínio Pereira Martins Neto
- Retinopathy Outpatient Clinic, Hospital de Base da Fundação Faculdade Regional de Medicina-HB-FUNFARME, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5544, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil.
| | - Luiz Carlos de Mattos
- Immunogenetics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto-FAMERP, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil. .,FAMERP Toxoplasma Research Group, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil.
| | - Cinara Cássia Brandão de Mattos
- Immunogenetics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto-FAMERP, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil. .,FAMERP Toxoplasma Research Group, Avenida Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 5416, São José do Rio Preto, Sao Paulo state, 15090-000, Brazil.
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Fochi MML, Baring S, Spegiorin LCJF, Vaz-Oliani DCM, Galão EA, Oliani AH, de Mattos LC, de Mattos CCB. Prematurity and Low Birth Weight did not Correlate with Anti-Toxoplasma gondii Maternal Serum Profiles--a Brazilian Report. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0132719. [PMID: 26192182 PMCID: PMC4508015 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0132719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Gestational Toxoplasma gondii infection is considered a major risk factor for miscarriage, prematurity and low birth weight in animals. However, studies focusing on this topic in humans are scarce. The objective of this study is to determine whether anti-Toxoplasma gondii maternal serum profiles correlate prematurity and low birth weight in humans. The study examined 213 pregnant women seen at the High-Risk Pregnancy Hospital de Base, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil. All serological profiles (IgM-/IgG+; IgM-/IgG-; IgM+/IgG+) were determined by ELISA commercial kits. Maternal age, gestational age and weight of the newborn at birth were collected and recorded in the Statement of Live Birth. Prematurity was defined as gestational age <37 weeks and low birth weight ≤ 2499 grams. The t-test was used to compare values (p < 0.05). The mean maternal age was 27.6±6.6 years. Overall, 56.3% (120/213) of the women studied were IgM-/IgG+, 36.2% (77/213) were IgM-/IgG- and 7.5% (16/213) were IgM+/IgG+. The average age of the women with serological profile IgM+/IgG+ (22.3±3.9 years) was different from women with the profile IgM-/IgG+ (27.9±6.7 years, p = 0.0011) and IgM-/IgG- (27.9±6.4 years, p = 0.0012). There was no statistically significant difference between the different serological profiles in relation to prematurity (p = 0.6742) and low birth weight (p = 0.7186). The results showed that prematurity and low birth weight did not correlate with anti-Toxoplasma gondii maternal serum profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Machado Lemos Fochi
- Immunogenetics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- FAMERP Toxoplasma Research Group, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sabrina Baring
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Service, Hospital de Base, Fundação Faculdade Regional de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–HB-FUNFARME, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lígia Cosentino Junqueira Franco Spegiorin
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Service, Hospital de Base, Fundação Faculdade Regional de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–HB-FUNFARME, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Hospital da Criança e Maternidade de São José do Rio Preto–HCM, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- FAMERP Toxoplasma Research Group, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Denise Cristina Mós Vaz-Oliani
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Service, Hospital de Base, Fundação Faculdade Regional de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–HB-FUNFARME, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Hospital da Criança e Maternidade de São José do Rio Preto–HCM, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eloisa Aparecida Galão
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Service, Hospital de Base, Fundação Faculdade Regional de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–HB-FUNFARME, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Hospital da Criança e Maternidade de São José do Rio Preto–HCM, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Antonio Hélio Oliani
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Hospital da Criança e Maternidade de São José do Rio Preto–HCM, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz Carlos de Mattos
- Immunogenetics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- FAMERP Toxoplasma Research Group, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Cinara Cássia Brandão de Mattos
- Immunogenetics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- FAMERP Toxoplasma Research Group, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto–FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Pathological changes in acute experimental toxoplasmosis with Toxoplasma gondii strains obtained from human cases of congenital disease. Exp Parasitol 2015; 156:87-94. [PMID: 26072201 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2015.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
There is a lack of studies using Toxoplasma gondii strains isolated from human patients. Here, we present a pathological study of three strains obtained from human cases of congenital toxoplasmosis in Brazil using inbred mice after oral infection with 10 tissue cysts. Multiplex-nested PCR-RFLP of eleven loci revealed atypical genotypes commonly found in Brazil: toxodb #8 for TgCTBr5 and TgCTBr16 strains and toxodb #11 for the TgCTBr9 strain. BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice were evaluated for survival and histological changes during the acute phase of the disease. All mice inoculated with the non-virulent TgCTBR5 strain survived after 30 days, although irreversible tissue damage was found. In contrast, no mice were resistant to infection with the highly virulent TgCTBR9 strain. The TgCTBr16 strain resulted in 80% survival in mice. However, this strain presented low infectivity, especially by the oral route of infection. Despite being identified with the same genotype, TgCTBr5 and TgCTBr16 strains showed biological differences. Histopathologic analysis revealed liver and lungs to be the most affected organs, and the pattern of tissue injury was similar to that found in mice inoculated perorally with strains belonging to clonal genotypes. However, there was a variation in the intensity of ileum lesions according to T. gondii strain and mouse lineage. C57BL/6 mice showed higher susceptibility than BALB/c for histological lesions. Taken together, these results revealed that the pathogenesis of T. gondii strains belonging to atypical genotypes can induce similar tissue damage to those from clonal genotypes, although intrinsic aspects of the strains seem critical to the induction of ileitis in the infected host.
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Isolation and biological and molecular characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from canine cutaneous toxoplasmosis in Brazil. J Clin Microbiol 2014; 52:4419-20. [PMID: 25253796 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02001-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cutaneous toxoplasmosis is a rare manifestation. This study represents a case report of an immunosuppressed dog that developed nodular dermal lesions caused by Toxoplasma gondii. The isolate (TgDgBr20) was characterized as mouse virulent and was genotyped as type BrI (ToxoDB genotype 6) using PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and as Africa 1 through microsatellite analysis.
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