Slow food: sustained impact of harder foods on the reduction in energy intake over the course of the day

Association of dietary behavior patterns of middle-aged and older adults with their obesity metabolic phenotype: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Middle-aged and elderly individuals are the most susceptible groups for metabolic diseases, with their dietary behaviors being significant influencing factors. Exploring the association between overall dietary behaviors and obesity metabolic phenotypes is crucial for early prevention and control of chronic diseases, precision treatment and personalized interventions.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study of 15,160 middle-aged and older adults between June 2019 and August 2021 to collect information on their body mass index (BMI), biochemical indices and disease history. The population was classified into four categories by the criteria of obesity metabolic phenotypes: metabolically healthy non-obesity (MHNO), metabolically unhealthy non-obesity (MUNO), metabolically healthy obesity (MHO) and metabolically unhealthy obesity (MUO). Scores were calculated based on compliance with healthy eating behavior patterns (appropriate or light dietary taste, moderately soft and hard food, slightly hot food temperature, medium or slow eating speed, daily intake of dietary supplements and eating with others), and the population was categorized into subgroups 0-2 (did not meet and met only 1 or 2), 3-4 (met 3 or 4), 5-6 (met 5 or 6). The relationship between dietary behavior patterns and different obesity metabolic phenotypes in middle-aged and elderly people were analyzed by multi-categorical logistic regression model.

RESULTS

Compared with the 5-6 subgroup, the dietary behavior patterns of 0-2 and 3-4 scores were risk factors for MUNO, MHO and MUO (P < 0.05), and the lower the scores of the dietary behavior patterns, the higher the multiplicity of the occurrence of MUNO, MHO and MUO, especially for females and adults between 45-60 years old. Appropriate or light dietary taste, moderately soft and hard food, and slightly hot food temperature were protective factors for MUNO and MUO (P < 0.05); medium or slow eating speed and daily intake of dietary supplements were protective factors for MUNO, MHO and MUO (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Dietary behavior patterns in middle-aged and older adults are associated with different obesity metabolic phenotypes, and healthy dietary behaviors may be beneficial for the prevention and control of MUNO, MHO and MUO.

Oral size perception and texture preferences for particle-containing foods in children aged 5-12

Foods containing bits and pieces are often less liked by children; however, there is a limited understanding of how perceptions and preferences for foods with particles change during childhood. This study aimed to investigate preferences and perceptions of particle-containing foods in children aged 5-12 years. Children (n = 485) completed a forced-choice questionnaire on drawings of six pairs of foods, each available with or without particles. Additionally, children tasted yogurts added with muesli differing in particle size (median diameter: 3.9 or 7.5 mm) and evaluated their perception of particle size in mouth and their liking. The questionnaire results showed that children had a clear preference for foods without particles. The average probability of choosing the 'with-particle' foods was 28%, significantly below the midpoint of 50% (p < .0001). Preferences for particle-containing foods were lowest at age six and increased significantly with age (p = .0007). In the taste test, muesli particle size affected oral size perception (p < .0001) but not liking (p = .60). Older children were better able to differentiate particle size than younger children. However, there was no relationship between individual preferences for particle-containing foods and oral size perception of muesli particles. The observation that children's texture preferences changed with age highlights the role of increased experience in shaping preferences for foods with particles.

Unit size influences ad libitum intake in a snacking context via eating rate

Geometric and textural properties of food, like unit size, have previously been shown to influence energy intake. While mechanism(s) driving this effect are unclear, unit size may relate to intake by affecting eating microstructure (e.g., eating rate, bite size). In a randomized crossover study, we investigated relationships between unit size, eating microstructure, and intake. Adults (n = 75, 75% women) consumed an ad libitum snack three times in our laboratory. This snack was a 70-g portion (∼2.5 servings) of one of three sizes of pretzel (small, medium, large). Intake was measured in grams by difference in weight before and after the snack. Each session was video recorded to measure eating microstructure; snack duration (min) and number of bites were annotated and used to calculate mean eating rate (g/min) and mean bite size (g/bite). Results revealed unit size influenced intake (grams and kcal; both p's ≤ 0.001), such that participants consumed 31% and 22% more of the large pretzels (16.9 ± 2.3 g) compared to the small (12.9 ± 2.3 g) and medium sizes (13.8 ± 2.3 g), respectively. Unit size also influenced eating rate and bite size (both p's < 0.001); the largest pretzel size yielded the fastest eating rate and largest mean bite size. Further analysis revealed that after accounting for eating microstructure, the effects of unit size on intake were no longer significant, suggesting eating microstructure was driving these effects. Together, these findings indicate that unit size influences intake by affecting eating microstructure and that food properties like unit size can be leveraged to moderate snack intake.

Spread it on thick? Relative effects of condiment addition and slice thickness on eating rate of bread

Manipulating eating rate (ER) by food properties may enhance or reduce food intake. Within composite foods, such as bread with condiments, the shape of carrier food and the use of condiments are known to influence ER. However, not much is known about their quantitative impacts and interactions. This study investigates the effect of bread slice thickness and addition of condiment on oral processing (ER, chews per g, bite size). In a full factorial design, 30 participants (BMI 21.6 ± 2.0 kg m-2, 23.3 ± 2.1 year) consumed two types of bread (wholewheat (WB); and sourdough (SB)), in three different slice thicknesses (1, 2, 4 cm), with three conditions of margarine addition (0, 2, 4 g per slice of 28 cm2). The results showed that addition of margarine in both breads led to ∼50% higher ER in a non-linear fashion mainly via less chews per g (all P < 0.001). Increasing bread slice thickness in both breads, resulted in ∼15% higher ER, mainly via larger bite sizes (all P < 0.001). The addition of margarine reduced or overruled the effect of slice thickness on all oral processing characteristics (interaction margarine × slice thickness, all P < 0.01). Perceived sensory dryness showed a strong negative correlation with ER. In conclusion, this study highlighted the importance of bread slice thickness, amount of a condiment, and their interactions in controlling ER. Lubrication of the dry crumbs was a main mechanism in controlling ER in this study. These insights can help the design of products with lower ER.

Consuming almonds with chocolate or lettuce influences oral processing behaviour, bolus properties and consequently predicted lipid release from almonds

Lipids in almonds are naturally encapsulated by cell walls which may reduce the actual metabolizable energy content of almonds. Oral processing increases the accessibility of lipids to digestive enzymes by grinding the almond matrix. This study aimed to investigate the effect of adding accompanying foods (chocolate and iceberg lettuce) to almonds on oral processing behaviour, bolus properties and predicted lipid release. Natural chewing times of four almond model foods including one almond (1.3 g), four almonds (4.6 g), one almond with chocolate (4.3 g) and one almond with iceberg lettuce (4.3 g) were collected from n = 59 participants in duplicate. Expectorated boli at the moment of swallowing were characterized for number and mean area of almond bolus particles. Predicted lipid bioaccessibility was estimated using a previously validated model. At similar bite size (4.3-4.6 g), the addition of chocolate and iceberg lettuce to almonds significantly decreased (p < 0.05) chewing time and significantly increased (p < 0.05) eating rate compared to consumption of almonds alone. Almond bolus particle sizes were similar for almonds consumed alone (one and four almonds) and with chocolate, while consuming almonds with lettuce generated significantly fewer and larger almond bolus particles (p < 0.05). Predicted lipid bioaccessibility of almonds consumed with iceberg lettuce was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than for almonds consumed alone (one and four almonds) and almonds consumed with chocolate. Eating rate correlated significantly and positively with the mean area of bolus particles and significantly and negatively with predicted lipid release. In conclusion, combining almonds with other foods such as chocolate and lettuce influences oral processing behaviour and bolus properties and consequently predicted lipid bioaccessibility of almonds, highlighting the impact of food matrix and consumption context on these aspects.

Speed limits: the effects of industrial food processing and food texture on daily energy intake and eating behaviour in healthy adults

PURPOSE

Frequent consumption of industrially processed foods has been associated with obesity. However, it is unknown what drives this association. Food textures of industrially processed foods that stimulate energy overconsumption may be an important driver of this association. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the independent and combined effects of food texture and level of industrial food processing (based on the NOVA classification) on daily energy intake and eating behaviour.

METHODS

Eighteen healthy adults (F/M: 11/7, 23 ± 3 y, 22.1 ± 2.0 kg/m2) participated in a 2 × 2 randomized crossover dietary intervention with four conditions (total of 288 meals): hard unprocessed, hard (ultra-)processed, soft unprocessed and soft (ultra-)processed. Daily diets were offered ad libitum and were equal in energy density (1 kcal/g). Food Intake (g) was measured by pre- and post-consumption weighing of the plates. Eating behaviour parameters were derived from video annotations.

RESULTS

Daily energy intake and food intake were, respectively, 33% (571 ± 135 kcal) and 14% (247 ± 146 g) lower in the hard compared to the soft conditions (main texture p < 0.001). Energy intake was lower in both hard conditions compared to the (ultra)processed soft condition (Tukey p < 0.04). Eating rate (g/min) was on average 85% slower (P < 0.001) in the hard compared to the soft conditions (p < 0.001). Level of processing did not affect food intake.

CONCLUSION

Consumption of hard-textured foods reduces daily energy intake of (ultra-) processed foods. This preliminary investigation shows that there is great variability in food properties that affect energy and food intake beyond industrial food processing. However, findings should be interpreted with precaution considering the limited sample size of this trial. Future classification systems for public health messaging should include energy intake rate to help reduce overconsumption.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY

NCT04280146, https://www.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov , February 21st 2020.

The heat is on: Consumers modify their oral processing behavior when eating spicy foods

Food texture properties and consumer characteristics influence oral processing behaviors. Little is known about oral processing behavior of pungent spicy foods. In two experiments, we investigated how adding ground dried chilies to tomato soup or beef patties and curried rice altered oral processing behaviors. In Experiment One, tomato soups differing in concentration of added ground dried chilies (0.01, 0.03, 0.20 or 0.40% w/w) were consumed (n = 23). In Experiment Two, lunch meals that differed in added ground dried chilies consisting of beef patties (0.0, 0.6 or 1.2% w/w) and curried rice (0.0, 0.4 or 1.0% w/w) were consumed (n = 49). Sip/bite sizes were determined using hidden balances. Oral processing behavior was quantified using video recordings followed by post hoc annotations of specific behaviors. When eating tomato soup, increasing oral burn was associated with increasing number of water sips, water intake and total time between sips. For the solid meals (beef patties and curried rice), increasing oral burn was associated with increased time between bites and total sips of water; conversely, total oral exposure time, total number of chews and number of chews per bite all decreased with greater burn. Saliva content and rate of saliva incorporation into the solid food bolus increased with added ground dried chilies while oral exposure time decreased. We conclude consumers adapt their oral processing behaviors to oral burn of solid foods by reducing oro-sensory exposure time, chewing bites less, increasing time between bites, and consuming more water, potentially to mitigate the discomfort associated with the burn imparted by ground dried chilies.

Factors associated with eating rate: a systematic review and narrative synthesis informed by socio-ecological model

Accumulating evidence shows associations between rapid eating and overweight. Modifying eating rate might be a potential weight management strategy without imposing additional dietary restrictions. A comprehensive understanding of factors associated with eating speed will help with designing effective interventions. The aim of this review was to synthesise the current state of knowledge on the factors associated with eating rate. The socio-ecological model (SEM) was utilised to scaffold the identified factors. A comprehensive literature search of eleven databases was conducted to identify factors associated with eating rate. The 104 studies that met the inclusion criteria were heterogeneous in design and methods of eating rate measurement. We identified thirty-nine factors that were independently linked to eating speed and mapped them onto the individual, social and environmental levels of the SEM. The majority of the reported factors pertained to the individual characteristics (n = 20) including demographics, cognitive/psychological factors and habitual food oral processing behaviours. Social factors (n = 11) included eating companions, social and cultural norms, and family structure. Environmental factors (n = 8) included food texture and presentation, methods of consumption or background sounds. Measures of body weight, food form and characteristics, food oral processing behaviours and gender, age and ethnicity were the most researched and consistent factors associated with eating rate. A number of other novel and underresearched factors emerged, but these require replication and further research. We highlight directions for further research in this space and potential evidence-based candidates for interventions targeting eating rate.

Beyond ultra-processed: considering the future role of food processing in human health

Food-based dietary guidelines have been the basis of public health recommendations for over half a century, but more recently, there has been a trend to classify the health properties of food not by its nutrient composition, but by the degree to which it has been processed. This concept has been supported by many association studies, narrative reviews and the findings from one randomised controlled feeding trial, which demonstrated the sustained effect of ultra-processed diets on increasing both energy intake and body weight. This has led to widespread speculation as to specific features of ultra-processed foods that promote increased energy intakes. Rising interest in the ultra-processed topic has led to proposals to include guidance and restrictions on the consumption of processed foods in national dietary guidelines, with some countries encouraging consumers to avoid highly processed foods completely, and only choose minimally processed foods. However, there remains a lack of consensus on the role of processed foods in human health when faced with the challenges of securing the food supply for a growing global population, that is, healthy, affordable and sustainable. There has also been criticism of the subjective nature of definitions used to differentiate foods by their degree of processing, and there is currently a lack of empirical data to support a clear mechanism by which highly processed foods promote greater energy intakes. Recommendations to avoid all highly processed foods are potentially harmful if they remove affordable sources of nutrients and will be impractical for most when an estimated two-thirds of current energy purchased are from processed or ultra-processed foods. The current review highlights some considerations when interpreting the dietary association studies that link processed food intake to health and offers a critique on some of the mechanisms proposed to explain the link between ultra-processed food and poor health. Recent research suggests a combination of higher energy density and faster meal eating rates are likely to influence meal size and energy intakes from processed foods and offers new perspectives on how to manage this in the future. In going beyond the ultra-processed debate, the aim is to summarise some important considerations when interpreting existing data and identify the important gaps for future research on the role of processed food in health.

Binge-Eating Precursors in Children and Adolescents: Neurodevelopment, and the Potential Contribution of Ultra-Processed Foods

Binge-eating disorder (BED) is a highly prevalent disorder. Subthreshold BED conditions (sBED) are even more frequent in youth, but their significance regarding BED etiology and long-term prognosis is unclear. A better understanding of brain findings associated with BED and sBED, in the context of critical periods for neurodevelopment, is relevant to answer such questions. The present narrative review starts from the knowledge of the development of emotional self-regulation in youth, and the brain circuits supporting emotion-regulation and eating behaviour. Next, neuroimaging studies with sBED and BED samples will be reviewed, and their brain-circuitry overlap will be examined. Deficits in inhibition control systems are observed to precede, and hyperactivity of reward regions to characterize, sBED, with overlapping findings in BED. The imbalance between reward/inhibition systems, and the implication of interoception/homeostatic processing brain systems should be further examined. Recent knowledge of the potential impact that the high consumption of ultra-processed foods in paediatric samples may have on these sBED/BED-associated brain systems is then discussed. There is a need to identify, early on, those sBED individuals at risk of developing BED at neurodevelopmental stages when there is a great possibility of prevention. However, more neuroimaging studies with sBED/BED pediatric samples are needed.

Understanding consumer liking of beef patties with different firmness among younger and older adults using FaceReader™ and biometrics

Sensorial perceptions change as people age and biometrics analysis can be used to explore the unconscious consumer responses. Investigation was conducted of effects of consumer age (younger, 22-52 years; older, 60-76 years) on facial expression response (FER) during consumption of beef patties with varying firmness (soft, medium, hard) and taste (±plum sauce). Video images were collected and FERs analysed using FaceReader™. Younger people exhibited higher intensity for happy/sad/scared and lower intensity for neutral/disgusted, relative to older people. Interactions between age and texture/sauce showed little FER variation in older people, whereas younger people showed considerable FER variation. Younger people, but not older people, had lowest intensity of happy FER and highest intensity of angry FER for the hard patty. Sauce addition resulted in higher intensity of happy/contempt in younger consumers, but not older consumers. FER collected using FaceReader™ was successfully used to differentiate between the unconscious responses of younger and older consumers.

Combined effect of eating speed instructions and food texture modification on eating rate, appetite and later food intake

Modifying food texture and eating slowly each reduce appetite and energy intake. No study has evaluated the effect of combining these measures to slow eating speed and determine the effect on appetite. The aim of this study was to investigate whether there is a combined effect of manipulating oral processing behaviours (OPBs) in this manner on self-reported satiety and subsequent food intake. A 2 × 2 design was used with four breakfast conditions in total. Twenty-four participants attended four study visits where they were asked to consume one of two isocaloric fixed-portion breakfasts differing in texture: 1) granola with milk and 2) yogurt with muesli and conserve. Participants consumed each breakfast twice, with verbal instructions to chew slowly at one visit and at a normal rate at another. Consumption was video-recorded to behaviourally code OPBs. Participants completed visual analogue scales of self-reported appetite measures at the beginning of the test session, immediately prior to and immediately after breakfast consumption. They also completed a food diary documenting food intake for the remainder of the day. The breakfast designed to be eaten slowest (the harder-textured meal with instructions to eat slowly) was eaten at a slower rate, with a greater number of chews per bite and a slower bite rate (p < 0.001) compared to the other meals. No differences were observed between the breakfast conditions on subjective measures of post-prandial satiety, or subsequent energy or macronutrient consumption. Results of this study highlight that combined effects of texture and instructions are most effective at reducing eating rate, though eating slower was not shown to enhance post-meal satiety. Reduced eating speed has previously been shown to reduce ad-libitum energy intake. Future research should consider combined approaches to reduce eating speed, to mitigate the risk of overconsumption within meals.

Independent and combined impact of texture manipulation on oral processing behaviours among faster and slower eaters

Background: Food texture can moderate eating rate and ad libitum energy intake. Many foods are combined with condiments when consumed and the texture and eating properties differ considerably between condiments and carrier foods. Little is known about how combinations of textures impact oral processing or whether these differences are affected by individual eating-styles. Objective: We investigated the impact of texture parameters (unit size, thickness, hardness and lubrication) on oral processing behaviours for carrots and rice-crackers, and tested whether these behaviours differ between 'faster' and 'slower' eaters. Method: Seventy participants (34 males, 26.0 ± 5.4 years, BMI = 21.5 ± 1.7 kg m^-2) consumed 24 weight-matched carrot samples varying in unit size (large/medium/small), thickness (thick/thin), hardness (hard/soft) and lubrication (with/without mayonnaise). In a second step, participants consumed 8 weight-matched cracker samples varying in unit size (large/small), hardness (hard/soft) and lubrication (with/without mayonnaise). Sample consumption was video-recorded for post hoc behavioural annotation to derive specific oral processing behaviours. Participants were divided into 'faster' or 'slower' eater groups using a post hoc median split based on eating rate of raw carrot. Results: Across texture parameters, hardness had the largest influence (p < 0.001) on eating rate for both carrots and crackers. The independent texture differences for carrot ranked from most to least impact on eating rate was hardness > thickness > lubrication > unit size. For crackers, the rank order of eating rate was hardness > lubrication > unit size. Harder carrot samples with decreased unit size and reduced thickness combined had a larger synergistic effect in reducing eating rate (p < 0.001) than manipulation of any single texture parameter alone. Reducing the unit size of crackers while increasing hardness without lubrication combined (p = 0.015) to produce the largest reduction in eating rate. There were no significant differences between fast and slow eaters on their oral processing behaviours across texture manipulations. Conclusions: Combinations of texture manipulations have the largest impact in moderating oral processing behaviours, and this is consistent across 'faster' and 'slower' eaters. Changing food-texture presents an effective strategy to guide reformulation of product sensory properties to better regulate eating rate and energy intake, regardless of an individual's natural eating-style.

Dissecting ultra-processed foods and drinks: Do they have a potential to impact the brain?

Ultra-processed foods and drinks (UPF) are formulation of ingredients, mostly of exclusive industrial use, that result from a series of industrial processes. They usually have a low nutrient but high energy density, with a high content of saturated and trans fats, and added sugars. In addition, they have characteristic organoleptic properties, and usually contain sophisticated additives, including artificial sweeteners, to intensify their sensory qualities and imitate the appearance of minimally processed foods. In addition, recent research has warned about the presence of chemicals (e.g., bisphenol) and neo-formed contaminants in these products. UPF production and consumption growth have been spectacular in the last decades, being specially consumed in children and adolescents. UPF features have been associated with a range of adverse health effects such as overeating, the promotion of inflammatory and oxidative stress processes, gut dysbiosis, and metabolic dysfunction including problems in glucose regulation. The evidence that these UPF-related adverse health effects may have on the neural network implicated in eating behavior are discussed, including the potential impact on serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission, brain integrity and function. We end this review by placing UPF in the context of current food environments, by suggesting that an increased exposure to these products through different channels, such as marketing, may contribute to the automatic recruitment of the brain regions associated with food consumption and choice, with a detrimental effect on inhibitory-related prefrontal cortices. While further research is essential, preliminary evidence point to UPF consumption as a potential detrimental factor for brain health and eating behavior.

The Importance of Food Processing and Eating Behavior in Promoting Healthy and Sustainable Diets

Numerous association studies and findings from a controlled feeding trial have led to the suggestion that "processed" foods are bad for health. Processing technologies and food formulation are essential for food preservation and provide access to safe, nutritious, affordable, appealing and sustainable foods for millions globally. However, food processing at any level can also cause negative health consequences that result from thermal destruction of vitamins; formation of toxins such as acrylamide; or excessive intakes of salt, sugar, and fat. Research on ultraprocessed foods centers on food composition and formulation. In addition, many modern food formulations can have poor nutritional quality and higher energy density. We outline the role of processing in the provision of a safe and secure food supply and explore the characteristics of processed foods that promote greater energy intake. Despite the potential for negative health effects, food processing and formulation represent an opportunity to apply the latest developments in technology and ingredient innovation to improve the food supply by creating foods that decrease the risk of overeating. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Nutrition, Volume 42 is August 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Oral processing behaviours of liquid, solid and composite foods are primarily driven by texture, mechanical and lubrication properties rather than by taste intensity

The aim of this study was to understand the influence of saltiness and sweetness intensity on oral processing behaviours of liquid, solid and composite foods. As salty foods, tomato sauce (liquid), penne pasta (solid) and their combination (composite food) were used at two levels of saltiness intensity (low/high). As sweet foods, strawberry sauce (liquid), milk gels (solid) and their combination (composite foods) were used at two levels of sweetness intensity (low/high). Saltiness, sweetness, hardness, chewiness, and liking were quantified using generalized labelled magnitude scales (gLMS). Oral processing behaviours were determined using video recordings (n = 39, mean age 25 ± 3 years) in a home-use-test (HUT) providing fixed bite sizes for all foods. As expected, taste intensity differed significantly between samples within the same food category. No significant effects of taste intensity on oral processing behaviours were found for sweet and salty foods. As expected, consistency strongly affected the consumption time per bite, number of chews per bite, number of chews per gram and eating rate. Solid foods were masticated for the longest time with the highest number of chews per bite, followed by composite foods as the liquid added to the solid foods enhanced lubrication. Liquid foods were masticated for the shortest time. We conclude that large differences in saltiness and sweetness intensity of liquid, solid and composite foods cause no differences in oral processing behaviours. We suggest that oral processing behaviours are primarily driven by texture, mechanical and lubrication properties of foods rather than by their taste intensity.

The significance and potential of functional food ingredients for control appetite and food intake

Dramatically rising global levels of obesity have raised consumers’ commercial and public health interest in foods that may help control appetite and weight. The satiety cascade consists of sensory, cognitive, physical, and hormonal events following food intake, preventing overeating, and the desire to eat for a long time. Functional foods can be one of the most influential factors in reducing appetite as long as effective ingredients, such as fiber and protein, are used to design these products. Also, functional foods should be designed to reduce appetite at different levels of oral processing, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine by various mechanisms. Therefore, the satiety power of functional foods depends on the type of ingredients and their amount. Because each compound has a different mechanism of action, it is recommended to use different compounds to influence satiety in functional foods.

Effect of presence of gluten and spreads on the oral processing behavior of breads

Little is known about the oral processing behavior of gluten-free (GF) products. This study investigated the oral processing behavior of one commercial GF bread and one gluten-containing (GC) equivalent with and without spreads. Oral processing parameters were determined through video recording and the predominant texture attributes were accessed using a check-all-that-apply test. The GF bread was perceived crumbly, dry and sandy and had a longer eating duration than the GC bread, which was perceived soft, spongy, pasty and sticky. Results suggest that the structure of the GF bread was easily fragmented during mastication and a longer period in the mouth was required to prepare a cohesive bolus for swallowing. The addition of spreads increased softness perception but did not affect chewing behavior. Oral processing behavior of GF products should be further investigated to understand how eating rate, satiation responses and food intake can be modulated in GF products.

Combination of Texture-Induced Oral Processing and Vegetable Preload Strategy Reduced Glycemic Excursion but Decreased Insulin Sensitivity

This study aimed to investigate the effect of the oral processing of vegetables induced by texture modification on acute postprandial glycemic response (GR) and insulin response (IR) when co-ingested and ingested prior to a rice meal. In a randomized crossover trial, 14 healthy female subjects consumed (1) co-ingestion of soft broccoli and rice (SR); (2) co-ingestion of hard broccoli and rice (HR); (3) soft broccoli prior to rice (S+R); (4) hard broccoli prior to rice (H+R); (5) rice (R). Postprandial GR and IR was compared between test meals over a period of 180-min, and the oral processing behaviors were measured for each test food samples. Hard broccoli was observed to have a higher mastication time and chews than soft broccoli. All the broccoli meals resulted in reduced incremental peak glucose (IPG) and an increased incremental area under the insulin curve in 180 min (iAUC_0–180) compared with R. The S+R curbed the IPG by 40% with comparable HOMA-IR AUC_0–180 compared with R, while the H+R elevated the HOMA-IR AUC_0–180 by 62% more than that of R. In conclusion, the soft broccoli intake prior to a rice meal effectively attenuated postprandial GR, without lowering insulin sensitivity as its hard counterpart did.

Texture-based differences in eating rate influence energy intake for minimally processed and ultra-processed meals

BACKGROUND

Consumption of ultra-processed foods has been linked with higher energy intakes. Food texture is known to influence eating rate (ER) and energy intake to satiation, yet it remains unclear whether food texture influences energy intakes from minimally processed and ultra-processed meals.

OBJECTIVES

We examined the independent and combined effects of food texture and degree of processing on ad libitum food intake. We also investigated whether differences in energy intake during lunch influenced postmeal feelings of satiety and later food intake.

METHODS

In this crossover study, 50 healthy-weight participants [n = 50 (24 men); mean ± SD age: 24.4 ± 3.1 y; BMI: 21.3 ± 1.9 kg/m2] consumed 4 ad libitum lunch meals consisting of "soft minimally processed," "hard minimally processed," "soft ultra-processed," and "hard ultra-processed" components. Meals were matched for total energy served, with some variation in meal energy density (±0.20 kcal/g). Ad libitum food intake (kcal and g) was measured and ER derived using behavioral coding of videos. Subsequent food intake was self-reported by food diary.

RESULTS

There was a main effect of food texture on intake, whereby "hard minimally processed" and "hard ultra-processed" meals were consumed slower overall, produced a 21% and 26% reduction in food weight (g) and energy (kcal) consumed, respectively. Intakes were higher for "soft ultra-processed" and "soft minimally processed" meals (P < 0.001), after correcting for meal pleasantness. The effect of texture on food weight consumed was not influenced by processing levels (weight of food: texture*processing-effect, P = 0.376), but the effect of food texture on energy intake was (energy consumed: texture*processing-effect, P = 0.015). The least energy was consumed from the "hard minimally processed" meal (482.9 kcal; 95% CI: 431.9, 531.0 kcal) and the most from the "soft ultra-processed" meal (789.4 kcal; 95% CI: 725.9, 852.8 kcal; Δ=↓∼300 kcal). Energy intake was lowest when harder texture was combined with the "minimally processed" meals. Total energy intake across the day varied directly with energy intakes of the test meals (Δ15%, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that food texture-based differences in ER and meal energy density contribute to observed differences in energy intake between minimally processed and ultra-processed meals.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT04589221.

Relationship between body mass index and masticatory factors evaluated with a wearable device

Numerous studies have evaluated the relationship between eating behavior and obesity, however few studies have objectively assessed eating behavior. Additionally, the association of masticatory behaviors with masticatory performance remains unclear. This study aimed to verify the relationship between masticatory performance and behavior measured by a wearable masticatory counter, and BMI. 365 healthy adults participated. Mastication behaviors, i.e. number of chews and bites, chewing rate, and chewing time, were measured using wearable masticatory counter while consuming one rice ball (100 g). Masticatory performance was evaluated using testing gummy jelly. Lifestyle habits including exercise, walking, and breakfast, were surveyed by questionnaire. The correlation coefficients between masticatory behaviors and performance and BMI were analyzed. Furthermore, multiple regression analysis was performed. The number of chews showed positive correlation with chewing rate, number of bites and chewing time, but no correlation with masticatory performance. BMI had weak but significant negative correlation with number of chews, bites, chewing time, and masticatory performance, but had no correlation with chewing rate. Multiple regression analysis revealed that BMI was associated with sex, age, number of chews, bites, masticatory performance, and walking speed. In conclusion, masticatory behavior and performance were not interrelated, but both were independently associated with BMI weakly.

Influence of Sensory Properties in Moderating Eating Behaviors and Food Intake

Sensory properties inform likes and dislikes, but also play an important functional role in guiding food choice and intake behavior. Odors direct food choice and stimulate sensory-specific appetites and taste helps to anticipate calorie and nutrient content of food. Food textures moderate eating rate and the energy consumed to satiation and post-ingestive metabolism. We summarize how sensory cues moderate intake, and highlight opportunities to apply sensory approaches to improve dietary behavior. Salt, sweet and savory taste influence liking, but also influence energy intake to fullness, with higher taste intensity and duration linked to lower intake. Psycho-physical studies show it is relatively easy to rank taste intensities at different concentrations but more challenging to discriminate fat contents, and fat discrimination declines further when combined with high-taste intensity. Fat has low impact on sensory intensity, but makes significant contributions to energy content. Combinations of high taste and fat-content can promote passive energy over-consumption, and adding fat also increases energy intake rate (kcals/min), reducing opportunities to orally meter consumption. Consumers adapt their oral processing behaviors to a foods texture, which can influence the rate and extent of energy intake. Understanding how texture influences eating behaviors and bolus formation, affords new opportunities to impact eating rate, energy intake and metabolic response to food. Food formulation has traditionally focused on composition and sensory appeal. Future research needs to consider the role of sensory properties in moderating consumer interaction with their food environment, and how they influence calorie selection, and shape our eating behaviors and intake.

Impact of Nutritional Intervention on Taste Perception-A Scoping Review

The aim of the present scoping review was to evaluate the impact of experimental meal loads or observational diet changes/habits on taste tests in both healthy subjects and patients. A systematic search performed in PubMed, Scopus, and Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) Web of Science electronic databases retrieved, respectively 2981, 6258, and 7555 articles from January 2000 to December 2020. A total of 17 articles were included for full-text review. Literature results were stratified according to the observational/interventional approach, the involvement of healthy subjects or patients, the taste test, and the meal/dietary changes. The present scoping review reinforced the notions postulating that certain taste tests (for example focusing on fatty acid, salt, or sugar) might be specifically influenced by the nutritional intervention and that other ones might be susceptible to a wide span of changes beyond the extent of tastant included in the specific food changes. This could also depend on the inhomogeneity of literature trend: The short duration of the intervention or the random type of meal load, unsuitability of the taste test chosen, and the presence of underlying disorders. Future studies for a better comprehension of taste tests reliability in relation to specific food changes are thus to be fostered.

A neural circuit integrates pharyngeal sensation to control feeding

Swallowing is an essential step of eating and drinking. However, how the quality of a food bolus is sensed by pharyngeal neurons is largely unknown. Here we find that mechanical receptors along the Drosophila pharynx are required for control of meal size, especially for food of high viscosity. The mechanical force exerted by the bolus passing across the pharynx is detected by neurons expressing the mechanotransduction channel NOMPC (no mechanoreceptor potential C) and is relayed, together with gustatory information, to IN1 neurons in the subesophageal zone (SEZ) of the brain. IN1 (ingestion neurons) neurons act directly upstream of a group of peptidergic neurons that encode satiety. Prolonged activation of IN1 neurons suppresses feeding. IN1 neurons receive inhibition from DSOG1 (descending subesophageal neurons) neurons, a group of GABAergic neurons that non-selectively suppress feeding. Our results reveal the function of pharyngeal mechanoreceptors and their downstream neural circuits in the control of food ingestion.

The feasibility, acceptability, and benefit of interventions that target eating speed in the clinical treatment of children and adolescents with overweight or obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Eating at a faster speed is positively correlated with having a higher BMI. Modifying eating speed may offer a treatment opportunity for those with overweight and obesity. This review sought to understand the feasibility, acceptability, and benefit to using eating speed interventions in paediatric clinical weight-management settings. The PICO Framework was used. Clinical studies of eating speed interventions as a treatment for paediatric patients with overweight or obesity were included. No limits to search date were implemented. A systematic search of MEDLINE, PsychINFO and EMBASE via OVID, Web of Science and JBI, Database of systematic reviews and Implementation reports, along with trial registers NICE, ClinicalTrials.gov and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials was conducted. Two authors were responsible for screening, extraction, and evaluation of the risk of bias. Fifteen papers reporting twelve interventions addressing eating-speed were identified, involving a total of 486 active participants (range 7-297). Study design was weak with only one full RCT and there were some concerns over quality and risk of bias (Cochrane RoB 2.0). Limited sample sizes and different measured outcomes did not allow powered evaluations of effect for all outcomes. There is some indication, overall, that addressing eating speed has the potential to be a beneficial adjunct to clinical obesity treatment, although the pooled effect estimate did not demonstrate a difference in BMISDS status following eating speed interventions compared to control [pooled mean difference (0.04, 95% CI -0.39 to 0.46, N = 3)]. Developments to improve the engagement to, and acceptability of, interventions are required, alongside rigorous high-quality trials to evaluate effectiveness.

Odor-Taste-Texture Interactions as a Promising Strategy to Tackle Adolescent Overweight

The adolescence period is characterized by a considerable risk to weight gain due to the high consumption of food rich in sugar. A promising strategy to reduce sugar consumption may lie in exploiting the ability of our senses to interact to each other (cross-modal interactions). The aims were to investigate the cross-modal interactions and gustatory function in normal-weight and overweight adolescents. Fifty adolescents (25 overweight and 25 normal-weight) were involved. Subjects rated liking and attribute intensity in pudding samples obtained by adding vanilla aroma (0.1%; 0.3%), butter aroma (0.05%; 0.1%) or a thickener agent (1%; 1.5%) to a base formulation. The gustatory function was also measured through the “taste strips” methodology. Overweight adolescents were found to have a significantly (p < 0.001) worse ability to correctly identify all tastes. Cross-modal interactions occurred differently according to their body mass index, with a significant increase (p < 0.05) in sensory desirable characteristics (e.g., sweet and creaminess) due to aroma addition, especially in overweight subjects. Furthermore, butter aroma significantly increased hedonic responses only in overweight subjects. Tricking our senses in the way of perceiving sensory attributes could be a promising strategy to develop innovative food formulations with a reduced sugar amount, which will lead to a potential decrease in caloric intake and help to tackle the obesity epidemic.

Sensory and physical characteristics of foods that impact food intake without affecting acceptability: Systematic review and meta-analyses

This systematic review with meta-analyses aimed to identify the sensory and physical characteristics of foods/beverages which increase satiation and/or decrease/delay subsequent consumption without affecting acceptability. Systematic searches were first undertaken to identify review articles investigating the effects of any sensory and physical food characteristic on food intake. These articles provided some evidence that various textural parameters (aeration, hardness, homogeneity, viscosity, physical form, added water) can impact food intake. Individual studies investigating these effects while also investigating acceptability were then assessed. Thirty-seven individual studies investigated a textural manipulation and provided results on food intake and acceptability, 13 studies (27 comparisons, 898 participants) investigated effects on satiation, and 29 studies (54 comparisons, 916 participants) investigated effects on subsequent intake. Meta-analyses of within-subjects comparisons (random-effects models) demonstrated greater satiation (less weight consumed) from food products that were harder, chunkier, more viscous, voluminous, and/or solid, while demonstrating no effects on acceptability. Textural parameters had limited effects on subsequent consumption. Between-subjects studies and sensitivity analyses confirmed these results. These findings provide some evidence that textural parameters can increase satiation without affecting acceptability. The development of harder, chunkier, more viscous, voluminous, and/or solid food/beverage products may be of value in reducing overconsumption.

Good taste or gut feeling? A new method in rats shows oro-sensory stimulation and gastric distention generate distinct and overlapping brain activation patterns

Satiation is influenced by a variety of signals including gastric distention and oro-sensory stimulation. Here we developed a high-field (9.4 T) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) protocol to test how oro-sensory stimulation and gastric distention, as induced with a block-design paradigm, affect brain activation under different states of energy balance in rats. Repeated tasting of sucrose induced positive and negative fMRI responses in the ventral tegmental area and septum, respectively, and gradual neural activation in the anterior insula and the brain stem nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), as revealed using a two-level generalized linear model-based analysis. These unique findings align with comparable human experiments, and are now for the first time identified in rats, thereby allowing for comparison between species. Gastric distention induced more extensive brain activation, involving the insular cortex and NTS. Our findings are largely in line with human studies that have shown that the NTS is involved in processing both visceral information and taste, and anterior insula in processing sweet taste oro-sensory signals. Gastric distention and sucrose tasting induced responses in mesolimbic areas, to our knowledge not previously detected in humans, which may reflect the rewarding effects of a full stomach and sweet taste, thereby giving more insight into the processing of sensory signals leading to satiation. The similarities of these data to human neuroimaging data demonstrate the translational value of the approach and offer a new avenue to deepen our understanding of the process of satiation in healthy people and those with eating disorders.

Effects of Oro-Sensory Exposure on Satiation and Underlying Neurophysiological Mechanisms-What Do We Know So Far?

The mouth is the first part of the gastrointestinal tract. During mastication sensory signals from the mouth, so-called oro-sensory exposure, elicit physiological signals that affect satiation and food intake. It has been established that a longer duration of oro-sensory exposure leads to earlier satiation. In addition, foods with more intense sweet or salty taste induce earlier satiation compared to foods that are equally palatable, but with lower taste intensity. Oro-sensory exposure to food affects satiation by direct signaling via the brainstem to higher cortical regions involved in taste and reward, including the nucleus accumbens and the insula. There is little evidence that oro-sensory exposure affects satiation indirectly through either hormone responses or gastric signals. Critical brain areas for satiation, such as the brainstem, should be studied more intensively to better understand the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the process of satiation. Furthermore, it is essential to increase the understanding of how of highly automated eating behaviors, such as oral processing and eating rate, are formed during early childhood. A better understanding of the aforementioned mechanisms provides fundamental insight in relation to strategies to prevent overconsumption and the development of obesity in future generations.

Understanding the oral processing of solid foods: Insights from food structure

Understanding the relationship between the structure of solid foods and their oral processing is paramount for enhancing features such as texture and taste and for improving health-related factors such as management of body weight or dysphagia. This paper discusses the main aspects of the oral processing of solid foods across different categories: (1) oral physiology related to chewing, (2) in-mouth food transformation, (3) texture perception, and (4) taste perception, and emphasis is placed on unveiling the underlying mechanisms of how food structure influences the oral processing of solid foods; this is exemplified by comparing the chewing behaviors for a number of representative solid foods. It highlights that modification of the texture/taste of food based on food structure design opens up the possibility for the development of food products that can be applied in the management of health.

Macronutrient Sensing in the Oral Cavity and Gastrointestinal Tract: Alimentary Tastes

There are numerous and diverse factors enabling the overconsumption of foods, with the sense of taste being one of these factors. There are four well established basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter; all with perceptual independence, salience, and hedonic responses to encourage or discourage consumption. More recently, additional tastes have been added to the basic taste list including umami and fat, but they lack the perceptual independence and salience of the basics. There is also emerging evidence of taste responses to kokumi and carbohydrate. One interesting aspect is the link with the new and emerging tastes to macronutrients, with each macronutrient having two distinct perceptual qualities that, perhaps in combination, provide a holistic perception for each macronutrient: fat has fat taste and mouthfeel; protein has umami and kokumi; carbohydrate has sweet and carbohydrate tastes. These new tastes can be sensed in the oral cavity, but they have more influence post- than pre-ingestion. Umami, fat, kokumi, and carbohydrate tastes have been suggested as an independent category named alimentary. This narrative review will present and discuss evidence for macronutrient sensing throughout the alimentary canal and evidence of how each of the alimentary tastes may influence the consumption of foods.

Consumption of Foods With Higher Energy Intake Rates is Associated With Greater Energy Intake, Adiposity, and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Adults

BACKGROUND

Both high energy density and fast eating rates contribute to excess energy intakes. The energy intake rate (EIR; kcal/min) combines both the energy density (kcal/g) and eating rate (g/min) of a food to quantify the typical rate at which calories of different foods are ingested.

OBJECTIVES

We describe the EIRs of diets in a multi-ethnic Asian population, and examine relationships between the consumption of high-EIR foods and total energy intake, body composition, and cardio-metabolic risk factors.

METHODS

Diet and lifestyle data from the Singapore Multi-Ethnic Cohort 2 (n = 7011; 21-75 y), were collected through interviewer-administrated questionnaires. The EIR for each of the 269 foods was calculated as the product of its eating rate and energy density. Multivariable models were used to examine associations between the relative consumption of foods with higher and lower EIRs and energy intake, body composition, and cardio-metabolic risks, after adjusting for age, sex, ethnicity, education level, physical activity, smoking status, and alcohol drinking status.

RESULTS

Individuals with higher daily energy intakes and with obesity consumed a significantly larger percentage of their energy from high-EIR foods, with a smaller relative intake of lower-EIR foods. Individuals with raised serum cholesterol also consumed a significantly higher proportion of high-EIR foods, whereas those without hypertension consumed a larger percentage of energy intake from low-EIR foods. Individuals classified as having a "very high" dietary EIR had a significantly 1.3 kg higher body weight (95% CI, 0.2-1.5; P = 0.013), 0.4 kg/m2 higher BMI (95% CI, 0.03-0.8; P = 0.037), and 1.2 cm larger waist circumference (95% CI, 0.2-2.2; P = 0.010), and were more likely to have abdominal overweight (OR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.1-1.5; P < 0.001) than those with a "low" dietary EIR.

CONCLUSIONS

Comparing foods by their EIRs summarizes the combined impact of energy density and eating rate, and may identify foods and dietary patterns that are associated with obesogenic eating styles and higher diet-related cardiovascular disease risk in an Asian population.

Relationship between age and sex and the numbers of ingestions and swallows for foods of different textures among healthy adults

BACKGROUND

The number of swallows needed per single ingestion of food is an important index when assisting a patient with dysphagia in eating. While providing meal assistance, the caregiver may assume that one ingestion is completed with one swallow and then may administer the next ingestion even if the individual's mouth still has remaining food from the previous ingestions, increasing the risk for aspiration and choking.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this pilot study was to clarify the differences in foods ingested and swallowed because of influencing factors such as age and gender among healthy adults.

METHODS

The study enrolled 110 healthy adults (47.4 ± 15.8 years; 57 males, 53 females). The numbers of ingestions and swallows were counted and evaluated by food type (pilaf, 100 g; yogurt 80 g; and sponge cake, 35 g) and participant age and sex and analyzed by least-squares multiple regression analysis.

RESULTS

The mean numbers of ingestion/swallows were pilaf, 12.5 ± 3.2/13.4 ± 4.2; yogurt, 8.8 ± 2.1/10.8 ± 2.1; and sponge cake, 5.8 ± 2.1/7.0 ± 2.1. The mean number of ingestions and swallows for all foods were higher for female participants compared with male participants. Statistical analysis identified sex as a significant influencing factor for the number of ingestion for all foods. For the number of swallows, the significant influencing factors were sex for sponge cake and age for pilaf and yogurt.

CONCLUSION

For the test foods of different textures, sex and age were significant influencing factors for the numbers of ingestions and swallows. Further research is needed to elucidate the problem areas in this pilot study.

Oral Processing, Satiation and Obesity: Overview and Hypotheses

Increasing the speed of eating or decreasing the amount of chewing of a test meal significantly decreases its satiation, increases concomitant caloric intake, and influences entero-endocrine secretion. Speed of eating is a strong risk factor for obesity and longitudinal studies suggest an etiological relationship. Individuals with obesity have an increase in bite size, less chewing per bite, decreased satiation, and greater food intake. Oral processing in terms of bite size and amount of chewing per gram of food is influenced by food texture and textural complexity. Soft foods increase bite size and decrease chewing per gram of food and meal duration compared to hard foods. An ultra-processed diet can lead to greater weight gain than a non-processed diet and a significant increase in eating rate. Many children with obesity are noted by their parents to have persistent hunger on a questionnaire and this is often extreme. Results of attempts to change eating behavior have been mixed in terms of producing long-term changes in eating behavior and body weight. It is hypothesized that there may be a unidirectional relationship between changes in oral processing, satiation and weight gain. However, the presence of persistent hunger can produce a vicious cycle that may exacerbate obesity and make treatment difficult. The increased energy density of foods as found particularly in ultra-processed foods also influences energy intake and obesity.

[Effect of eating speed modification techniques and strategies on food or energy intake: a systematic review and meta-analysis]

Introduction

Scientific evidence indicates that eating slowly reduces food and energy intake. However, few investigations have studied the effect of techniques and strategies that modify eating speed on intake. The objective of this study is to analyze the relationship between these techniques and food and/or energy intake. Therefore, a systematic review of 15 human studies and a meta-analysis of 7 studies with 11 experimental and 1 observational manipulations were carried out. Only the results of two conditions were included, "slow" vs. "fast" of eating speed and ingestion. The estimation of the effect was expressed in OR with a 95 % CI under a random effects model, and heterogeneity was assessed with I2. Publication bias was also assessed with a funnel plot and Egger's linear regression test. The results indicate that eating slowly is a protective factor (OR = 0.73) from excessive intake. Additionally, eating small bites with a small spoon (OR = 0.315), serving food preparations on separate plates (OR = 0.860 and OR = 0.831), using a vibrotactile feedback fork (OR = 0.847), and eating hard-textured foods (OR = 0.831) are the techniques and strategies that modify eating speed and decrease food or energy intake. The present study confirms the premise that eating slowly can reduce excessive food and energy intake.

Edograms: recording the microstructure of meal intake in humans-a window on appetite mechanisms

Early attempts at the objective measurement of food intake in humans followed many heuristic pioneer studies in laboratory animals, which revealed how homeostatic and hedonic factors interact to shape the daily eating patterns. Early studies in humans examined the characteristics of intake responses at discrete ingestive events. Described for the first time in 1969, the edogram consisted of a parallel recording of chewing and swallowing responses during standardized lunches, allowing parameters of the "microstructure of meals" to be quantified under varying conditions of deprivation or sensory stimulation, in parallel with overall meal size, meal duration, and eating rate. Edographic studies showed consistent changes in the microstructure of meals in response to palatability level (increased eating rate, decreased chewing time and number of chews per food unit, shorter intrameal pauses, and increased prandial drinking under improved palatability). Longer premeal deprivation affected the eating responses at the beginning of meals (decreased chewing time and number of chews per food unit) but not at the end. Eating rate decelerated during the course of meals in normal-weight participants but not in participants with obesity. These observations largely agreed with contemporary works using other objective measurement methods. They were confirmed and expanded in later studies, notably in the investigation of satiation mechanisms affecting weight control. Importantly, research has demonstrated that the parameters of the microstructure of meals not only reflect the influence of stimulatory/inhibitory factors but can, per se, exert a causal role in satiation and satiety. The early edographic recording instruments were improved over the years and taken out of laboratory settings in order to address the measurement of spontaneous intake responses in free-living individuals. Much remains to be done to make these instruments entirely reliable under the immense variety of situations where food consumption occurs.

Food texture influences on satiety: systematic review and meta-analysis

Obesity is one of the leading causes of preventable deaths. Development of satiety-enhancing foods is considered as a promising strategy to reduce food intake and promote weight management. Food texture may influence satiety through differences in appetite sensations, gastrointestinal peptide release and food intake, but the degree to which it does remains unclear. Herein, we report the first systematic review and meta-analyses on effects of food texture (form, viscosity, structural complexity) on satiety. Both solid and higher viscous food reduce hunger by − 4.97 mm (95% confidence interval (CI) − 8.13, − 1.80) and − 2.10 mm (95% CI − 4.38, 1.18), respectively compared to liquid and low viscous food. An effect of viscosity on fullness (95% CI 5.20 (2.43, 7.97) and a moderate effect of the form of food (95% CI − 26.19 (− 61.72, − 9.35) on food intake were noted. Due to the large variation among studies, the results should be interpreted cautiously and modestly.

How addition of peach gel particles to yogurt affects oral behavior, sensory perception and liking of consumers differing in age

Addition of particles to foods, such as fruit pieces to dairy products or vegetable pieces to soup, is a convenient approach to alter nutritional composition, appearance, perception and acceptance. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of addition of peach gel particles to yogurt on oral behavior, sensory perception and liking of consumers differing in age. One homogeneous yogurt and seven yogurts with peach gel particles were prepared. The added peach gel particles varied in size, fracture stress, or concentration. Oral behavior of n = 62 healthy Dutch, young adults (21 ± 2 years) and n = 62 healthy Dutch elderly (70 ± 5 years) participants was characterized by video recordings. Yogurts' sensory properties and liking were scored on nine-point scales. Elderly consumed yogurts with higher number of chews and longer consumption time leading to lower eating rate than young adults. Addition of particles, regardless of characteristics, increased number of chews, consumption time, and decreased eating rate up to 60% for both consumer groups, with an average decrement of 110 g/min for young and of 63 g/min for elderly consumers. With increasing peach gel hardness and concentration, the number of chews and consumption time increased while eating rate decreased. Peach gel particle size did not affect oral behavior. Sensory perception of yogurts with added peach gel particles was similar for healthy young adult and healthy elderly. Only small differences in sensory perception were observed between the young adults and elderly for flavor attributes, crumbliness, juiciness, and perceived particle size. Similarly, minor differences in liking of a few yogurts with peach pieces were observed between both consumer groups. Thus, healthy ageing seems to affect sensory perception of semi-solid foods to a limited extent only. We conclude that changes in food texture by addition of particles can be used as a strategy to steer eating rate and potentially impact food intake of young adult and elderly consumers while maintaining or enhancing food palatability. Additionally, particle characteristics can be modified to target specific consumer groups that might differ in eating capabilities.

How Important Is Eating Rate in the Physiological Response to Food Intake, Control of Body Weight, and Glycemia?

The link between eating rate and energy intake has long been a matter of extensive research. A better understanding of the effect of food intake speed on body weight and glycemia in the long term could serve as a means to prevent weight gain and/or dysglycemia. Whether a fast eating rate plays an important role in increased energy intake and body weight depends on various factors related to the studied food such as texture, viscosity and taste, but seems to be also influenced by the habitual characteristics of the studied subjects as well. Hunger and satiety quantified via test meals in acute experiments with subsequent energy intake measurements and their association with anorexigenic and orexigenic regulating peptides provide further insight to the complicated pathogenesis of obesity. The present review examines data from the abundant literature on the subject of eating rate, and highlights the main findings in people with normal weight, obesity, and type 2 diabetes, with the aim of clarifying the association between rate of food intake and hunger, satiety, glycemia, and energy intake in the short and long term.

Cracker shape modifies ad libitum snack intake of crackers with cheese dip

Food and energy intake can be effectively lowered by changing food properties, but little is known whether modifying food shape is sufficient to influence intake. This study investigated the influence of cracker shape and cheese viscosity on ad libitum intake of cracker–cheese combinations. Forty-four participants (thirteen males, 23 (sd 3) years, BMI 21 (sd 2) kg/m2) participated in four late afternoon snack sessions (2 × 2 randomised crossover design). Iso-energetic crackers were baked into flat squares and finger-shape cylindrical sticks and combined with a cheese dip varying in viscosity. Approximately eighty crackers and 500 g cheese dip were served in separate large bowls. Participants consumed crackers with cheese dip ad libitum while watching a movie of 30 min. Dipping behaviour and oral processing behaviour were measured simultaneously by hidden balances under the cheese bowls and video recordings. Cracker intake (28 (sem 1) crackers) of cracker–cheese combinations was not influenced by cracker shape. Cheese intake of cracker–cheese combinations was 15 % higher for flat-squared than finger-shape crackers (131 kJ, P = 0·016), as a larger amount of cheese was scooped with flat-squared crackers (2·9 (sem 0·2) v. 2·3 (sem 0·1) g cheese per dip, P < 0·001) and showed higher eating rate and energy intake rate (P < 0·001). Eating rate over snacking time decreased by reducing bite frequency (P < 0·001) while cheese dip size remained fairly constant (P = 0·12). Larger energy intake from condiments was facilitated by increased cracker surface, and this did not trigger earlier satiation. Changing food carrier surface may be a promising approach to moderate energy intake of often high energy dense condiments, sauces and toppings.

Association Between Self-Reported Eating Rate, Energy Intake, and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in a Multi-Ethnic Asian Population

Eating faster is associated with greater body mass index (BMI), but less is known about the relationships between eating rate, energy intake, body composition, and cardio-metabolic risk factors in different Asian ethnic groups. Using data from the Singapore Multi-Ethnic Cohort (n = 7011; 21-75 y), we investigated associations between self-reported eating rate (SRER), with energy intake, body composition, blood pressure, and blood lipids. SRER and lifestyle was assessed using interviewer-administered questionnaires. Multivariable models were used to examine the associations of SRER with energy intake, body composition, blood pressure, and blood lipids after adjusting for covariates. General and abdominal overweight were defined as BMI ≥ 23 kg/m² and waist circumference > 90cm (men) and > 80cm (women), respectively. On average, faster eaters (vs. slower eaters) consumed 105kcal/day more (p = 0.034), had ~5kg higher body weight (p < 0.001), 1.3 kg/m² higher BMI (p < 0.001), and 3.1cm larger waist-circumference (p < 0.001). Faster eaters had significantly higher blood pressure, circulating triglycerides, and total-to-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio than slower eaters. Faster eaters were twice as likely to develop general (multivariable-OR: 2.2;95%CI,1.8-2.6; p < 0.001), and abdominal (OR:1.8;95%CI, 1.5-2.2; p < 0.001) overweight than slower eaters. This association was observed across all subgroups by age, sex, and ethnicity. Findings suggest that SRER is a robust behavioral marker for increased risk of higher energy intake, obesity, and poor cardio-metabolic health, and a modifiable behavioral risk-factor for obesity prevention.

Future foods: a manifesto for research priorities in structural design of foods

A number of major challenges facing modern society are related to the food supply. As the global population grows, it will be critical to feed everyone without damaging the environment. Advances in biotechnology, nanotechnology, structural design, and artificial intelligence are providing farmers and food manufacturers will new tools to address these problems. More and more people are migrating from rural to urban environments, leading to a change in their dietary habits, especially increasing consumption of animal-based products and highly-processed foods. Animal-based foods lead to more greenhouse gas production, land use, water use, and pollution than plant-based ones. Moreover, many animal-based and highly-processed foods have adverse effects on human health and wellbeing. Consumers are therefore being encouraged to consume more plant-based foods, such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, and legumes. Many people, however, do not have the time, money, or inclination to prepare foods from fresh produce. Consequently, there is a need for the food industry to create a new generation of processed foods that are desirable, tasty, inexpensive, and convenient, but that are also healthy and sustainable. This article highlights some of the main food-related challenges faced by modern society and how scientists are developing innovative technologies to address them.