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Redweik GAJ, Jochum J, Mellata M. Live Bacterial Prophylactics in Modern Poultry. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:592312. [PMID: 33195630 PMCID: PMC7655978 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.592312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Commercial poultry farms frequently use live bacterial prophylactics like vaccines and probiotics to prevent bacterial infections. Due to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in poultry animals, a closer examination into the health benefits and limitations of commercial, live prophylactics as an alternative to antibiotics is urgently needed. In this review, we summarize the peer-reviewed literature of several commercial live bacterial vaccines and probiotics. Per our estimation, there is a paucity of peer-reviewed published research regarding these products, making repeatability, product-comparison, and understanding biological mechanisms difficult. Furthermore, we briefly-outline significant issues such as probiotic-label accuracy, lack of commercially available live bacterial vaccines for major poultry-related bacteria such as Campylobacter and Clostridium perfringens, as well research gaps (i.e., probiotic-mediated vaccine adjuvancy, gut-brain-microbiota axis). Increased emphasis on these areas would open several avenues for research, ranging from improving protection against bacterial pathogens to using these prophylactics to modulate animal behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham A J Redweik
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States.,Interdepartmental Microbiology Graduate Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Jared Jochum
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States.,Interdepartmental Microbiology Graduate Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Melha Mellata
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States.,Interdepartmental Microbiology Graduate Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
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2
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Eeckhaut V, Haesebrouck F, Ducatelle R, Van Immerseel F. Oral vaccination with a live Salmonella Enteritidis/Typhimurium bivalent vaccine in layers induces cross-protection against caecal and internal organ colonization by a Salmonella Infantis strain. Vet Microbiol 2018; 218:7-12. [PMID: 29685223 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2018.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Revised: 03/17/2018] [Accepted: 03/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Salmonella is an important zoonotic agent, and poultry products remain one of the main sources of infection for humans. Salmonella Infantis is an emerging serotype in poultry worldwide, reflected by an increased prevalence in poultry flocks, on broiler meat and in human foodborne illness cases. In the current study, the efficacy of oral administration of a live monovalent Salmonella Enteritidis and a live bivalent Salmonella Enteritidis/Typhimurium vaccine, against a Salmonella Enteritidis and Infantis infection, was determined. Oral administration of the live vaccines to day-old chickens caused a decrease in caecal colonization by Salmonella Enteritidis, but not Infantis, at day 7, when challenged at day 2. Vaccination with the bivalent vaccine at day 1 resulted in a decreased spleen colonization by both Salmonella Infantis and Enteritidis. Twice (at day 1 and week 6) and thrice vaccination (at day 1, week 6 and 16) of laying hens with the bivalent vaccine resulted in a decreased caecal colonization by Salmonella Enteritidis and Infantis, and significantly lower oviduct colonization levels by Salmonella Enteritidis. These data show cross-protection against Salmonella Infantis by oral administration of live vaccine strains belonging to other serogroups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venessa Eeckhaut
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Freddy Haesebrouck
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Richard Ducatelle
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Filip Van Immerseel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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3
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Zhao X, Dai Q, Jia R, Zhu D, Liu M, Wang M, Chen S, Sun K, Yang Q, Wu Y, Cheng A. Two Novel Salmonella Bivalent Vaccines Confer Dual Protection against Two Salmonella Serovars in Mice. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:391. [PMID: 28929089 PMCID: PMC5591321 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-typhoidal Salmonella includes thousands of serovars that are leading causes of foodborne diarrheal illness worldwide. In this study, we constructed three bivalent vaccines for preventing both Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Newport infections by using the aspartate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (Asd)-based balanced-lethal vector-host system. The constructed Asd+ plasmid pCZ11 carrying a subset of the Salmonella Newport O-antigen gene cluster including the wzx-wbaR-wbaL-wbaQ-wzy-wbaW-wbaZ genes was introduced into three Salmonella Typhimurium mutants: SLT19 (Δasd) with a smooth LPS phenotype, SLT20 (Δasd ΔrfbN) with a rough LPS phenotype, and SLT22 (Δasd ΔrfbN ΔpagL::T araC PBADrfbN) with a smooth LPS phenotype when grown with arabinose. Immunoblotting demonstrated that SLT19 harboring pCZ11 [termed SLT19 (pCZ11)] co-expressed the homologous and heterologous O-antigens; SLT20 (pCZ11) exclusively expressed the heterologous O-antigen; and when arabinose was available, SLT22 (pCZ11) expressed both types of O-antigens, while in the absence of arabinose, SLT22 (pCZ11) expressed only the heterologous O-antigen. Exclusive expression of the heterologous O-antigen in Salmonella Typhimurium decreased the swimming ability of the bacterium and its susceptibility to polymyxin B. Next, the crp gene was deleted from the three recombinant strains for attenuation purposes, generating the three bivalent vaccine strains SLT25 (pCZ11), SLT26 (pCZ11), and SLT27 (pCZ11), respectively. Groups of BALB/c mice (12 mice/group) were orally immunized with 109 CFU of each vaccine strain twice at an interval of 4 weeks. Compared with a mock immunization, immunization with all three vaccine strains induced significant serum IgG responses against both Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Newport LPS. The bacterial loads in the mouse tissues were significantly lower in the three vaccine-strain-immunized groups than in the mock group after either Salmonella Typhimurium or Salmonella Newport lethal challenge. All of the mice in the three vaccine-immunized groups survived the lethal Salmonella Typhimurium challenge. In contrast, SLT26 (pCZ11) and SLT27 (pCZ11) conferred full protection against lethal Salmonella Newport challenge, but SLT25 (pCZ11) provided only 50% heterologous protection. Thus, we developed two novel Salmonella bivalent vaccines, SLT26 (pCZ11) and SLT27 (pCZ11), suggesting that the delivery of a heterologous O-antigen in attenuated Salmonella strains is a prospective approach for developing Salmonella vaccines with broad serovar coverage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinxin Zhao
- Research Center of Avian Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan ProvinceChengdu, China.,Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China
| | - Qinlong Dai
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China
| | - Renyong Jia
- Research Center of Avian Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan ProvinceChengdu, China.,Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China
| | - Dekang Zhu
- Research Center of Avian Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan ProvinceChengdu, China.,Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China
| | - Mafeng Liu
- Research Center of Avian Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan ProvinceChengdu, China.,Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China
| | - Mingshu Wang
- Research Center of Avian Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan ProvinceChengdu, China.,Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China
| | - Shun Chen
- Research Center of Avian Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan ProvinceChengdu, China.,Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China
| | - Kunfeng Sun
- Research Center of Avian Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan ProvinceChengdu, China.,Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China
| | - Qiao Yang
- Research Center of Avian Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan ProvinceChengdu, China.,Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China
| | - Ying Wu
- Research Center of Avian Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan ProvinceChengdu, China.,Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China
| | - Anchun Cheng
- Research Center of Avian Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan ProvinceChengdu, China.,Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChengdu, China
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Babu US, Harrison LM, Patel IR, Ramirez GA, Williams KM, Pereira M, Balan KV. Differential antibacterial response of chicken granulosa cells to invasion by Salmonella serovars. Poult Sci 2016; 95:1370-9. [DOI: 10.3382/ps/pew050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
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Varmuzova K, Matulova ME, Gerzova L, Cejkova D, Gardan-Salmon D, Panhéleux M, Robert F, Sisak F, Havlickova H, Rychlik I. Curcuma and Scutellaria plant extracts protect chickens against inflammation and Salmonella Enteritidis infection. Poult Sci 2015; 94:2049-58. [PMID: 26188032 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pev190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
After a ban on the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in farm animals in the European Union in 2006, an interest in alternative products with antibacterial or anti-inflammatory properties has increased. In this study, we therefore tested the effects of extracts from Curcuma longa and Scutellaria baicalensis used as feed additives against cecal inflammation induced by heat stress or Salmonella Enteritidis (S. Enteritidis) infection in chickens. Curcuma extract alone was not enough to decrease gut inflammation induced by heat stress. However, a mixture of Curcuma and Scutellaria extracts used as feed additives decreased gut inflammation induced by heat or S. Enteritidis, decreased S. Enteritidis counts in the cecum but was of no negative effect on BW or humoral immune response. Using next-generation sequencing of 16S rRNA we found out that supplementation of feed with the 2 plant extracts had no effect on microbiota diversity. However, if the plant extract supplementation was provided to the chickens infected with S. Enteritidis, Faecalibacterium, and Lactobacillus, both bacterial genera with known positive effects on gut health were positively selected. The supplementation of chicken feed with extracts from Curcuma and Scutelleria thus may be used in poultry production to effectively decrease gut inflammation and increase chicken performance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lenka Gerzova
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Darina Cejkova
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | | | | | - Fabrice Robert
- CCPA Group, Z.A. du Bois de Teillay, 35150 Janze, France
| | - Frantisek Sisak
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Hana Havlickova
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ivan Rychlik
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
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Braukmann M, Methner U, Berndt A. Immune reaction and survivability of salmonella typhimurium and salmonella infantis after infection of primary avian macrophages. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0122540. [PMID: 25811871 PMCID: PMC4374797 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella serovars are differentially able to infect chickens. The underlying causes are not yet fully understood. Aim of the present study was to elucidate the importance of Salmonella Pathogenicity Island 1 and 2 (SPI-1 and -2) for the virulence of two non-host-specific, but in-vivo differently invasive, Salmonella serovars in conjunction with the immune reaction of the host. Primary avian splenic macrophages were inoculated with Salmonella enterica sub-species enterica serovar (S.) Typhimurium and S. Infantis. The number and viability of intracellular bacteria and transcription of SPI-1 and -2 genes by the pathogens, as well as transcription of immune-related proteins, surface antigen expression and nitric oxide production by the macrophages, were compared at different times post inoculation. After infection, both of the Salmonella serovars were found inside the primary macrophages. Invasion-associated SPI-1 genes were significantly higher transcribed in S. Infantis- than S. Typhimurium-infected macrophages. The macrophages counteracted the S. Infantis and S. Typhimurium infection with elevated mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), interleukin (IL)-12, IL-18 and lipopolysaccharide-induced tumor necrosis factor alpha factor (LITAF) as well as with an increased synthesis of nitric oxide. Despite these host cell attacks, S. Typhimurium was better able than S. Infantis to survive within the macrophages and transcribed higher rates of the SPI-2 genes spiC, ssaV, sifA, and sseA. The results showed similar immune reactions of primary macrophages after infection with both of the Salmonella strains. The more rapid and stronger transcription of SPI-2-related genes by intracellular S. Typhimurium compared to S. Infantis might be responsible for its better survival in avian primary macrophages.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, Bacterial/immunology
- Apoptosis/genetics
- Cells, Cultured
- Chickens/genetics
- Chickens/immunology
- Chickens/microbiology
- Colony Count, Microbial
- Flow Cytometry
- Genes, Bacterial
- Host-Pathogen Interactions/genetics
- Host-Pathogen Interactions/immunology
- Immunity/genetics
- Macrophages/immunology
- Macrophages/microbiology
- Microbial Viability
- Microscopy, Phase-Contrast
- Nitric Oxide/biosynthesis
- Phenotype
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Salmonella/genetics
- Salmonella/immunology
- Salmonella/pathogenicity
- Salmonella Infections, Animal/genetics
- Salmonella Infections, Animal/immunology
- Salmonella Infections, Animal/microbiology
- Salmonella typhimurium/genetics
- Salmonella typhimurium/immunology
- Salmonella typhimurium/pathogenicity
- Spleen/pathology
- Transcription, Genetic
- Virulence/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Braukmann
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, ‘Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut’ (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Ulrich Methner
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, ‘Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut’ (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Angela Berndt
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, ‘Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut’ (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
- * E-mail:
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7
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Rychlik I, Elsheimer-Matulova M, Kyrova K. Gene expression in the chicken caecum in response to infections with non-typhoid Salmonella. Vet Res 2014; 45:119. [PMID: 25475706 PMCID: PMC4256799 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-014-0119-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Chickens can be infected with Salmonella enterica at any time during their life. However, infections within the first hours and days of their life are epidemiologically the most important, as newly hatched chickens are highly sensitive to Salmonella infection. Salmonella is initially recognized in the chicken caecum by TLR receptors and this recognition is followed by induction of chemokines, cytokines and many effector genes. This results in infiltration of heterophils, macrophages, B- and T-lymphocytes and changes in total gene expression in the caecal lamina propria. The highest induction in expression is observed for matrix metalloproteinase 7 (MMP7). Expression of this gene is increased in the chicken caecum over 4000 fold during the first 10 days after the infection of newly hatched chickens. Additional highly inducible genes in the caecum following S. Enteritidis infection include immune responsive gene 1 (IRG1), serum amyloid A (SAA), extracellular fatty acid binding protein (ExFABP), serine protease inhibitor (SERPINB10), trappin 6-like (TRAP6), calprotectin (MRP126), mitochondrial ES1 protein homolog (ES1), interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 5 (IFIT5), avidin (AVD) and transglutaminase 4 (TGM4). The induction of expression of these proteins exceeds a factor of 50. Similar induction rates are also observed for chemokines and cytokines such as IL1β, IL6, IL8, IL17, IL18, IL22, IFNγ, AH221 or iNOS. Once the infection is under control, which happens approx. 2 weeks after infection, expression of IgY and IgA increases to facilitate Salmonella elimination from the gut lumen. This review outlines the function of individual proteins expressed in chickens after infection with non-typhoid Salmonella serovars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Rychlik
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, Brno, 621 00, Czech Republic.
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Ulrich-Lynge SL, Dalgaard TS, Norup LR, Kjærup RM, Olsen JE, Sørensen P, Juul-Madsen HR. The consequence of low mannose-binding lectin plasma concentration in relation to susceptibility to Salmonella Infantis in chickens. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2014; 163:23-32. [PMID: 25487759 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2014.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2014] [Revised: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) is a key protein in innate immunity. MBL binds to carbohydrates on the surface of pathogens, where it initiates complement activation via the lectin-dependent pathway or facilitates opsonophagocytosis. In vitro studies have shown that human MBL is able to bind to Salmonella, but knowledge in relation to chicken MBL and Salmonella is lacking. In order to study this relation day-old chickens from two selected lines L10H and L10L, differing in MBL serum concentration, were either orally infected with S. Infantis (S.123443) or kept as non-infected controls. The differences between healthy L10H and L10L chicken sublines were more profound than differences caused by the S. Infantis infection. The average daily body weight was higher for L10H than for L10L, regardless of infection, indicating beneficial effects of MBL selection on growth. Salmonella was detected in cloacal swabs and the number of Salmonella positive chickens during the experiment was significantly higher in L10L than L10H, indicating that MBL may affect the magnitude of Salmonella colonisation in day-old chickens. MBL expression was determined in ceca tissue by real-time RT-PCR. L10H chickens showed a significantly higher relative expression than L10L at days 1 and 41 pi, regardless of infection. Finally, flow cytometric analysis of whole blood from infected chickens showed that L10H had a significantly higher count of all assessed leucocyte subsets on day 5 pi, and also a higher count of monocytes on day 12 pi than L10L. No difference was observed between infected and non-infected L10L chicken.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie L Ulrich-Lynge
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, P.O. Box 50, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark
| | - Tina S Dalgaard
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, P.O. Box 50, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark
| | - Liselotte R Norup
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, P.O. Box 50, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark
| | - Rikke M Kjærup
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, P.O. Box 50, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark
| | - John E Olsen
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Poul Sørensen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, P.O. Box 50, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark
| | - Helle R Juul-Madsen
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, P.O. Box 50, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark.
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Salisbury AM, Leeming G, Nikolaou G, Kipar A, Wigley P. Salmonella Virchow Infection of the Chicken Elicits Cellular and Humoral Systemic and Mucosal Responses, but Limited Protection to Homologous or Heterologous Re-Challenge. Front Vet Sci 2014; 1:6. [PMID: 26664914 PMCID: PMC4668861 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2014.00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Virchow usually causes mild gastroenteritis in humans; however, it is frequently invasive and many isolates are resistant to a broad-range of therapeutic antimicrobials. Poultry meat is considered a major source of human infection. In this study, we characterize the infection biology and immune response to S. Virchow in chickens and determine protection against homologous and heterologous re-challenge, with S. Virchow or S. Typhimurium. Following oral infection of 7-day-old chickens, S. Virchow colonized the gastrointestinal tract and the spleen. Infection elicited an increase in specific IgA, IgG, and IgM antibodies and relative quantitative changes in several leukocyte populations, including CD3, CD4, CD8α, CD8β, MHC II, KuL01, and γδ TCR positive cells, both in the gastrointestinal tract and systemically. Increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6 and the chemokine CXCLi2 was also found. Primary infection with S. Virchow offered limited systemic protection against re-challenge with S. Virchow or S. Typhimurium, but no protection against cecal colonization. In conclusion, S. Virchow exhibits similar infection biology and immune responses in the chicken to that previously described for S. Typhimurium. Unlike S. Typhimurium, S. Virchow infection is poorly protective to homologous and heterologous re-challenge. These findings suggest that S. Virchow is capable of colonizing the chicken well and therefore, presents a risk of entering the food chain in meat production. Furthermore, the development of vaccines that protect effectively against S. Virchow and indeed multivalent vaccines that protect across all Salmonella serogroups in the chicken would appear to remain a challenging proposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Marie Salisbury
- Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK
| | - Gail Leeming
- Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK ; School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK
| | | | - Anja Kipar
- Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK ; Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich , Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Paul Wigley
- Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK ; School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK
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