Ixodes pacificus ticks maintain embryogenesis and egg hatching after antibiotic treatment of Rickettsia endosymbiont

Nutritional symbiosis in ticks: singularities of the genus Ixodes

Symbiosis with intracellular bacteria is essential for the nutrition of ticks, particularly through the biosynthesis of B vitamins. Yet, ticks of the genus Ixodes, which include major vectors of human pathogens, lack the nutritional symbionts usually found in other tick genera. This paradox raises questions about the mechanisms that Ixodes ticks use to prevent nutritional deficiencies. Nonetheless, Ixodes ticks commonly harbor other symbionts belonging to the order Rickettsiales. Although these obligate intracellular bacteria are primarily known as human pathogens, Rickettsiales symbionts often dominate the Ixodes microbial community without causing diseases. They also significantly influence Ixodes physiology, synthesize key B vitamins, and are crucial for immatures. These findings underscore unique associations between Rickettsiales and Ixodes ticks distinct from other tick genera.

Acaricidal activity of Egyptian crude plant extracts against Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks

Haemaphysalis longicornis is a common Ixodida tick species found in temperate areas of Asian countries. An anti-tick assay was conducted on adult female H. longicornis ticks. Plant extract solutions were prepared at concentrations of 50, 25, and 10 mg/mL. Tick survival and mortality were assessed by counting the number of dead and live ticks at 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, and 96 h posttreatment. Out of 11 plant extracts screened, Artemisia judaica extract exhibited the highest potency with 100% mortality (5/5) at 48 h when applied at high and moderate concentrations (50 and 25 mg/mL). Similar results were observed at 96 h for the 10 mg/mL group compared to the untreated ticks. Cleome droserifolia extract demonstrated partial activity with 60% (3/5) and 20% (1/5) mortality at 96 h posttreatment at concentrations of 50 and 25 mg/mL, respectively. Forsskaolea tenacissima extract showed a weak effect with 100% tick mortality (5/5) only at the highest treatment concentration after 96 h. To confirm the activity of A. judaica, trial 2 was conducted. A. judaica demonstrated potency within 48 h in high dose and 72 h in moderate dose, with 100% mortality (15/15) at 96 h posttreatment compared to untreated ticks. The median lethal time 50 (LT50) values were 30.37 h for the high and 55.08 h for the moderate doses. Liquid chromatography‒mass spectrometry was performed on the most potent candidate (A. judaica) to identify its phytochemical components. The results revealed the presence of 9 compounds identified through manual annotation and 74 compounds from the Global Natural Products Social library. These compounds included terpenoids, steroids, phenylpropanoids, flavonoid glycosides, flavonoids, and benzenoids. Camphor was identified as the major component via both approaches. These findings suggest the potential use of A. judaica extract in the future development of acaricidal therapeutics.

Prevalence and genetic diversity of Anaplasma and Ehrlichia in ticks and domesticated animals in Suizhou County, Hubei Province, China

Anaplasma and Ehrlichia are tick-borne bacterial pathogens that cause anaplasmoses and ehrlichioses in humans and animals. In this study, we examined the prevalence of Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species in ticks and domesticated animals in Suizhou County, Hubei Province in the central China. We used PCR amplification and DNA sequencing of the 16S rRNA, groEL, and gltA genes to analyze. We collected 1900 ticks, including 1981 Haemaphysalis longicornis and 9 Rhipicephalus microplus, 159 blood samples of goats (n = 152), cattle (n = 4), and dogs (n = 3) from May to August of 2023. PCR products demonstrated that Anaplasma bovis, Anaplasma capra, and an Ehrlichia species were detected in the H. longicornis with the minimum infection rates (MIR) of 1.11%, 1.32%, and 0.05%, respectively; A. bovis, A. capra, and unnamed Anaplasma sp. were detected in goats with an infection rate of 26.31%, 1.31% and 1.97%, respectively. Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species were not detected from cattle, dogs and R. microplus ticks. The genetic differences in the groEL gene sequences of the Anaplasma in the current study were large, whereas the 16S rRNA and gltA gene sequences were less disparate. This study shows that ticks and goats in Suizhou County, Hubei Province carry multiple Anaplasma species and an Ehrlichia species, with relatively higher infection rate of A. bovis in goats. Our study indicates that multiple Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species exist in ticks and goats in the central China with potential to cause human infection.

Tick symbiosis

As obligate blood-feeders, ticks serve as vectors for a variety of pathogens that pose threats on both human and livestock health. The microbiota that ticks harbor play important roles in influencing tick nutrition, development, reproduction, and vector. These microbes also affect the capacity of ticks to transmit pathogens (vector competence). Therefore, comprehending the functions of tick microbiota will help in developing novel and effective tick control strategies. Here, we summarize the effects of main tick symbiotic bacteria on tick physiology and vector competency.

Tetracycline inhibits tick host reproduction by modulating bacterial microbiota, gene expression and metabolism levels

BACKGROUND

Ticks are disease vectors that are a matter of worldwide concern. Antibiotic treatments have been used to explore the interactions between ticks and their symbiotic microorganisms. In addition to altering the host microbial community, antibiotics can have toxic effects on the host.

RESULTS

In the tick Haemaphysalis longicornis, engorged females showed reproductive disruption after microinjection of tetracycline. Multi-omics approaches were implemented to unravel the mechanisms of tick reproductive inhibition in this study. There were no significant changes in bacterial density in the whole ticks on Day (D)2 or D4 after tetracycline treatment, whereas the bacterial microbial community was significantly altered, especially on D4. The relative abundances of the bacteria Staphylococcus, Bacillus and Pseudomonas decreased after tetracycline treatment, whereas the relative abundances of Coxiella and Rhodococcus increased. Ovarian transcriptional analysis revealed a cumulative effect of tetracycline treatment, as there was a significant increase in the number of differentially expressed genes with treatment time and a higher number of downregulated genes. The tick physiological pathways including lysosome, extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction, biosynthesis of ubiquinone and other terpenoids-quinones, insect hormone biosynthesis, and focal adhesion were significantly inhibited after 4 days of tetracycline treatment. Metabolite levels were altered after tetracycline treatment and the differences increased with treatment time. The differential metabolites were involved in a variety of physiological pathways; the downregulated metabolites were significantly enriched in the nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism, galactose metabolism, and ether lipid metabolism pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that tetracycline inhibits tick reproduction through the regulation of tick bacterial communities, gene expression and metabolic levels. The results may provide new strategies for tick control. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Mechanism of the toxic effects of tetracycline on blood meal digestion in Haemaphysalis longicornis

The extensive utilization of antibiotics in the field of animal husbandry gives rise to various concerns pertaining to the environment and human health. Here, we demonstrate that the administration of tetracycline impedes blood meal digestion in the tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. Tissue sectioning, 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing, and transcriptome sequencing of the midgut were employed to elucidate the mechanism underlying tetracycline toxicity. The treatment group consisted of engorged female ticks that were subjected to tetracycline microinjections (75 µg per tick), whereas the control group received sterile water injections. On days 2 and 4 following the injections, the tick body weight changes were assessed and the midguts were dissected and processed. Change in tick body weight in tetracycline-treated group was less than in the control group. In tetracycline-treated ticks, midgut epithelial cells were loosely connected and blood meal digestion was impaired compared to the control group. There was no significant change in midgut bacterial diversity after tetracycline treatment. On day 2 following treatment, the relative abundance of Escherichia-Shigella was significantly decreased, whereas the relative abundance of Allorhizobium was significantly increased compared to the control group. On day 4 following treatment, the relative abundance of Escherichia-Shigella, Allorhizobium, Ochrobactrum, and Acidibacter decreased significantly, whereas the relative abundance of Paraburkholderia and Pelomonas increased significantly. Tetracycline treatment also affected midgut gene expression, producing a cumulative effect wherein the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were mostly down-regulated. KEGG enrichment pathway analysis revealed that on day 2 the up-regulated DEGs were significantly enriched in 21 pathways, including apoptosis and phagosome. Comparatively, the down-regulated DEGs were significantly enriched in 26 pathways, including N-glycan biosynthesis, lysosome, and autophagy. In contrast, on day 4 the up-regulated DEGs were significantly enriched in 10 pathways including aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, ribosome biogenesis, RNA transport, and DNA replication, whereas the down-regulated differential genes were significantly enriched in 11 pathways including lysosome, peroxisome, N-glycan biosynthesis, and fatty acid synthesis. This indicates that tetracycline injection inhibited blood meal digestion by affecting midgut digestive cells, gut flora diversity, and gene expression. These findings could contribute to tick control by inhibiting blood meal digestion.

Microbiota in disease-transmitting vectors

Haematophagous arthropods, including mosquitoes, ticks, flies, triatomine bugs and lice (here referred to as vectors), are involved in the transmission of various pathogens to mammals on whom they blood feed. The diseases caused by these pathogens, collectively known as vector-borne diseases (VBDs), threaten the health of humans and animals. Although the vector arthropods differ in life histories, feeding behaviour as well as reproductive strategies, they all harbour symbiotic microorganisms, known as microbiota, on which they depend for completing essential aspects of their biology, such as development and reproduction. In this Review, we summarize the shared and unique key features of the symbiotic associations that have been characterized in the major vector taxa. We discuss the crosstalks between microbiota and their arthropod hosts that influence vector metabolism and immune responses relevant for pathogen transmission success, known as vector competence. Finally, we highlight how current knowledge on symbiotic associations is being explored to develop non-chemical-based alternative control methods that aim to reduce vector populations, or reduce vector competence. We conclude by highlighting the remaining knowledge gaps that stand to advance basic and translational aspects of vector-microbiota interactions.

Recent Advances in Tick Antigen Discovery and Anti-Tick Vaccine Development

Ticks can seriously affect human and animal health around the globe, causing significant economic losses each year. Chemical acaricides are widely used to control ticks, which negatively impact the environment and result in the emergence of acaricide-resistant tick populations. A vaccine is considered as one of the best alternative approaches to control ticks and tick-borne diseases, as it is less expensive and more effective than chemical controls. Many antigen-based vaccines have been developed as a result of current advances in transcriptomics, genomics, and proteomic techniques. A few of these (e.g., Gavac® and TickGARD®) are commercially available and are commonly used in different countries. Furthermore, a significant number of novel antigens are being investigated with the perspective of developing new anti-tick vaccines. However, more research is required to develop new and more efficient antigen-based vaccines, including on assessing the efficiency of various epitopes against different tick species to confirm their cross-reactivity and their high immunogenicity. In this review, we discuss the recent advancements in the development of antigen-based vaccines (traditional and RNA-based) and provide a brief overview of recent discoveries of novel antigens, along with their sources, characteristics, and the methods used to test their efficiency.

Changes in the Ixodes ricinus microbiome associated with artificial tick feeding

Artificial tick feeding systems (ATFS) can be used to study tick biology and tick-pathogen interactions. Due to the long feeding duration of hard ticks, antibiotics are commonly added to the in vitro blood meal to prevent the blood from decaying. This may affect the ticks' microbiome, including mutualistic bacteria that play an important role in tick biology. This effect was examined by the consecutive feeding of Ixodes ricinus larvae, nymphs, and adults in vitro with and without the supplementation of gentamicin and in parallel on calves. DNA extracted from unfed females was analyzed by 16S rRNA sequencing. The abundance of Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii, Rickettsia helvetica and Spiroplasma spp. was measured by qPCR in unfed larvae, nymphs, and adults. Larvae and nymphs fed on calves performed significantly better compared to both in vitro groups. Adults fed on blood supplemented with gentamicin and B vitamins had a higher detachment proportion and weight compared to the group fed with B vitamins but without gentamicin. The detachment proportion and weights of females did not differ significantly between ticks fed on calves and in vitro with gentamicin, but the fecundity was significantly higher in ticks fed on calves. 16S rRNA sequencing showed a higher microbiome species richness in ticks fed on calves compared to ticks fed in vitro. A shift in microbiome composition, with Ca. Midichloria mitochondrii as dominant species in females fed as juveniles on calves and R. helvetica as the most abundant species in females previously fed in vitro was observed. Females fed in vitro without gentamicin showed significant lower loads of Ca. M. mitochondrii compared to females fed in vitro with gentamicin and ticks fed on calves. Spiroplasma spp. were exclusively detected in female ticks fed on cattle by qPCR, but 16S rRNA sequencing results also showed a low abundance in in vitro females exposed to gentamicin. In conclusion, the employed feeding method and gentamicin supplementation affected the ticks' microbiome composition and fecundity. Since these changes may have an impact on tick biology and vector competence, they should be taken into account in studies employing ATFS.

Current debates and advances in tick microbiome research

The main importance of ticks resides in their ability to harbor pathogens that can be transmitted to terrestrial vertebrates including humans. Recently, studies have focused on the taxonomic and functional composition of the tick microbiome, its microbial diversity and variation under different factors including tick species, sex, and environment among others. Of special interest are the interactions between the tick, the microbiome and pathogens since tick microbiome can influence pathogen colonization within the tick vector, and potentially, transmission to the vertebrate host. In this review, we tackled a synthesis on the growing field of tick microbiomes. We focus on the current state of tick microbiome research, addressing controversial and hotly debated topics and advances in the precise manipulation of tick microbiome. Furthermore, we discuss the innovative anti-tick microbiota vaccines as a possible tool for microbiome modulation and thus, control of tick-borne diseases. Deciphering tick-microbiome pathogen interactions can spur new strategies to control tick-borne diseases via modulation of tick microbiome.

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Whether the diversity observed in tick microbiomes concerns the biology or the methodology remains an open question.

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Tick immunity must play a major role in selecting ‘who stays and who leaves’ the microbiome.

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Anti-tick microbiota vaccines can target specific bacteria and subsequently modulate tick microbiome.

Ecology of Ixodes pacificus Ticks and Associated Pathogens in the Western United States

Lyme disease is the most important vector-borne disease in the United States and is increasing in incidence and geographic range. In the Pacific west, the western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus Cooley and Kohls, 1943 is an important vector of the causative agent of Lyme disease, the spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi. Ixodes pacificus life cycle is expected to be more than a year long, and all three stages (larva, nymph, and adult) overlap in spring. The optimal habitat consists of forest cover, cooler temperatures, and annual precipitation in the range of 200–500 mm. Therefore, the coastal areas of California, Oregon, and Washington are well suited for these ticks. Immature stages commonly parasitize Western fence lizards (Sceloporus occidentalis) and gray squirrels (Sciurus griseus), while adults often feed on deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and black-tailed deer (Odocoileus h. columbianus). Ixodes pacificus carry several pathogens of human significance, such as Borrelia burgdorferi, Bartonella, and Rickettsiales. These pathogens are maintained in the environment by many hosts, including small mammals, birds, livestock, and domestic animals. Although a great deal of work has been carried out on Ixodes ticks and the pathogens they transmit, understanding I. pacificus ecology outside California still lags. Additionally, the dynamic vector–host–pathogen system means that new factors will continue to arise and shift the epidemiological patterns within specific areas. Here, we review the ecology of I. pacificus and the pathogens this tick is known to carry to identify gaps in our knowledge.

Microbiomes of Blood-Feeding Arthropods: Genes Coding for Essential Nutrients and Relation to Vector Fitness and Pathogenic Infections. A Review

BACKGROUND

Blood-feeding arthropods support a diverse array of symbiotic microbes, some of which facilitate host growth and development whereas others are detrimental to vector-borne pathogens. We found a common core constituency among the microbiota of 16 different arthropod blood-sucking disease vectors, including Bacillaceae, Rickettsiaceae, Anaplasmataceae, Sphingomonadaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonadaceae, Moraxellaceae and Staphylococcaceae. By comparing 21 genomes of common bacterial symbionts in blood-feeding vectors versus non-blooding insects, we found that certain enteric bacteria benefit their hosts by upregulating numerous genes coding for essential nutrients. Bacteria of blood-sucking vectors expressed significantly more genes (p < 0.001) coding for these essential nutrients than those of non-blooding insects. Moreover, compared to endosymbionts, the genomes of enteric bacteria also contained significantly more genes (p < 0.001) that code for the synthesis of essential amino acids and proteins that detoxify reactive oxygen species. In contrast, microbes in non-blood-feeding insects expressed few gene families coding for these nutrient categories. We also discuss specific midgut bacteria essential for the normal development of pathogens (e.g., Leishmania) versus others that were detrimental (e.g., bacterial toxins in mosquitoes lethal to Plasmodium spp.).

Grappling with the tick microbiome

Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus are the predominant vectors of multiple human pathogens, including Borrelia burgdorferi, one of the causative agents of Lyme disease in North America. Differences in the habitats and host preferences of these closely related tick species present an opportunity to examine key aspects of the tick microbiome. While advances in sequencing technologies have accelerated a descriptive understanding of the tick microbiome, molecular and mechanistic insights into the tick microbiome are only beginning to emerge. Progress is stymied by technical difficulties in manipulating the microbiome and by biological variables related to the life cycle of Ixodid ticks. This review highlights these challenges and examines avenues to understand the significance of the tick microbiome in tick biology.

Growth Dynamics and Antibiotic Elimination of Symbiotic Rickettsia buchneri in the Tick Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae)

Rickettsia buchneri is the principal symbiotic bacterium of the medically significant tick Ixodes scapularis This species has been detected primarily in the ovaries of adult female ticks and is vertically transmitted, but its tissue tropism in other life stages and function with regard to tick physiology is unknown. In order to determine the function of R. buchneri, it may be necessary to produce ticks free from this symbiont. We quantified the growth dynamics of R. buchneri naturally occurring in I. scapularis ticks throughout their life cycle and compared it with bacterial growth in ticks in which symbiont numbers were experimentally reduced or eliminated. To eliminate the bacteria, we exposed ticks to antibiotics through injection and artificial membrane feeding. Both injection and membrane feeding of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin were effective at eliminating R. buchneri from most offspring of exposed females. Because of its effectiveness and ease of use, we have determined that injection of ciprofloxacin into engorged female ticks is an efficient means of clearing R. buchneri from the majority of progeny.IMPORTANCE This paper describes the growth of symbiotic Rickettsia buchneri within Ixodes scapularis through the life cycle of the tick and provides methods to eliminate R. buchneri from I. scapularis ticks.

Isolation and characterization of a Rickettsia from the ovary of a Western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus

A rickettsial isolate was obtained from a partially engorged Ixodes pacificus female, which was collected from Humboldt County, California. The isolate was provisionally named Rickettsia endosymbiont Ixodes pacificus (REIP). The REIP isolate displayed the highest nucleotide sequence identity to Rickettsia species phylotype G021 in I. pacificus (99%, 99%, and 100% for ompA, 16S rRNA, and gltA, respectively), a bacterium that was previously identified in I. pacifiucs by PCR. Analysis of sequences from complete opening frames of five genes, 16S rRNA, gltA, ompA, ompB, and sca4, provided inference to the bacteria's classification among other Rickettsia species. The REIP isolate displayed 99.8%, 99.4%, 99.2%, 99.5%, and 99.6% nucleotide sequence identity for 16S rRNA, gltA, ompA, ompB, and sca4 gene, respectively, with genes of 'R. monacensis' str. IrR/Munich, indicating the REIP isolate is closely related to 'R. monacensis'. Our suggestion was further supported by phylogenetic analysis using concatenated sequences of 16S rRNA, gltA, ompA, ompB, and sca4 genes, concatenated sequences of dksA-xerC, mppA-purC, and rpmE-tRNA^fMet intergenic spacer regions. Both phylogenetic trees implied that the REIP isolate is most closely related to 'R. monacensis' str. IrR/Munich. We propose the bacterium be considered as 'Rickettsia monacensis' str. Humboldt for its closest phylogenetic relative (=DSM 103975 T = ATCC TSD-94 T).

Endosymbionts carried by ticks feeding on dogs in Spain

Studies on tick microbial communities historically focused on tick-borne pathogens. However, there is an increasing interest in capturing relationships among non-pathogenic endosymbionts and exploring their relevance for tick biology. The present study included a total of 1600 adult ticks collected from domestic dogs in 4 different biogeographical regions of Spain. Each pool formed by 1 to 10 halves of individuals representing one specific ticks species was examined by PCR for the presence of Coxiellaceae, Rickettsia spp., Rickettsiales, Wolbachia spp., and other bacterial DNA. Of the pools analyzed, 92% tested positive for endosymbiont-derived DNA. Coxiella spp. endosymbionts were the most prevalent microorganisms, being always present in Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (s.l.) pools. Rickettsia spp. DNA was detected in 60% of Dermacentor reticulatus pools and 40% of R. sanguineus s.l. pools, with a higher diversity of Rickettsia species in R. sanguineus s.l. pools. Our study reveals a negative relationship of Rickettsia massiliae with the presence of tick-borne pathogens in the same pool of ticks. An additional endosymbiont, 'Candidatus Rickettsiella isopodorum', was only detected in D. reticulatus pools. Data from this study indicate that dogs in Spain are exposed to several endosymbionts. Due to the importance of tick-borne pathogens, characterizing the role of endosymbionts for tick physiology and prevalence, may lead to novel control strategies.

Evaluation of the possible use of genus Mentha derived essential oils in the prevention of SENLAT syndrome caused by Rickettsia slovaca

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Essential oils and essential oil bearing medicinal and culinary plants have a long tradition of being used to combat infection, treat various conditions, and promote and restore health. Mint oils are traditionally applied to repel insects and treat various conditions including wounds, skin infections, inflammation, eczema, urticaria, psoriasis, scabies and insect bites. They are among essential oils promoted as a natural way to prevent tick-borne diseases and recommended as ingredients in various homemade repellent mixtures and tick-bite treatments.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of three most common mint oils - peppermint (Mentha x piperita L.), cornmint (M. arvensis L.), and spearmint (M. spicata L.) on obligate intracellular tick-borne bacterium Rickettsia slovaca.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Influence of mint oils on R. slovaca replication in Vero cells initially infected by lower (10⁶) or higher (10⁸) number of rickettsial particles was tested during in vitro cultivation with daily change of medium. qPCR and RT-qPCR based growth curves and linear mixed effect models were applied to evaluate the growth inhibition. Peppermint oil was further tested in pilot in vivo study on experimentally infected ticks.

RESULTS

Two of the tested essential oils, peppermint and cornmint, significantly inhibited rickettsial growth. On average, peppermint oil reduced the amount of rickettsiae present on day 4 post infection up to 0.05% of the rickettsial load present in the respective controls. Cornmint oil decreased the amount of rickettsiae to 0.09% of control. Peppermint oil also significantly reduced the number of living rickettsiae in artificially infected ticks.

CONCLUSIONS

Present study showed that essential oils with antimicrobial properties may also inhibit tick-transmitted bacteria, and thus their possible use as preventative measures against tick-borne diseases is worth further research.

Effects of antibiotic treatment on the fecundity of Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides ticks

BACKGROUND

Endosymbiotic bacteria inhabit a variety of arthropods including ticks and may have multiple effects on the host's survival, reproduction or pathogen acquisition and transmission. Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides is one of the most widely distributed tick species in China. The symbiotic bacteria composition and their impacts to R. haemaphysaloides ticks have not been studied. The present study investigated the composition of microbial community in R. haemaphysaloides ticks and then assessed the effects of endosymbionts on the host's fecundity by antibiotic treatment experiments.

METHODS

The microbial population of female and male R. haemaphysaloides ticks was analyzed using Illumina Miseq sequencing of 16S rRNA gene. Thirty engorged female ticks were then randomly divided into five groups and injected with ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, kanamycin, tetracycline, or phosphate-buffered solution (PBS), respectively. Effects of antibiotic treatments on maternal oviposition, egg hatching and density of endosymbionts were evaluated.

RESULTS

Illumina Miseq sequencing showed that Coxiella and Rickettsia were the predominant bacterial genera inhabiting R. haemaphysaloides ticks. Antibiotic treatment experiments found that kanamycin reduced the density of Coxiella-like endosymbiont (Coxiella-LE hereafter) in eggs, ciprofloxacin reduced the density of Rickettsia-like endosymbiont (Rickettsia-LE), and tetracycline had effect on both endosymbionts, while ampicillin affected neither. Meanwhile hatching rates of eggs were observed to decrease greatly in the kanamycin or tetracycline-treated group but maintained in the ampicillin or ciprofloxacin-treated group. Furthermore, the reduced hatching rates were found to be associated with density of Coxiella-LE in eggs.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that Coxiella-LE is essential for the reproduction of R. haemaphysaloides ticks, and that kanamycin can be used to study the role of Coxiella-LE on ticks.

Arthropod-borne pathogens of dogs and cats: From pathways and times of transmission to disease control

Vector-borne pathogens have developed a close relationship with blood feeding arthropod ectoparasites (e.g., mosquitoes, ticks, phlebotomine sand flies, black flies, fleas, kissing bugs, lice) and exploited a huge variety of vector transmission routes. Therefore, the life cycles of these pathogens result in a long evolved balance with the respective arthropod biology, ecology and blood feeding habits, instrumentally to the infection of several animal species, including humans. Amongst the many parasite transmission modes, such as ingestion of the arthropod, with its faeces or secretions, blood feeding represents the main focus for this article, as it is a central event to the life of almost all arthropod vectors. The time frame in which pathogens are transmitted to any animal host is governed by a large number of biological variables related to the vector, the pathogen, the host and environmental factors. Scientific data available on transmission times for each pathogen are discussed relative to their impact for the success of vector-borne disease control strategies. Blocking pathogen transmission, and thus preventing the infection of dogs and cats, may be achievable by the use of chemical compounds if they are characterised by a fast onset of killing activity or repellence against arthropods. The fast speed of kill exerted by systemic isoxazoline, as well as the repellent effect of pyrethroids have renewed the interest of the scientific community and pharmaceutical companies towards reducing the burden of vector-borne diseases under field conditions. However, endosymbionts and vaccines targeting arthropods or pathogen antigens should be further investigated as alternative strategies towards the goal of achieving an effective integrated control of vector-borne diseases.

Wholly Rickettsia! Reconstructed Metabolic Profile of the Quintessential Bacterial Parasite of Eukaryotic Cells

Reductive genome evolution has purged many metabolic pathways from obligate intracellular Rickettsia (Alphaproteobacteria; Rickettsiaceae). While some aspects of host-dependent rickettsial metabolism have been characterized, the array of host-acquired metabolites and their cognate transporters remains unknown. This dearth of information has thwarted efforts to obtain an axenic Rickettsia culture, a major impediment to conventional genetic approaches. Using phylogenomics and computational pathway analysis, we reconstructed the Rickettsia metabolic and transport network, identifying 51 host-acquired metabolites (only 21 previously characterized) needed to compensate for degraded biosynthesis pathways. In the absence of glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway, cell envelope glycoconjugates are synthesized from three imported host sugars, with a range of additional host-acquired metabolites fueling the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Fatty acid and glycerophospholipid pathways also initiate from host precursors, and import of both isoprenes and terpenoids is required for the synthesis of ubiquinone and the lipid carrier of lipid I and O-antigen. Unlike metabolite-provisioning bacterial symbionts of arthropods, rickettsiae cannot synthesize B vitamins or most other cofactors, accentuating their parasitic nature. Six biosynthesis pathways contain holes (missing enzymes); similar patterns in taxonomically diverse bacteria suggest alternative enzymes that await discovery. A paucity of characterized and predicted transporters emphasizes the knowledge gap concerning how rickettsiae import host metabolites, some of which are large and not known to be transported by bacteria. Collectively, our reconstructed metabolic network offers clues to how rickettsiae hijack host metabolic pathways. This blueprint for growth determinants is an important step toward the design of axenic media to rescue rickettsiae from the eukaryotic cell.IMPORTANCE A hallmark of obligate intracellular bacteria is the tradeoff of metabolic genes for the ability to acquire host metabolites. For species of Rickettsia, arthropod-borne parasites with the potential to cause serious human disease, the range of pilfered host metabolites is unknown. This information is critical for dissociating rickettsiae from eukaryotic cells to facilitate rickettsial genetic manipulation. In this study, we reconstructed the Rickettsia metabolic network and identified 51 host metabolites required to compensate patchwork Rickettsia biosynthesis pathways. Remarkably, some metabolites are not known to be transported by any bacteria, and overall, few cognate transporters were identified. Several pathways contain missing enzymes, yet similar pathways in unrelated bacteria indicate convergence and possible novel enzymes awaiting characterization. Our work illuminates the parasitic nature by which rickettsiae hijack host metabolism to counterbalance numerous disintegrated biosynthesis pathways that have arisen through evolution within the eukaryotic cell. This metabolic blueprint reveals what a Rickettsia axenic medium might entail.

Diversity of rickettsiae in a rural community in northern California

Far northern California forests are highly biodiverse in wildlife reservoirs and arthropod vectors that may propagate rickettsial pathogens in nature. The proximity of small rural communities to these forests puts people and domestic animals at risk of vector-borne infection due to spillover from wildlife. The current study was conducted to document exposure to rickettsial pathogens in people and domestic animals in a rural community, and identify which rickettsiae are present in sylvatic and peri-domestic environments near this community. Blood samples from people, domestic animals (dogs, cats, and horses) and wild carnivores were tested for Rickettsia spp. antibodies and DNA (people and domestic animals only) by serology and real time (RT)-PCR, respectively. Ectoparasites were collected from dogs, wild carnivores and from vegetation by flagging, and tested for Rickettsia spp. DNA by RT-PCR. DNA sequencing of the rickettsial 17kDa protein gene or the ompA gene was used for species identification. Despite a seroprevalence of 3% in people, 42% in dogs, 79% in cats, 33% in gray foxes, and 83% in bobcats, RT-PCR on blood was consistently negative, likely because the sensitivity of this test is low, as Rickettsia spp. do not often circulate in high numbers in the blood. Rickettsia spp. DNA was found in four flea species collected from bobcats and Ctenocephalides felis collected from domestic dogs. All amplicons sequenced from fleas were R. felis. Ixodes pacificus collected by flagging were commonly infected with a Rickettsia sp. endosymbiont. Rickettsia rhipicephali DNA was found in Dermacentor variabilis from dogs, black bears, a gray fox, and a D. occidentalis collected by flagging. Dermacentor variabilis from dogs and black bears also contained R. montanensis DNA. Multiple Rickettsia spp. (including species with zoonotic and pathogenic potential) were found among human biting arthropod vectors of both wild and domestic carnivores and on flags. Knowledge of the diversity of Rickettsia spp. that are present within arthropod vectors to which people and domestic animals are exposed is an essential first step is making an accurate diagnosis and in better understanding the epidemiology of these potential pathogens. Within-host and vector interaction among these species may play a role in spillover into human and domestic animals.

Fluorescent Protein Expressing Rickettsia buchneri and Rickettsia peacockii for Tracking Symbiont-Tick Cell Interactions

Rickettsiae of indeterminate pathogenicity are widely associated with ticks. The presence of these endosymbionts can confound a One Health approach to combatting tick-borne diseases. Genomic analyses of symbiotic rickettsiae have revealed that they harbor mutations in gene coding for proteins involved in rickettsial pathogenicity and motility. We have isolated and characterized two rickettsial symbionts—Rickettsia peacockii and R. buchneri—both from ticks using tick cell cultures. To better track these enigmatic rickettsiae in ticks and at the tick-mammal interface we transformed the rickettsiae to express fluorescent proteins using shuttle vectors based on rickettsial plasmids or a transposition system driving insertional mutagenesis. Fluorescent protein expressing R. buchneri and R. peacockii will enable us to elucidate their interactions with tick and mammalian cells, and track their location and movement within individual cells, vector ticks, and host animals.

Grandeur Alliances: Symbiont Metabolic Integration and Obligate Arthropod Hematophagy

Several arthropod taxa live exclusively on vertebrate blood. This food source lacks essential metabolites required for the maintenance of metabolic homeostasis, and as such, these arthropods have formed symbioses with nutrient-supplementing microbes that facilitate their host's 'hematophagous' feeding ecology. Herein we highlight metabolic contributions of bacterial symbionts that reside within tsetse flies, bed bugs, lice, reduviid bugs, and ticks, with specific emphasis on B vitamin and cofactor biosynthesis. Importantly, these arthropods can transmit pathogens of medical and veterinary relevance and/or cause infestations that induce psychological and dermatological distress. Microbial metabolites, and the biochemical pathways that generate them, can serve as specific targets of novel control mechanisms aimed at disrupting the metabolism of hematophagous arthropods, thus combatting pest invasion and vector-borne pathogen transmission.

The Rickettsia Endosymbiont of Ixodes pacificus Contains All the Genes of De Novo Folate Biosynthesis

Ticks and other arthropods often are hosts to nutrient providing bacterial endosymbionts, which contribute to their host’s fitness by supplying nutrients such as vitamins and amino acids. It has been detected, in our lab, that Ixodes pacificus is host to Rickettsia species phylotype G021. This endosymbiont is predominantly present, and 100% maternally transmitted in I. pacificus. To study roles of phylotype G021 in I. pacificus, bioinformatic and molecular approaches were carried out. MUMmer genome alignments of whole genome sequence of I. scapularis, a close relative to I. pacificus, against completely sequenced genomes of R. bellii OSU85-389, R. conorii, and R. felis, identified 8,190 unique sequences that are homologous to Rickettsia sequences in the NCBI Trace Archive. MetaCyc metabolic reconstructions revealed that all folate gene orthologues (folA, folC, folE, folKP, ptpS) required for de novo folate biosynthesis are present in the genome of Rickettsia buchneri in I. scapularis. To examine the metabolic capability of phylotype G021 in I. pacificus, genes of the folate biosynthesis pathway of the bacterium were PCR amplified using degenerate primers. BLAST searches identified that nucleotide sequences of the folA, folC, folE, folKP, and ptpS genes possess 98.6%, 98.8%, 98.9%, 98.5% and 99.0% identity respectively to the corresponding genes of Rickettsia buchneri. Phylogenetic tree constructions show that the folate genes of phylotype G021 and homologous genes from various Rickettsia species are monophyletic. This study has shown that all folate genes exist in the genome of Rickettsia species phylotype G021 and that this bacterium has the genetic capability for de novo folate synthesis.

Tick microbiome: the force within

Ticks are obligate blood-feeders and serve as vectors of human and livestock pathogens worldwide. Defining the tick microbiome and deciphering the interactions between the tick and its symbiotic bacteria in the context of tick development and pathogen transmission will likely reveal new insights and spawn new paradigms to control tick-borne diseases. Descriptive observations on the tick microbiome that began almost a century ago serve as forerunners to the gathering momentum to define the tick microbiome in greater detail. This review will focus on the current efforts to address the microbiomes of diverse ticks, and the evolving understanding of tick microbiomes. There is hope that these efforts will bring a holistic understanding of pathogen transmission by ticks.