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Cai Q, Sun N, Zhang Y, Wang J, Pan C, Chen Y, Li L, Li X, Liu W, Aliyari SR, Yang H, Cheng G. Interferon-stimulated gene PVRL4 broadly suppresses viral entry by inhibiting viral-cellular membrane fusion. Cell Biosci 2024; 14:23. [PMID: 38368366 PMCID: PMC10873969 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-024-01202-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/19/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Viral infection elicits the type I interferon (IFN-I) response in host cells and subsequently inhibits viral infection through inducing hundreds of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) that counteract many steps in the virus life cycle. However, most of ISGs have unclear functions and mechanisms in viral infection. Thus, more work is required to elucidate the role and mechanisms of individual ISGs against different types of viruses. RESULTS Herein, we demonstrate that poliovirus receptor-like protein4 (PVRL4) is an ISG strongly induced by IFN-I stimulation and various viral infections. Overexpression of PVRL4 protein broadly restricts growth of enveloped RNA and DNA viruses, including vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), influenza A virus (IAV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) whereas deletion of PVRL4 in host cells increases viral infections. Mechanistically, it suppresses viral entry by blocking viral-cellular membrane fusion through inhibiting endosomal acidification. The vivo studies demonstrate that Pvrl4-deficient mice were more susceptible to the infection of VSV and IAV. CONCLUSION Overall, our studies not only identify PVRL4 as an intrinsic broad-spectrum antiviral ISG, but also provide a candidate host-directed target for antiviral therapy against various viruses including SARS-CoV-2 and its variants in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaomei Cai
- National Key Laboratory of Immunity and Inflammation, Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Nina Sun
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases of the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yurui Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Immunity and Inflammation, Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jingfeng Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Immunity and Inflammation, Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chaohu Pan
- National Key Laboratory of Immunity and Inflammation, Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yu Chen
- Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550004, Guizhou, China
| | - Lili Li
- National Key Laboratory of Immunity and Inflammation, Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaorong Li
- National Key Laboratory of Immunity and Inflammation, Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wancheng Liu
- Department of Hematology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, 250000, Shandong, China
| | - Saba R Aliyari
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Heng Yang
- National Key Laboratory of Immunity and Inflammation, Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, 215123, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Genhong Cheng
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
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Gonzales-Viera O, Goldstein T, Duignan P, Eiamcharoen P, Keel MK. California sea lion ( Zalophus californianus) lymph-node explant reveals involvement and possible transcriptional regulation of SLAM and nectin-4 during phocine distemper virus infection. Vet Pathol 2024; 61:125-134. [PMID: 37458158 DOI: 10.1177/03009858231186189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Phocine distemper virus (PDV) is a significant cause of mortality for phocid seals; however, the susceptibility of otariids to this virus is poorly understood. The authors used a lymph-node explant culture system from California sea lions (Zalophus californianus, CSL) to investigate: (1) the role of signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM) and nectin-4 in PDV infection and their cellular expression patterns, (2) if PDV induces transcriptional regulation of cell-entry receptors, and (3) the involvement of apoptosis in PDV infection. PDV replicated in the lymph-node explants with peak replication 3 days post-infection (dpi), but the replication was not sustained 4 to 5 dpi. The PDV+ cells co-localized SLAM and nectin-4. These cells expressed IBA1, indicating a histiocytic lineage. Comparison of receptor expression between infected and mock-infected lymph nodes suggested transcriptional downregulation of both receptors during the initial stage of infection and upregulation during the late stage of infection, but the values lack of statistical significance. Cleaved caspase-3+ cells were slightly increased in the infected lymph nodes compared with the mock-infected lymph node from 1 to 4 dpi, but without statistical significance, and a few apoptotic cells co-expressed PDV. The results suggest that lymph-node explants might be an important model to study PDV pathogenesis. CSLs have the potential to be infected with PDV, as they express both cell-entry receptors in histiocytes. The lack of statistical significance in the PDV replication, transcriptional regulation of viral receptors, and changes in apoptosis suggest that although CSL might be infected by PDV, they might be less susceptible than phocid species.
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3
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Libbey JE, Fujinami RS. Morbillivirus: A highly adaptable viral genus. Heliyon 2023; 9:e18095. [PMID: 37483821 PMCID: PMC10362132 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the course of human history, numerous diseases have been caused by the transmission of viruses from an animal reservoir into the human population. The viruses of the genus Morbillivirus are human and animal pathogens that emerged from a primordial ancestor a millennia ago and have been transmitting to new hosts, adapting, and evolving ever since. Through interaction with susceptible individuals, as yet undiscovered morbilliviruses or existing morbilliviruses in animal hosts could cause future zoonotic diseases in humans.
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4
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Seki F, Takeda M. Novel and classical morbilliviruses: Current knowledge of three divergent morbillivirus groups. Microbiol Immunol 2022; 66:552-563. [PMID: 36151905 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.13030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Currently, seven species of morbillivirus have been classified. Six of these species (Measles morbillivirus, Rinderpest morbillivirus, Small ruminant morbillivirus, Canine morbillivirus, Phocine morbillivirus, and Cetacean morbillivirus) are highly infectious and cause serious systemic diseases in humans, livestock, domestic dogs, and wild animals. These species commonly use the host proteins signaling lymphocytic activation molecule (SLAM) and nectin-4 as receptors, and this usage contributes to their virulence. The seventh species (Feline morbillivirus: FeMV) is phylogenetically divergent from the six SLAM-using species. FeMV differs from the SLAM-using morbillivirus group in pathogenicity and infectivity, and is speculated to use non-SLAM receptors. Recently, novel species of morbilliviruses have been discovered in bats, rodents, and domestic pigs. Because the ability to use SLAM and nectin-4 is closely related to the infectivity and pathogenicity of morbilliviruses, investigation of the potential usage of these receptors is useful for estimating infectivity and pathogenicity. The SLAM-binding sites in the receptor-binding protein show high similarity among the SLAM-using morbilliviruses. This feature may help to estimate whether novel morbillivirus species can use SLAM as a receptor. A novel morbillivirus species isolated from wild mice diverged from the classified morbilliviruses in the phylogenetic tree, forming a third group separate from the SLAM-using morbillivirus group and FeMV. This suggests that the novel rodent morbillivirus may exhibit a different risk from the SLAM-using morbillivirus group, and analyses of its viral pathogenicity and infectivity toward humans are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumio Seki
- Department of Virology 3, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Musashimurayama, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makoto Takeda
- Department of Virology 3, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Musashimurayama, Tokyo, Japan
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5
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De Luca E, Sautto GA, Crisi PE, Lorusso A. Feline Morbillivirus Infection in Domestic Cats: What Have We Learned So Far? Viruses 2021; 13:v13040683. [PMID: 33921104 PMCID: PMC8071394 DOI: 10.3390/v13040683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Feline morbillivirus (FeMV) was identified for the first time in stray cats in 2012 in Hong Kong and, since its discovery, it was reported in domestic cats worldwide. Although a potential association between FeMV infection and tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN) has been suggested, this has not been proven, and the subject remains controversial. TIN is the most frequent histopathological finding in the context of feline chronic kidney disease (CKD), which is one of the major clinical pathologies in feline medicine. FeMV research has mainly focused on defining the epidemiology, the role of FeMV in the development of CKD, and its in vitro tropism, but the pathogenicity of FeMV is still not clear, partly due to its distinctive biological characteristics, as well as to a lack of a cell culture system for its rapid isolation. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of FeMV infection, including genetic diversity of FeMV strains, epidemiology, pathogenicity, and clinicopathological findings observed in naturally infected cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliana De Luca
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e Molise (IZSAM), 64100 Teramo, Italy;
| | | | - Paolo Emidio Crisi
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary University Hospital, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy;
| | - Alessio Lorusso
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e Molise (IZSAM), 64100 Teramo, Italy;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0861332440
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6
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Batley KC, Sandoval-Castillo J, Kemper CM, Zanardo N, Tomo I, Beheregaray LB, Möller LM. Whole genomes reveal multiple candidate genes and pathways involved in the immune response of dolphins to a highly infectious virus. Mol Ecol 2021; 30:6434-6448. [PMID: 33675577 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Wildlife species are challenged by various infectious diseases that act as important demographic drivers of populations and have become a great conservation concern particularly under growing environmental changes. The new era of whole genome sequencing provides new opportunities and avenues to explore the role of genetic variants in the plasticity of immune responses, particularly in non-model systems. Cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV) has emerged as a major viral threat to cetacean populations worldwide, contributing to the death of thousands of individuals of multiple dolphin and whale species. To understand the genomic basis of immune responses to CeMV, we generated and analysed whole genomes of 53 Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) exposed to Australia's largest known CeMV-related mortality event that killed at least 50 dolphins from three different species. The genomic data set consisted of 10,168,981 SNPs anchored onto 23 chromosome-length scaffolds and 77 short scaffolds. Whole genome analysis indicated that levels of inbreeding in the dolphin population did not influence the outcome of an individual. Allele frequency estimates between survivors and nonsurvivors of the outbreak revealed 15,769 candidate SNPs, of which 689 were annotated to 295 protein coding genes. These included 50 genes with functions related to innate and adaptive immune responses, and cytokine signalling pathways and genes thought to be involved in immune responses to other morbilliviruses. Our study characterised genomic regions and pathways that may contribute to CeMV immune responses in dolphins. This represents a stride towards clarifying the complex interactions of the cetacean immune system and emphasises the value of whole genome data sets in understanding genetic elements that are essential for species conservation, including disease susceptibility and adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberley C Batley
- Molecular Ecology Laboratory, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.,Cetacean Ecology, Behaviour, and Evolution Laboratory, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Jonathan Sandoval-Castillo
- Molecular Ecology Laboratory, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | | | - Nikki Zanardo
- Molecular Ecology Laboratory, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.,Cetacean Ecology, Behaviour, and Evolution Laboratory, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Ikuko Tomo
- South Australian Museum, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Luciano B Beheregaray
- Molecular Ecology Laboratory, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Luciana M Möller
- Molecular Ecology Laboratory, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.,Cetacean Ecology, Behaviour, and Evolution Laboratory, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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7
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Wang Y, Chen J, Hu B, Gong C, Shi N, Liu M, Yan X, Bai X, Zhao J. Mink SLAM V-Region V74I Substitutions Contribute to the Formation of Syncytia Induced by Canine Distemper Virus. Front Vet Sci 2021; 7:570283. [PMID: 33585591 PMCID: PMC7874165 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.570283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Signal lymphatic activation molecule (SLAM, also known as CD150) as the cellular receptor of canine distemper virus (CDV) plays an important role in the virus-host interaction. However, it is still unknown whether amino acid differences in the SLAM variable (V) region affect the formation of syncytia. Here, using raccoon dog SLAM (rSLAM) and mink SLAM (mSLAM), we performed SLAM-V homologous modeling, site-directed mutagenesis, and surface expression analysis, as well as a cell fusion assay, to study the interaction between SLAM and CDV. More specifically, our investigation focused on two amino acid residues (74 and 129) of SLAM, previously predicted to play a relevant role in receptor-ligand interaction. Our results indicated that only residues at position 60, 74, and 129 were different between rSLAM and mSLAM among the 29 amino acids that might interact with CDV H, and residues 74 and 129 were located in the interface region interacting with CDV H. The amino acid substitution at the positions of 74 have a significant effect on the expression of mSLAM. The SLAM-V74I mutation in mink significantly improved the cell fusion efficiency of CDV. In contrast, the SLAM-I74V mutation in the raccoon dog significantly decreased cell fusion efficiency. We conclude that residue 74 of SLAM plays an important role during the the formation of syncytia. Only when implementing CDV infection analysis, the rSLAM-Q129R can significantly decreased the mean number of syncytia, but the mSLAM-R129Q can't. Additionally, residue 60 show variability between rSLAM and mSLAM. We believe that our study makes a significant contribution to the literature because we provide molecular data, partially accounting for the differences in host membrane and virus interaction laying the foundation for further molecular work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yawen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Special Animal Epidemic Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Changchun, China.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Chen
- Key Laboratory of Special Animal Epidemic Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Changchun, China
| | - Bo Hu
- Key Laboratory of Special Animal Epidemic Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Changchun, China
| | - Chengyan Gong
- Key Laboratory of Special Animal Epidemic Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Changchun, China
| | - Ning Shi
- Key Laboratory of Special Animal Epidemic Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Changchun, China
| | - Mengjia Liu
- Dongying Customs District, People's Republic of China, Dongying, China
| | - Xijun Yan
- Key Laboratory of Special Animal Epidemic Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Changchun, China
| | - Xue Bai
- Key Laboratory of Special Animal Epidemic Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Changchun, China
| | - Jianjun Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, China
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8
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Seki F, Ohishi K, Maruyama T, Takeda M. Phocine distemper virus uses phocine and other animal SLAMs as a receptor but not human SLAM. Microbiol Immunol 2020; 64:578-583. [PMID: 32215955 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Morbilliviruses use the signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM) as a receptor to infect their hosts. Seals are almost the only animal species that show apparent infection with phocine distemper virus (PDV). Seal SLAM functioned as a PDV receptor. However, dolphin- and dog-SLAM molecules, but not human SLAM, were also fully functional PDV receptors. These data suggest that the host range of PDV is not simply determined by its SLAM usage. However, human nonsusceptibility to PDV infection may be at least partly attributable to the inability of PDV to use human SLAM as a receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumio Seki
- Department of Virology 3, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Musashimurayama, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazue Ohishi
- Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo Polytechnic University, Atsugi, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Tadashi Maruyama
- School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Makoto Takeda
- Department of Virology 3, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Musashimurayama, Tokyo, Japan
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9
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Takeda M, Seki F, Yamamoto Y, Nao N, Tokiwa H. Animal morbilliviruses and their cross-species transmission potential. Curr Opin Virol 2020; 41:38-45. [PMID: 32344228 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 03/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Like measles virus (MV), whose primary hosts are humans, non-human animal morbilliviruses use SLAM (signaling lymphocytic activation molecule) and PVRL4 (nectin-4) expressed on immune and epithelial cells, respectively, as receptors. PVRL4's amino acid sequence is highly conserved across species, while that of SLAM varies significantly. However, non-host animal SLAMs often function as receptors for different morbilliviruses. Uniquely, human SLAM is somewhat specific for MV, but canine distemper virus, which shows the widest host range among morbilliviruses, readily gains the ability to use human SLAM. The host range for morbilliviruses is also modulated by their ability to counteract the host's innate immunity, but the risk of cross-species transmission of non-human animal morbilliviruses to humans could occur if MV is successfully eradicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Takeda
- Department of Virology 3, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen 4-7-1, Musashimurayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan.
| | - Fumio Seki
- Department of Virology 3, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen 4-7-1, Musashimurayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan
| | - Yuta Yamamoto
- Department of Chemistry, Rikkyo University, Nishi-Ikebukuro 3-34-1, Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171-8501, Japan
| | - Naganori Nao
- Department of Virology 3, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen 4-7-1, Musashimurayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Tokiwa
- Department of Chemistry, Rikkyo University, Nishi-Ikebukuro 3-34-1, Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171-8501, Japan
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10
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Ng WM, Stelfox AJ, Bowden TA. Unraveling virus relationships by structure-based phylogenetic classification. Virus Evol 2020; 6:veaa003. [PMID: 32064119 PMCID: PMC7015158 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veaa003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Delineation of the intricacies of protein function from macromolecular structure constitutes a continual obstacle in the study of cell and pathogen biology. Structure-based phylogenetic analysis has emerged as a powerful tool for addressing this challenge, allowing the detection and quantification of conserved architectural properties between proteins, including those with low or no detectable sequence homology. With a focus on viral protein structure, we highlight how a number of investigations have utilized this powerful method to infer common functionality and ancestry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weng M Ng
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Alice J Stelfox
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Thomas A Bowden
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
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11
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Kennedy JM, Earle JP, Omar S, Abdullah H, Nielsen O, Roelke-Parker ME, Cosby SL. Canine and Phocine Distemper Viruses: Global Spread and Genetic Basis of Jumping Species Barriers. Viruses 2019; 11:E944. [PMID: 31615092 PMCID: PMC6833027 DOI: 10.3390/v11100944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV) and phocine distemper (PDV) are closely-related members of the Paramyxoviridae family, genus morbillivirus, in the order Mononegavirales. CDV has a broad host range among carnivores. PDV is thought to be derived from CDV through contact between terrestrial carnivores and seals. PDV has caused extensive mortality in Atlantic seals and other marine mammals, and more recently has spread to the North Pacific Ocean. CDV also infects marine carnivores, and there is evidence of morbillivirus infection of seals and other species in Antarctica. Recently, CDV has spread to felines and other wildlife species in the Serengeti and South Africa. Some CDV vaccines may also have caused wildlife disease. Changes in the virus haemagglutinin (H) protein, particularly the signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM) receptor binding site, correlate with adaptation to non-canine hosts. Differences in the phosphoprotein (P) gene sequences between disease and non-disease causing CDV strains may relate to pathogenicity in domestic dogs and wildlife. Of most concern are reports of CDV infection and disease in non-human primates raising the possibility of zoonosis. In this article we review the global occurrence of CDV and PDV, and present both historical and genetic information relating to these viruses crossing species barriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith M. Kennedy
- Wellcome Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; (J.M.K.); (S.O.); (H.A.)
| | - J.A. Philip Earle
- Wellcome Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; (J.M.K.); (S.O.); (H.A.)
| | - Shadia Omar
- Wellcome Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; (J.M.K.); (S.O.); (H.A.)
| | - Hani’ah Abdullah
- Wellcome Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; (J.M.K.); (S.O.); (H.A.)
| | - Ole Nielsen
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N6, Canada;
| | | | - S. Louise Cosby
- Wellcome Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; (J.M.K.); (S.O.); (H.A.)
- Virology Branch, Veterinary Sciences Division, Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Belfast BT4 3SD, UK
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12
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Host Cellular Receptors for the Peste des Petits Ruminant Virus. Viruses 2019; 11:v11080729. [PMID: 31398809 PMCID: PMC6723671 DOI: 10.3390/v11080729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Revised: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Peste des Petits Ruminant (PPR) is an important transboundary, OIE-listed contagious viral disease of primarily sheep and goats caused by the PPR virus (PPRV), which belongs to the genus Morbillivirus of the family Paramyxoviridae. The mortality rate is 90–100%, and the morbidity rate may reach up to 100%. PPR is considered economically important as it decreases the production and productivity of livestock. In many endemic poor countries, it has remained an obstacle to the development of sustainable agriculture. Hence, proper control measures have become a necessity to prevent its rapid spread across the world. For this, detailed information on the pathogenesis of the virus and the virus host interaction through cellular receptors needs to be understood clearly. Presently, two cellular receptors; signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM) and Nectin-4 are known for PPRV. However, extensive information on virus interactions with these receptors and their impact on host immune response is still required. Hence, a thorough understanding of PPRV receptors and the mechanism involved in the induction of immunosuppression is crucial for controlling PPR. In this review, we discuss PPRV cellular receptors, viral host interaction with cellular receptors, and immunosuppression induced by the virus with reference to other Morbilliviruses.
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13
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Muñoz-Alía MA, Russell SJ. Probing Morbillivirus Antisera Neutralization Using Functional Chimerism between Measles Virus and Canine Distemper Virus Envelope Glycoproteins. Viruses 2019; 11:E688. [PMID: 31357579 PMCID: PMC6722617 DOI: 10.3390/v11080688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Measles virus (MeV) is monotypic. Live virus challenge provokes a broadly protective humoral immune response that neutralizes all known measles genotypes. The two surface glycoproteins, H and F, mediate virus attachment and entry, respectively, and neutralizing antibodies to H are considered the main correlate of protection. Herein, we made improvements to the MeV reverse genetics system and generated a panel of recombinant MeVs in which the globular head domain or stalk region of the H glycoprotein or the entire F protein, or both, were substituted with the corresponding protein domains from canine distemper virus (CDV), a closely related morbillivirus that resists neutralization by measles-immune sera. The viruses were tested for sensitivity to human or guinea pig neutralizing anti-MeV antisera and to ferret anti-CDV antisera. Virus neutralization was mediated by antibodies to both H and F proteins, with H being immunodominant in the case of MeV and F being so in the case of CDV. Additionally, the globular head domains of both MeV and CDV H proteins were immunodominant over their stalk regions. These data shed further light on the factors constraining the evolution of new morbillivirus serotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stephen J Russell
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, 200 First St SW, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
- Division of Hematology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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14
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Yang B, Xue Q, Guo J, Wang X, Zhang Y, Guo K, Li W, Chen S, Xue T, Qi X, Wang J. Autophagy induction by the pathogen receptor NECTIN4 and sustained autophagy contribute to peste des petits ruminants virus infectivity. Autophagy 2019; 16:842-861. [PMID: 31318632 PMCID: PMC7144873 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2019.1643184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Macroautophagy/autophagy is an essential cellular response in the fight against intracellular pathogens. Although some viruses can escape from or utilize autophagy to ensure their own replication, the responses of autophagy pathways to viral invasion remain poorly documented. Here, we show that peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) infection induces successive autophagic signalling in host cells via distinct and uncoupled molecular pathways. Immediately upon invasion, PPRV induced a first transient wave of autophagy via a mechanism involving the cellular pathogen receptor NECTIN4 and an AKT-MTOR-dependent pathway. Autophagic detection showed that early PPRV infection not only increased the amounts of autophagosomes and LC3-II but also downregulated the phosphorylation of AKT-MTOR. Subsequently, we found that the binding of viral protein H to NECTIN4 ultimately induced a wave of autophagy and inactivated the AKT-MTOR pathway, which is a critical step for the control of infection. Soon after infection, new autophagic signalling was initiated that required viral replication and protein expression. Interestingly, expression of IRGM and HSPA1A was significantly upregulated following PPRV replication. Strikingly, knockdown of IRGM and HSPA1A expression using small interfering RNAs impaired the PPRV-induced second autophagic wave and viral particle production. Moreover, IRGM-interacting PPRV-C and HSPA1A-interacting PPRV-N expression was sufficient to induce autophagy through an IRGM-HSPA1A-dependent pathway. Importantly, syncytia formation could facilitate sustained autophagy and the replication of PPRV. Overall, our work reveals distinct molecular pathways underlying the induction of self-beneficial sustained autophagy by attenuated PPRV, which will contribute to improving the use of vaccines for therapy. Abbreviations: ACTB: actin beta; ANOVA: analysis of variance; ATG: autophagy-related; BECN1: beclin 1; CDV: canine distemper virus; Co-IP: coimmunoprecipitation; FIP: fusion inhibitory peptide; GFP: green fluorescent protein; GST: glutathione S-transferase; HMOX1: heme oxygenase 1; hpi: hours post infection; HSPA1A: heat shock protein family A (Hsp70) member 1A; HSP90AA1: heat shock protein 90 kDa alpha (cytosolic), class A member 1; IFN: interferon; IgG: immunoglobulin G; INS: insulin; IRGM: immunity related GTPase M; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MeV: measles virus; MOI: multiplicity of infection; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; PI3K: phosphoinositide-3 kinase; PIK3C3: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit type 3; SDS: sodium dodecyl sulfate; siRNA: small interfering RNA; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; UV: ultraviolet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qinghong Xue
- Department of viral biologics, China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaona Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xueping Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yanming Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Kangkang Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wei Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shuying Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Tianxia Xue
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xuefeng Qi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jingyu Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
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15
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Ohishi K, Maruyama T, Seki F, Takeda M. Marine Morbilliviruses: Diversity and Interaction with Signaling Lymphocyte Activation Molecules. Viruses 2019; 11:E606. [PMID: 31277275 PMCID: PMC6669707 DOI: 10.3390/v11070606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological reports of phocine distemper virus (PDV) and cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV) have accumulated since their discovery nearly 30 years ago. In this review, we focus on the interaction between these marine morbilliviruses and their major cellular receptor, the signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM). The three-dimensional crystal structure and homology models of SLAMs have demonstrated that 35 residues are important for binding to the morbillivirus hemagglutinin (H) protein and contribute to viral tropism. These 35 residues are essentially conserved among pinnipeds and highly conserved among the Caniformia, suggesting that PDV can infect these animals, but are less conserved among cetaceans. Because CeMV can infect various cetacean species, including toothed and baleen whales, the CeMV-H protein is postulated to have broader specificity to accommodate more divergent SLAM interfaces and may enable the virus to infect seals. In silico analysis of viral H protein and SLAM indicates that each residue of the H protein interacts with multiple residues of SLAM and vice versa. The integration of epidemiological, virological, structural, and computational studies should provide deeper insight into host specificity and switching of marine morbilliviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazue Ohishi
- Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo Polytechnic University, 1583, Iiyama, Atsugi, Kanagawa 243-0297, Japan.
| | - Tadashi Maruyama
- School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1, Kitazato, Minami, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
| | - Fumio Seki
- Department of Virology III, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 4-7-1, Gakuen, Musashimurayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan
| | - Makoto Takeda
- Department of Virology III, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 4-7-1, Gakuen, Musashimurayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan
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16
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Batley KC, Sandoval‐Castillo J, Kemper CM, Attard CRM, Zanardo N, Tomo I, Beheregaray LB, Möller LM. Genome-wide association study of an unusual dolphin mortality event reveals candidate genes for susceptibility and resistance to cetacean morbillivirus. Evol Appl 2019; 12:718-732. [PMID: 30976305 PMCID: PMC6439501 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2018] [Revised: 11/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases are significant demographic and evolutionary drivers of populations, but studies about the genetic basis of disease resistance and susceptibility are scarce in wildlife populations. Cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV) is a highly contagious disease that is increasing in both geographic distribution and incidence, causing unusual mortality events (UME) and killing tens of thousands of individuals across multiple cetacean species worldwide since the late 1980s. The largest CeMV outbreak in the Southern Hemisphere reported to date occurred in Australia in 2013, where it was a major factor in a UME, killing mainly young Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus). Using cases (nonsurvivors) and controls (putative survivors) from the most affected population, we carried out a genome-wide association study to identify candidate genes for resistance and susceptibility to CeMV. The genomic data set consisted of 278,147,988 sequence reads and 35,493 high-quality SNPs genotyped across 38 individuals. Association analyses found highly significant differences in allele and genotype frequencies among cases and controls at 65 SNPs, and Random Forests conservatively identified eight as candidates. Annotation of these SNPs identified five candidate genes (MAPK8, FBXW11, INADL, ANK3 and ACOX3) with functions associated with stress, pain and immune responses. Our findings provide the first insights into the genetic basis of host defence to this highly contagious disease, enabling the development of an applied evolutionary framework to monitor CeMV resistance across cetacean species. Biomarkers could now be established to assess potential risk factors associated with these genes in other CeMV-affected cetacean populations and species. These results could also possibly aid in the advancement of vaccines against morbilliviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberley C. Batley
- Molecular Ecology Laboratory, College of Science and EngineeringFlinders UniversityAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
- Cetacean Ecology, Behaviour, and Evolution Laboratory, College of Science and EngineeringFlinders UniversityAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Jonathan Sandoval‐Castillo
- Molecular Ecology Laboratory, College of Science and EngineeringFlinders UniversityAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | | | - Catherine R. M. Attard
- Molecular Ecology Laboratory, College of Science and EngineeringFlinders UniversityAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
- Cetacean Ecology, Behaviour, and Evolution Laboratory, College of Science and EngineeringFlinders UniversityAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Nikki Zanardo
- Molecular Ecology Laboratory, College of Science and EngineeringFlinders UniversityAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
- Cetacean Ecology, Behaviour, and Evolution Laboratory, College of Science and EngineeringFlinders UniversityAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Ikuko Tomo
- South Australian MuseumAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Luciano B. Beheregaray
- Molecular Ecology Laboratory, College of Science and EngineeringFlinders UniversityAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Luciana M. Möller
- Molecular Ecology Laboratory, College of Science and EngineeringFlinders UniversityAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
- Cetacean Ecology, Behaviour, and Evolution Laboratory, College of Science and EngineeringFlinders UniversityAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
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17
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Wang W, Feng W, Li D, Liu S, Gao Y, Zhao Z, Fu Q, Yan L, Zheng W, Li M, Zheng X. Fusion and hemagglutinin proteins of canine distemper virus promote osteoclast formation through NF-κB dependent and independent mechanisms. Exp Cell Res 2019; 378:171-181. [PMID: 30880029 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2019.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Paget's disease (PD) features abnormal osteoclasts (OC) which sharply increase in number and size and then intensely induce bone resorption. The purpose of this study was to determine the direct effects of canine distemper virus (CDV) and its fusion protein and hemagglutinin protein (F + H) on receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL) induced OC formation in vitro. Immunofluorescence assay, OC morphological and functional detection, intracellular signaling pathway detection, Real-time PCR analysis and ELISA were applied in this study. Immunofluorescence assay provided the conclusive proof that CDV can infect and replicate in RAW264.7 mouse monocyte cell line, primary human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and their further fused OC. Both CDV and F + H significantly promoted OC formation and bone resorption ability induced by RANKL. Meanwhile, intracellular signaling transduction analysis revealed CDV and F + H specifically upregulated the phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) induced by RANKL, respectively. Furthermore, without RANKL stimulation, both CDV and F + H slightly induced OC-like cells formation in RAW264.7 cell line even in the presence of NF-κB inhibitor. F + H upregulate OC differentiation and activity through modulation of NF-κB signaling pathway, and induce OC precursor cells merging dependent on the function of glycoproteins themselves. These results meant that F and H proteins play a pivotal role in CDV supporting OC formation. Moreover, this work further provide a new research direction that F and H proteins in CDV should be considered as a trigger during the pathogenesis of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Department of Bone Metabolism, School of Stomatology Shandong University, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration, Jinan, China
| | - Wei Feng
- Department of Endodontics, Jinan Stomatological Hospital, Jinan, China
| | - Dongfang Li
- Department of Bone Metabolism, School of Stomatology Shandong University, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration, Jinan, China
| | - Shanshan Liu
- Department of Bone Metabolism, School of Stomatology Shandong University, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration, Jinan, China
| | - Yuan Gao
- Department of Bone Metabolism, School of Stomatology Shandong University, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration, Jinan, China
| | - Zhongxin Zhao
- School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Qianyun Fu
- School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Lina Yan
- School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Wenwen Zheng
- School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Minqi Li
- Department of Bone Metabolism, School of Stomatology Shandong University, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration, Jinan, China.
| | - Xuexing Zheng
- School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, China.
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18
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Yang B, Qi X, Guo H, Jia P, Chen S, Chen Z, Wang T, Wang J, Xue Q. Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus Enters Caprine Endometrial Epithelial Cells via the Caveolae-Mediated Endocytosis Pathway. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:210. [PMID: 29497407 PMCID: PMC5818419 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) causes an acute and highly contagious disease of sheep and goats and has spread with alarming speed around the world. The pathology of Peste des petits ruminants is linked to retrogressive changes and necrotic lesions in lymphoid tissues and epithelial cells. However, the process of PPRV entry into host epithelial cells remains largely unknown. Here, we performed a comprehensive study of the entry mechanism of PPRV into caprine endometrial epithelial cells (EECs). We clearly demonstrated that PPRV internalization was inhibited by chloroquine and ammonium chloride, which elevate the pH of various organelles. However, PPRV entry was not affected by chlorpromazine and knockdown of the clathrin heavy chain in EECs. In addition, we found that the internalization of PPRV was dependent on dynamin and membrane cholesterol and was suppressed by silencing of caveolin-1. Macropinocytosis did not play a role, but phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) was required for PPRV internalization. Cell type and receptor-dependent differences indicated that PPRV entry into caprine fetal fibroblast cells (FFCs) occurred via a different route. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that PPRV enters EECs through a cholesterol-dependent caveolae-mediated uptake mechanism that is pH-dependent and requires dynamin and PI3K but is independent of clathrin. This potentially provides insight into the entry mechanisms of other morbilliviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yang
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, China.,College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Xuefeng Qi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Hui Guo
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, China
| | - Peilong Jia
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Shuying Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Zhijie Chen
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, China.,College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Ting Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Jingyu Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang, China
| | - Qinghong Xue
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, China
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19
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Cosby SL, Weir L. Measles vaccination: Threat from related veterinary viruses and need for continued vaccination post measles eradication. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2018; 14:229-233. [PMID: 29173050 PMCID: PMC5791572 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2017.1403677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Measles virus (MV) is the only human virus within the morbillivirus genus of the Paramyxoviridae. The veterinary members are canine distemper virus (CDV), peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV), Rinderpest Virus (RPV) as well as the marine morbilliviruses phocine distemper virus (PDV), dolphin morbillivirus (DMV) and porpoise morbillivirus (PMV). Morbilliviruses have a severe impact on humans and animal species. They confer diseases which have contributed to morbidity and mortality of the population on a global scale. There is substantial evidence from both natural and experimental infections that morbilliviruses can readily cross species barriers. Of most concern with regard to zoonosis is the more recently reported fatal infection of primates in Japan and China with strains of CDV which have adapted to this host. The close genetic relationship, shared cell entry receptors and similar pathogenesis between the morbilliviruses highlights the potential consequences of complete withdrawal of MV vaccination after eradication. Therefore, it would be prudent to continue the current MV vaccination. Ultimately development of novel, safe vaccines which have higher efficacy against the veterinary morbilliviruses is a priority. These would to protect the human population long term against the threat of zoonosis by these veterinary viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Louise Cosby
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Veterinary Sciences Division, Stormont, Belfast, UK
- Queen's University Belfast, Centre for Experimental Medicine, Belfast, UK
| | - Leanne Weir
- Queen's University Belfast, Centre for Experimental Medicine, Belfast, UK
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20
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Stejskalova K, Bayerova Z, Futas J, Hrazdilova K, Klumplerova M, Oppelt J, Splichalova P, Di Guardo G, Mazzariol S, Di Francesco CE, Di Francesco G, Terracciano G, Paiu RM, Ursache TD, Modry D, Horin P. Candidate gene molecular markers as tools for analyzing genetic susceptibility to morbillivirus infection in stranded Cetaceans. HLA 2017; 90:343-353. [DOI: 10.1111/tan.13146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. Stejskalova
- Department of Animal Genetics; University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Z. Bayerova
- Department of Animal Genetics; University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences; Brno Czech Republic
| | - J. Futas
- Department of Animal Genetics; University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences; Brno Czech Republic
- Ceitec VFU, RG Animal Immunogenomics; Brno Czech Republic
| | - K. Hrazdilova
- Ceitec VFU, RG Molecular Microbiology; Brno Czech Republic
| | - M. Klumplerova
- Department of Animal Genetics; University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences; Brno Czech Republic
| | - J. Oppelt
- Ceitec MU, Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, National Centre for Biomolecular Research; Masaryk University; Brno Czech Republic
| | - P. Splichalova
- Ceitec VFU, RG Animal Immunogenomics; Brno Czech Republic
| | - G. Di Guardo
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; University of Teramo; Teramo Italy
| | - S. Mazzariol
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, Viale dell'Università; University of Padua; Padua Italy
| | | | - G. Di Francesco
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale”; Teramo Italy
| | - G. Terracciano
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”; Pisa Italy
| | | | - T. D. Ursache
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca; Cluj-Napoca Romania
| | - D. Modry
- Ceitec VFU, RG Molecular Microbiology; Brno Czech Republic
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology; University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences; Brno Czech Republic
- Biology Center, Czech Academy of Sciences; České Budějovice Czech Republic
| | - P. Horin
- Department of Animal Genetics; University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences; Brno Czech Republic
- Ceitec VFU, RG Animal Immunogenomics; Brno Czech Republic
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21
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Lin LT, Richardson CD. The Host Cell Receptors for Measles Virus and Their Interaction with the Viral Hemagglutinin (H) Protein. Viruses 2016; 8:v8090250. [PMID: 27657109 PMCID: PMC5035964 DOI: 10.3390/v8090250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Revised: 08/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The hemagglutinin (H) protein of measles virus (MeV) interacts with a cellular receptor which constitutes the initial stage of infection. Binding of H to this host cell receptor subsequently triggers the F protein to activate fusion between virus and host plasma membranes. The search for MeV receptors began with vaccine/laboratory virus strains and evolved to more relevant receptors used by wild-type MeV. Vaccine or laboratory strains of measles virus have been adapted to grow in common cell lines such as Vero and HeLa cells, and were found to use membrane cofactor protein (CD46) as a receptor. CD46 is a regulator that normally prevents cells from complement-mediated self-destruction, and is found on the surface of all human cells, with the exception of erythrocytes. Mutations in the H protein, which occur during adaptation and allow the virus to use CD46 as a receptor, have been identified. Wild-type isolates of measles virus cannot use the CD46 receptor. However, both vaccine/laboratory and wild-type strains can use an immune cell receptor called signaling lymphocyte activation molecule family member 1 (SLAMF1; also called CD150) and a recently discovered epithelial receptor known as Nectin-4. SLAMF1 is found on activated B, T, dendritic, and monocyte cells, and is the initial target for infections by measles virus. Nectin-4 is an adherens junction protein found at the basal surfaces of many polarized epithelial cells, including those of the airways. It is also over-expressed on the apical and basal surfaces of many adenocarcinomas, and is a cancer marker for metastasis and tumor survival. Nectin-4 is a secondary exit receptor which allows measles virus to replicate and amplify in the airways, where the virus is expelled from the body in aerosol droplets. The amino acid residues of H protein that are involved in binding to each of the receptors have been identified through X-ray crystallography and site-specific mutagenesis. Recombinant measles “blind” to each of these receptors have been constructed, allowing the virus to selectively infect receptor specific cell lines. Finally, the observations that SLAMF1 is found on lymphomas and that Nectin-4 is expressed on the cell surfaces of many adenocarcinomas highlight the potential of measles virus for oncolytic therapy. Although CD46 is also upregulated on many tumors, it is less useful as a target for cancer therapy, since normal human cells express this protein on their surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang-Tzung Lin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan.
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan.
| | - Christopher D Richardson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, 5850 College St., Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada.
- Department of Pediatrics and Canadian Center for Vaccinology, Izaak Walton Killam Health Centre, Halifax, NS B3K 6R8, Canada.
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Abstract
The family Paramyxoviridae includes many viruses that significantly affect human and animal health. An essential step in the paramyxovirus life cycle is viral entry into host cells, mediated by virus-cell membrane fusion. Upon viral entry, infection results in expression of the paramyxoviral glycoproteins on the infected cell surface. This can lead to cell-cell fusion (syncytia formation), often linked to pathogenesis. Thus membrane fusion is essential for both viral entry and cell-cell fusion and an attractive target for therapeutic development. While there are important differences between viral-cell and cell-cell membrane fusion, many aspects are conserved. The paramyxoviruses generally utilize two envelope glycoproteins to orchestrate membrane fusion. Here, we discuss the roles of these glycoproteins in distinct steps of the membrane fusion process. These findings can offer insights into evolutionary relationships among Paramyxoviridae genera and offer future targets for prophylactic and therapeutic development.
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23
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Bogomolni A, Frasca S, Levin M, Matassa K, Nielsen O, Waring G, De Guise S. In Vitro Exposure of Harbor Seal Immune Cells to Aroclor 1260 Alters Phocine Distemper Virus Replication. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2016; 70:121-132. [PMID: 26142119 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-015-0178-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In the last 30 years, several large-scale marine mammal mortality events have occurred, often in close association with highly polluted regions, leading to suspicions that contaminant-induced immunosuppression contributed to these epizootics. Some of these recent events also identified morbillivirus as a cause of or contributor to death. The role of contaminant exposures regarding morbillivirus mortality is still unclear. The results of this study aimed to address the potential for a mixture of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), specifically Aroclor 1260, to alter harbor seal T-lymphocyte proliferation and to assess if exposure resulted in increased likelihood of phocine distemper virus (PDV USA 2006) to infect susceptible seals in an in vitro system. Exposure of peripheral blood mononuclear cells to Aroclor 1260 did not significantly alter lymphocyte proliferation (1, 5, 10, and 20 ppm). However, using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), lymphocytes exposed to 20 ppm Aroclor 1260 exhibited a significant decrease in PDV replication at day 7 and a significant increase at day 11 compared with unexposed control cells. Similar and significant differences were apparent on exposure to Aroclor 1260 in monocytes and supernatant. The results here indicate that in harbor seals, Aroclor 1260 exposure results in a decrease in virus early during infection and an increase during late infection. The consequences of this contaminant-induced infection pattern in a highly susceptible host could result in a greater potential for systemic infection with greater viral load, which could explain the correlative findings seen in wild populations exposed to a range of persistent contaminants that suffer from morbillivirus epizootics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Bogomolni
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, 61 North Eagleville Rd., Storrs, CT, 06268, USA.
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 266 Woods Hole, Rd. #MS 50, Woods Hole, MA, 02543, USA.
| | - Salvatore Frasca
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, 61 North Eagleville Rd., Storrs, CT, 06268, USA
| | - Milton Levin
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, 61 North Eagleville Rd., Storrs, CT, 06268, USA
| | - Keith Matassa
- Pacific Marine Mammal Center, 20612 Laguna Canyon Rd, Laguna Beach, CA, 92651, USA
| | - Ole Nielsen
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Central and Arctic Region, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N6, Canada
| | - Gordon Waring
- National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, 166 Woods Hole Rd., Woods Hole, MA, USA
| | - Sylvain De Guise
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, 61 North Eagleville Rd., Storrs, CT, 06268, USA
- Connecticut Sea Grant College Program, 1080 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT, 06340, USA
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24
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Van Bressem MF, Duignan PJ, Banyard A, Barbieri M, Colegrove KM, De Guise S, Di Guardo G, Dobson A, Domingo M, Fauquier D, Fernandez A, Goldstein T, Grenfell B, Groch KR, Gulland F, Jensen BA, Jepson PD, Hall A, Kuiken T, Mazzariol S, Morris SE, Nielsen O, Raga JA, Rowles TK, Saliki J, Sierra E, Stephens N, Stone B, Tomo I, Wang J, Waltzek T, Wellehan JFX. Cetacean morbillivirus: current knowledge and future directions. Viruses 2014; 6:5145-81. [PMID: 25533660 PMCID: PMC4276946 DOI: 10.3390/v6125145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Revised: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We review the molecular and epidemiological characteristics of cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV) and the diagnosis and pathogenesis of associated disease, with six different strains detected in cetaceans worldwide. CeMV has caused epidemics with high mortality in odontocetes in Europe, the USA and Australia. It represents a distinct species within the Morbillivirus genus. Although most CeMV strains are phylogenetically closely related, recent data indicate that morbilliviruses recovered from Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus), from Western Australia, and a Guiana dolphin (Sotalia guianensis), from Brazil, are divergent. The signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM) cell receptor for CeMV has been characterized in cetaceans. It shares higher amino acid identity with the ruminant SLAM than with the receptors of carnivores or humans, reflecting the evolutionary history of these mammalian taxa. In Delphinidae, three amino acid substitutions may result in a higher affinity for the virus. Infection is diagnosed by histology, immunohistochemistry, virus isolation, RT-PCR, and serology. Classical CeMV-associated lesions include bronchointerstitial pneumonia, encephalitis, syncytia, and lymphoid depletion associated with immunosuppression. Cetaceans that survive the acute disease may develop fatal secondary infections and chronic encephalitis. Endemically infected, gregarious odontocetes probably serve as reservoirs and vectors. Transmission likely occurs through the inhalation of aerosolized virus but mother to fetus transmission was also reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Françoise Van Bressem
- Cetacean Conservation Medicine Group (CMED), Peruvian Centre for Cetacean Research (CEPEC), Pucusana, Lima 20, Peru
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +49-30-53051397
| | - Pádraig J. Duignan
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, AL T2N 4Z6, Canada; E-Mail:
| | - Ashley Banyard
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; E-Mail:
| | - Michelle Barbieri
- The Marine Mammal Centre, Sausalito, CA 94965, USA; E-Mails: (M.B.); (F.G.)
| | - Kathleen M Colegrove
- Zoological Pathology Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Maywood, IL 60153 , USA; E-Mail:
| | - Sylvain De Guise
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, and Connecticut Sea Grant College Program, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Giovanni Di Guardo
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy; E-Mail:
| | - Andrew Dobson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA; E-Mails: (A.D.); (B.G.); (S.E.M.)
| | - Mariano Domingo
- Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain; E-Mail:
| | - Deborah Fauquier
- National Marine Fisheries Service, Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA; E-Mails: (D.F.); (T.K.R.)
| | - Antonio Fernandez
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Animal Health, Veterinary School, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas 35413, Spain; E-Mails: (A.F.); (E.S.)
| | - Tracey Goldstein
- One Health Institute School of Veterinary Medicine University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Bryan Grenfell
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA; E-Mails: (A.D.); (B.G.); (S.E.M.)
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kátia R. Groch
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-207, Brazil; E-Mail:
- Instituto Baleia Jubarte (Humpback Whale Institute), Caravelas, Bahia 45900-000, Brazil
| | - Frances Gulland
- The Marine Mammal Centre, Sausalito, CA 94965, USA; E-Mails: (M.B.); (F.G.)
- Marine Mammal Commission, 4340 East-West Highway, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Brenda A Jensen
- Department of Natural Sciences, Hawai`i Pacific University, Kaneohe, HI 96744, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Paul D Jepson
- Institute of Zoology, Regent’s Park, London NW1 4RY, UK; E-Mail:
| | - Ailsa Hall
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 8LB, UK; E-Mail:
| | - Thijs Kuiken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam 3015 CN, The Netherlands; E-Mail:
| | - Sandro Mazzariol
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Padua 35020, Italy; E-Mail:
| | - Sinead E Morris
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA; E-Mails: (A.D.); (B.G.); (S.E.M.)
| | - Ole Nielsen
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Central and Arctic Region, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N6 , Canada; E-Mail:
| | - Juan A Raga
- Marine Zoology Unit, Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, University of Valencia, Valencia 22085, Spain; E-Mail:
| | - Teresa K Rowles
- National Marine Fisheries Service, Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA; E-Mails: (D.F.); (T.K.R.)
| | - Jeremy Saliki
- Athens Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA GA 30602 , USA; E-Mail:
| | - Eva Sierra
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Animal Health, Veterinary School, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas 35413, Spain; E-Mails: (A.F.); (E.S.)
| | - Nahiid Stephens
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Western Australia, Australia; E-Mail:
| | - Brett Stone
- QML Vetnostics, Metroplex on Gateway, Murarrie, Queensland 4172, Australia; E-Mail:
| | - Ikuko Tomo
- South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia; E-Mail:
| | - Jianning Wang
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), East Geelong, Victoria 3220, Australia; E-Mail:
| | - Thomas Waltzek
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; E-Mail:
| | - James FX Wellehan
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; E-Mail:
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25
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Duignan PJ, Van Bressem MF, Baker JD, Barbieri M, Colegrove KM, De Guise S, de Swart RL, Di Guardo G, Dobson A, Duprex WP, Early G, Fauquier D, Goldstein T, Goodman SJ, Grenfell B, Groch KR, Gulland F, Hall A, Jensen BA, Lamy K, Matassa K, Mazzariol S, Morris SE, Nielsen O, Rotstein D, Rowles TK, Saliki JT, Siebert U, Waltzek T, Wellehan JF. Phocine distemper virus: current knowledge and future directions. Viruses 2014; 6:5093-134. [PMID: 25533658 PMCID: PMC4276944 DOI: 10.3390/v6125093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Revised: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Phocine distemper virus (PDV) was first recognized in 1988 following a massive epidemic in harbor and grey seals in north-western Europe. Since then, the epidemiology of infection in North Atlantic and Arctic pinnipeds has been investigated. In the western North Atlantic endemic infection in harp and grey seals predates the European epidemic, with relatively small, localized mortality events occurring primarily in harbor seals. By contrast, PDV seems not to have become established in European harbor seals following the 1988 epidemic and a second event of similar magnitude and extent occurred in 2002. PDV is a distinct species within the Morbillivirus genus with minor sequence variation between outbreaks over time. There is now mounting evidence of PDV-like viruses in the North Pacific/Western Arctic with serological and molecular evidence of infection in pinnipeds and sea otters. However, despite the absence of associated mortality in the region, there is concern that the virus may infect the large Pacific harbor seal and northern elephant seal populations or the endangered Hawaiian monk seals. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on PDV with particular focus on developments in diagnostics, pathogenesis, immune response, vaccine development, phylogenetics and modeling over the past 20 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pádraig J. Duignan
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4Z6, Canada; E-Mails: (P.D.); (K.L.)
| | - Marie-Françoise Van Bressem
- Cetacean Conservation Medicine Group (CMED), Peruvian Centre for Cetacean Research (CEPEC), Pucusana, Lima 20, Peru; E-Mail:
| | - Jason D. Baker
- Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 1845 WASP Blvd., Building 176, Honolulu, Hawaii 96818, USA; E-Mails: (J.D.B.); (M.B.)
| | - Michelle Barbieri
- Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 1845 WASP Blvd., Building 176, Honolulu, Hawaii 96818, USA; E-Mails: (J.D.B.); (M.B.)
- The Marine Mammal Centre, Sausalito, CA 94965, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Kathleen M. Colegrove
- Zoological Pathology Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Maywood, IL 60153, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Sylvain De Guise
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, and Connecticut Sea Grant College Program, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Rik L. de Swart
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 3015 CN Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mail:
| | - Giovanni Di Guardo
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy; E-Mail:
| | - Andrew Dobson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544-2016, USA; E-Mails: (A.D.); (B.G.); (S.E.M.)
| | - W. Paul Duprex
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston University, 620 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Greg Early
- Greg Early, Integrated Statistics, 87 Water St, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Deborah Fauquier
- National Marine Fisheries Service/National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA; E-Mails: (D.F.); (T.K.R.)
| | - Tracey Goldstein
- One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Simon J. Goodman
- School of Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; E-Mail:
| | - Bryan Grenfell
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544-2016, USA; E-Mails: (A.D.); (B.G.); (S.E.M.)
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-2220, USA
| | - Kátia R. Groch
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-270, Brazil; E-Mail:
| | - Frances Gulland
- The Marine Mammal Centre, Sausalito, CA 94965, USA; E-Mail:
- Marine Mammal Commission, 4340 East-West Highway, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Ailsa Hall
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK; E-Mail:
| | - Brenda A. Jensen
- Department of Natural Sciences, Hawai’i Pacific University, Kaneohe, HI 96744, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Karina Lamy
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4Z6, Canada; E-Mails: (P.D.); (K.L.)
| | - Keith Matassa
- Keith Matassa, Pacific Marine Mammal Center, 20612 Laguna Canyon Road, Laguna Beach, CA 92651, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Sandro Mazzariol
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, 35020 Legnaro Padua, Italy; E-Mail:
| | - Sinead E. Morris
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544-2016, USA; E-Mails: (A.D.); (B.G.); (S.E.M.)
| | - Ole Nielsen
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Central and Arctic Region, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N6, Canada; E-Mail:
| | - David Rotstein
- David Rotstein, Marine Mammal Pathology Services, 19117 Bloomfield Road, Olney, MD 20832, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Teresa K. Rowles
- National Marine Fisheries Service/National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA; E-Mails: (D.F.); (T.K.R.)
| | - Jeremy T. Saliki
- Athens Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, GA 30602, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Ursula Siebert
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover 30173, Germany; E-Mail:
| | - Thomas Waltzek
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, FL 32611, USA; E-Mail:
| | - James F.X. Wellehan
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, FL 32610, USA; E-Mail:
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