Moderate Perinatal Choline Deficiency Elicits Altered Physiology and Metabolomic Profiles in the Piglet

Milk polar lipids composition and functionality: a systematic review

Polar lipids including glycerophospholipids and sphingophospholipids are important nutrients and milk is a major source, particularly for infants. This systematic review describes the human and bovine milk polar lipid composition, structural organization, sources for formulation, and physiological functionality. A total of 2840 records were retrieved through Scopus, 378 were included. Bovine milk is a good source of polar lipids, where yield and composition are highly dependent on the choice of dairy streams and processing. In milk, polar lipids are organized in the milk fat globule membrane as a tri-layer encapsulating triglyceride. The overall polar lipid concentration in human milk is dependent on many factors including lactational stage and maternal diet. Here, reasonable ranges were determined where possible. Similar for bovine milk, where differences in milk lipid concentration proved the largest factor determining variation. The role of milk polar lipids in human health has been demonstrated in several areas and critical review indicated that brain, immune and effects on lipid metabolism are best substantiated areas. Moreover, insights related to the milk fat globule membrane structure-function relation as well as superior activity of milk derived polar lipid compared to plant-derived sources are emerging areas of interest regarding future research and food innovations.

Dose-response relationship between dietary choline and serum lipid profile, energy expenditure, and respiratory quotient in overweight adult cats fed at maintenance energy requirements

Choline is an essential nutrient linked to hepatic lipid metabolism in many animal species, including cats. The current study investigated the serum lipid profiles, serum liver enzymes, respiratory quotients, and energy expenditures of overweight cats fed maintenance diets, in response to graded doses of supplemental dietary choline. Overweight (body condition score [BCS]: ≥6/9) adult male neutered cats (n = 14) were supplemented with five choline chloride doses for 3-wk periods, in a 5 × 5 Latin square design. Doses were based on individual body weight (BW) and the daily recommended allowance (RA) for choline (63 mg/kg BW0.67) according to the National Research Council. Doses were control (no additional choline: 1.2 × RA, 77 mg/kg BW0.67), 2 × RA (126 mg/kg BW0.67), 4 × RA (252 mg/kg BW0.67), 6 × RA (378 mg/kg BW0.67), and 8 × RA (504 mg/kg BW0.67). Choline was top-dressed over the commercial extruded cat food (3,620 mg choline/kg diet), fed once a day at maintenance energy requirements (130 kcal/kgBW0.4). Body weight and BCS were assessed weekly. Fasted blood samples were taken and indirect calorimetry was performed at the end of each 3-wk period. Serum was analyzed for cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycerides, non-esterified fatty acids, glucose, creatinine, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and alanine aminotransferase. Very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were calculated. Data were analyzed via SAS using proc GLIMMIX, with group and period as the random effects, and treatment as the fixed effect. Statistical significance was considered at P < 0.05. Body weight and BCS did not change (P > 0.05). Serum cholesterol, HDL-C, triglycerides, and VLDL increased with 6 × RA (P < 0.05). Serum ALP decreased with 8 × RA (P = 0.004). Choline at 4 × and 6 × RA decreased serum BUN (P = 0.006). Fed or fasted respiratory quotient and energy expenditure did not differ among dietary choline doses (P > 0.05). These results suggest that dietary choline supplementation at 6 × RA may increase hepatic fat mobilization through increased lipoprotein transport and beneficially support hepatic health in overweight cats. Future studies that combine these results with existing knowledge of feline weight loss and hepatic lipidosis are warranted.

Malnutrition and the microbiome as modifiers of early neurodevelopment

Malnutrition refers to a dearth, excess, or altered differential ratios of calories, macronutrients, or micronutrients. Malnutrition, particularly during early life, is a pressing global health and socioeconomic burden that is increasingly associated with neurodevelopmental impairments. Understanding how perinatal malnutrition influences brain development is crucial to uncovering fundamental mechanisms for establishing behavioral neurocircuits, with the potential to inform public policy and clinical interventions for neurodevelopmental conditions. Recent studies reveal that the gut microbiome can mediate dietary effects on host physiology and that the microbiome modulates the development and function of the nervous system. This review discusses evidence that perinatal malnutrition alters brain development and examines the maternal and neonatal microbiome as a potential contributing factor.

Serum Lipid, Amino Acid and Acylcarnitine Profiles of Obese Cats Supplemented with Dietary Choline and Fed to Maintenance Energy Requirements

Obesity is a health concern for domestic cats. Obesity and severe energy restriction predispose cats to feline hepatic lipidosis. As choline is linked to lipid metabolism, we hypothesized that dietary choline supplementation would assist in reducing hepatic fat through increased lipoprotein transport and fatty acid oxidation. Twelve obese cats (body condition score [BCS] ≥ 8/9) were split into two groups. Cats were fed a control (n = 6; 4587 mg choline/kg dry matter [DM]) or a high choline diet (n = 6; 18,957 mg choline/kg DM) for 5 weeks, for adult maintenance. On days 0 and 35, fasted blood was collected, and the body composition was assessed. Serum lipoprotein and biochemistry profiles, plasma amino acids and plasma acylcarnitines were analyzed. The body weight, BCS and body composition were unaffected (p > 0.05). Choline increased the serum cholesterol, triacylglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and plasma methionine (p < 0.05) and decreased the serum blood urea nitrogen and alkaline phosphatase (p < 0.05). Choline also reduced the plasma acylcarnitine to free carnitine ratio (p = 0.006). Choline may assist in eliminating hepatic fat through increased fat mobilization and enhanced methionine recycling.

Developing a Reference Database for Typical Body and Organ Growth of the Artificially Reared Pig as a Biomedical Research Model

Objectives: The pig is a common model utilized to support substantiation of novel bioactive components in infant formula. However, reference ranges for outcomes to determine safety are unclear. Our objective was to use historical data to objectively define typical body and organ growth metrics of the domesticated pig in research. Methods: Twenty-two studies were compiled to assess typical growth of body and organ weights in young pigs. Metadata were organized to include milk replacer sources, bioactive components, sex, breed, source of herd, feeding regimen, and rearing environment. A combination of statistical models including simple linear regression and linear mixed effect models were used to assess typical growth patterns. Results: Over 18,000 data points from 786 animals were available. In general, minimal differences in the growth of pigs who were male and female, artificially- or sow-reared, or fed ad libitum- or by scheduled-feeding, were observed in the first 30 days of life (P > 0.05). A weight-for-age chart from reference pigs was developed to compare body weights of pigs demonstrating growth characterized as accelerated, typical, reduced, and failure to thrive to illustrate effects of dietary interventions. Distributions of relative brain, liver, and intestine weights (as % of total body weight) were similar between rearing environments and sexes. An alternative bivariate level approach was utilized for the analysis of organ weights. This approach revealed significant biologically-relevant insights into how deficient diets can affect organ weight that a univariate level assessment of weight distribution was unable to detect. Conclusions: Ultimately, these data can be used to better interpret whether bioactive ingredients tested in the pig model affect growth and development within typical reference values for pigs in the first 30 days of life.

Reporting animal research: Explanation and elaboration for the ARRIVE guidelines 2.0

Improving the reproducibility of biomedical research is a major challenge. Transparent and accurate reporting is vital to this process; it allows readers to assess the reliability of the findings and repeat or build upon the work of other researchers. The ARRIVE guidelines (Animal Research: Reporting In Vivo Experiments) were developed in 2010 to help authors and journals identify the minimum information necessary to report in publications describing in vivo experiments. Despite widespread endorsement by the scientific community, the impact of ARRIVE on the transparency of reporting in animal research publications has been limited. We have revised the ARRIVE guidelines to update them and facilitate their use in practice. The revised guidelines are published alongside this paper. This explanation and elaboration document was developed as part of the revision. It provides further information about each of the 21 items in ARRIVE 2.0, including the rationale and supporting evidence for their inclusion in the guidelines, elaboration of details to report, and examples of good reporting from the published literature. This document also covers advice and best practice in the design and conduct of animal studies to support researchers in improving standards from the start of the experimental design process through to publication.

Choline, Neurological Development and Brain Function: A Systematic Review Focusing on the First 1000 Days

The foundations of neurodevelopment across an individual's lifespan are established in the first 1000 days of life (2 years). During this period an adequate supply of nutrients are essential for proper neurodevelopment and lifelong brain function. Of these, evidence for choline has been building but has not been widely collated using systematic approaches. Therefore, a systematic review was performed to identify the animal and human studies looking at inter-relationships between choline, neurological development, and brain function during the first 1000 days of life. The database PubMed was used, and reference lists were searched. In total, 813 publications were subject to the title/abstract review, and 38 animal and 16 human studies were included after evaluation. Findings suggest that supplementing the maternal or child's diet with choline over the first 1000 days of life could subsequently: (1) support normal brain development (animal and human evidence), (2) protect against neural and metabolic insults, particularly when the fetus is exposed to alcohol (animal and human evidence), and (3) improve neural and cognitive functioning (animal evidence). Overall, most offspring would benefit from increased choline supply during the first 1000 days of life, particularly in relation to helping facilitate normal brain development. Health policies and guidelines should consider re-evaluation to help communicate and impart potential choline benefits through diet and/or supplementation approaches across this critical life stage.

Choline: Exploring the Growing Science on Its Benefits for Moms and Babies

The importance of ensuring adequate choline intakes during pregnancy is increasingly recognized. Choline is critical for a number of physiological processes during the prenatal period with roles in membrane biosynthesis and tissue expansion, neurotransmission and brain development, and methyl group donation and gene expression. Studies in animals and humans have shown that supplementing the maternal diet with additional choline improves several pregnancy outcomes and protects against certain neural and metabolic insults. Most pregnant women in the U.S. are not achieving choline intake recommendations of 450 mg/day and would likely benefit from boosting their choline intakes through dietary and/or supplemental approaches.

Maternal Dietary Choline Status Influences Brain Gray and White Matter Development in Young Pigs

BACKGROUND

Choline is an essential nutrient that is pivotal to proper brain development. Research in animal models suggests that perinatal choline deficiency influences neuron development in the hippocampus and cortex, yet these observations require invasive techniques.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to characterize the effects of perinatal choline deficiency on gray and white matter development with the use of noninvasive neuroimaging techniques in young pigs.

METHODS

During the last 64 d of the 114-d gestation period Yorkshire sows were provided with a choline-sufficient (CS) or choline-deficient (CD) diet, analyzed to contain 1214 mg or 483 mg total choline/kg diet, respectively. Upon farrowing, pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) were allowed colostrum consumption for ≤48 h, were further stratified into postnatal treatment groups, and were provided either CS or CD milk replacers, analyzed to contain 1591 or 518 mg total choline/kg diet, respectively, for 28 d. At 30 d of age, pigs were subjected to MRI procedures to assess brain development. Gray and white matter development was assessed through voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS) to assess the effects of prenatal and postnatal dietary choline status.

RESULTS

VBM analysis indicated that prenatally CS pigs exhibited increased (P < 0.01) gray matter in the left and right cortex compared with prenatally CD pigs. Analysis of white matter indicated that prenatally CS pigs exhibited increased (P < 0.01) white matter in the internal capsule, putamen-globus pallidus, and right cortex compared with prenatally CD pigs. No postnatal effects (P > 0.05) of choline status were noted for VBM analyses of gray and white matter. TBSS also showed no significant effects (P > 0.05) of prenatal or postnatal choline status for diffusion values along white matter tracts.

CONCLUSIONS

Observations from this study suggest that prenatal choline deficiency results in altered cortical gray matter and reduced white matter in the internal capsule and putamen of young pigs. With the use of noninvasive neuroimaging techniques, results from our study indicate that prenatal choline deficiency greatly alters gray and white matter development in pigs, thereby providing a translational assessment that may be used in clinical populations.

Perinatal Dietary Choline Deficiency in Sows Influences Concentrations of Choline Metabolites, Fatty Acids, and Amino Acids in Milk throughout Lactation

BACKGROUND

Choline is essential for synthesis of phospholipids, neurodevelopment, and DNA methylation. It is unknown whether dietary perinatal choline deficiency affects maternal milk composition.

OBJECTIVE

We examined whether perinatal maternal dietary choline deficiency influences porcine-milk composition.

METHODS

Yorkshire sows were fed choline-deficient (CD) or choline-sufficient (CS) gestation diets [544 or 1887 mg choline/kg dry matter (DM), respectively] from 65 d before to 48 h after parturition and then fed lactation diets (517 or 1591 mg choline/kg DM, respectively) through day 19 of lactation. Milk was collected from 7 sows fed each diet at days 0 (colostrum), 7-9 (mature milk), and 17-19 (preweaning) of lactation. Sow plasma was collected 65 d before and 19 d after parturition. Milk was analyzed for choline metabolite, fatty acid (FA), and amino acid composition. All outcomes were analyzed to assess main and interactive effects of choline intake and time.

RESULTS

Plasma choline metabolites did not differ before treatment, but free choline, betaine, and dimethylglycine concentrations were lower in CD-fed than in CS-fed sows at day 19 of lactation (interaction; P < 0.05). Milk betaine concentrations responded similarly, with no differences due to choline intake at day 0 of lactation, but lower concentrations in CD-fed than in CS-fed sows at day 18 of lactation (interaction; P < 0.001). Certain milk long-chain FAs also exhibited no differences at day 0 of lactation but higher concentrations in CD-fed than in CS-fed sows at day 18 of lactation (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that, in pigs, dietary choline deficiency induces alterations in plasma choline metabolites that are evident at the end of lactation. Betaine and select FAs in milk are sensitive to maternal dietary choline deficiency and day of lactation. Alterations in concentrations of these nutrients may affect early-life neonatal development.

Dietary Prebiotics, Milk Fat Globule Membrane, and Lactoferrin Affects Structural Neurodevelopment in the Young Piglet

INTRODUCTION

Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) and lactoferrin have been identified as two components that have potential to affect neurodevelopment. While concentrations of some MFGM constituents in infant formulas are within human milk range, they may not be present at optimal or clinically effective levels. However, lactoferrin levels of infant formulas are consistently reported to be lower than human milk. This study sought to provide a novel combination of prebiotics, bovine-derived MFGM, and lactoferrin and assess their influence on neurodevelopment.

METHODS

Twenty-four male piglets were provided either TEST (n = 12) or CONT (n = 12) diet from 2 to 31 days of age. Piglets underwent spatial T-maze assessment starting at 17 days of age, were subjected to magnetic resonance imaging at 30 days of age, and were euthanized for tissue collection at 31 days of age.

RESULTS

Diffusion tensor imaging revealed differences in radial (P = 0.032) and mean (P = 0.028) diffusivities in the internal capsule, where CONT piglets had higher rates of diffusion compared with TEST piglets. Voxel-based morphometry indicated larger (P < 0.05) differences in cortical gray and white matter concentrations, with CONT piglets having larger tissue clusters in these regions compared with TEST piglets. In the spatial T-maze assessment, CONT piglets exhibited shorter latency to choice compared with TEST piglets on day 2 of acquisition and days 3 and 4 of reversal.

CONCLUSION

Observed differences in microstructure maturation of the internal capsule and cortical tissue concentrations suggest that piglets provided TEST diet were more advanced developmentally than piglets provided CONT diet. Therefore, supplementation of infant formula with prebiotics, MFGM, and lactoferrin may support neurodevelopment in human infants.