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Abstract
Mast cell granules are packed with proteases, which are released with other mediators by degranulating stimuli. Several of these proteases are targets of potentially therapeutic inhibitors based on hypothesized contributions to diseases, notably asthma and ulcerative colitis for β-tryptases, heart and kidney scarring for chymases, and airway infection for dipeptidyl peptidase-I. Small-molecule and antibody-based β-tryptase inhibitors showing preclinical promise were tested in early-phase human trials with some evidence of benefit. Chymase inhibitors were given safely in Phase II trials without demonstrating benefits, whereas dipeptidyl peptidase-I inhibitor improved bronchiectasis, in effects likely related to inactivation of the enzyme in neutrophils.
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Seccia TM, Shagjaa T, Morpurgo M, Caroccia B, Sanga V, Faoro S, Venturini F, Iadicicco G, Lococo S, Mazzitelli M, Farnia F, Fioretto P, Kobayashi Y, Gregori D, Rossi GP. RAndomized Clinical Trial Of NAfamostat Mesylate, A Potent Transmembrane Protease Serine 2 (TMPRSS2) Inhibitor, in Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia. J Clin Med 2023; 12:6618. [PMID: 37892756 PMCID: PMC10607860 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12206618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Even though SARS-CoV-2 was declared by WHO as constituting no longer a public health emergency, the development of effective treatments against SARS-CoV-2 infection remains a critical issue to prevent complications, particularly in fragile patients. The protease inhibitor nafamostat, currently used in Japan and Korea for pancreatitis, owing to its anticoagulant properties for disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), is appealing for the treatment of COVID-19 infection, because it potently inhibits the transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) that, after virus binding to ACE-2, allows virus entry into the cells and replication. Moreover, it could prevent the DIC and pulmonary embolism frequently associated with COVID-19 infection. The goal of the RAndomized Clinical Trial Of NAfamostat (RACONA) study, designed as a prospective randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial, was to investigate the efficacy and safety of nafamostat mesylate (0.10 mg/kg/h iv for 7 days), on top of the optimal treatment, in COVID-19 hospitalized patients. We could screen 131 patients, but due to the predefined strict inclusion and exclusion criteria, only 15 could be randomized to group 1 (n = 7) or group 2 (n = 8). The results of an ad interim safety analysis showed similar overall trends for variables evaluating renal function, coagulation, and inflammation. No adverse events, including hyperkalemia, were found to be associated with nafamostat. Thus, the RACONA study showed a good safety profile of nafamostat, suggesting that it could be usefully used in COVID-19 hospitalized patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Maria Seccia
- Internal Emergency Medicine Unit, Specialized Center for Blood Pressure Disorders-Regione Veneto, Department of Medicine—DIMED, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy; (T.M.S.); (T.S.); (V.S.)
| | - Tungalagtamir Shagjaa
- Internal Emergency Medicine Unit, Specialized Center for Blood Pressure Disorders-Regione Veneto, Department of Medicine—DIMED, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy; (T.M.S.); (T.S.); (V.S.)
| | - Margherita Morpurgo
- Department of Pharmaceutical & Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua, 35131 Padua, Italy;
| | - Brasilina Caroccia
- Internal Emergency Medicine Unit, Specialized Center for Blood Pressure Disorders-Regione Veneto, Department of Medicine—DIMED, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy; (T.M.S.); (T.S.); (V.S.)
| | - Viola Sanga
- Internal Emergency Medicine Unit, Specialized Center for Blood Pressure Disorders-Regione Veneto, Department of Medicine—DIMED, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy; (T.M.S.); (T.S.); (V.S.)
| | - Sonia Faoro
- Pharmacy, University Hospital of Padua, 35126 Padua, Italy; (S.F.); (F.V.); (G.I.)
| | - Francesca Venturini
- Pharmacy, University Hospital of Padua, 35126 Padua, Italy; (S.F.); (F.V.); (G.I.)
| | - Girolama Iadicicco
- Pharmacy, University Hospital of Padua, 35126 Padua, Italy; (S.F.); (F.V.); (G.I.)
| | - Sara Lococo
- Pneumology, University Hospital of Padua, 35126 Padua, Italy;
| | - Maria Mazzitelli
- Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Padua, 35126 Padua, Italy;
| | - Filippo Farnia
- Internal Medicine 3, University Hospital of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy; (F.F.); (P.F.)
| | - Paola Fioretto
- Internal Medicine 3, University Hospital of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy; (F.F.); (P.F.)
| | | | - Dario Gregori
- Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health Unit, University of Padua, 35131 Padua, Italy;
| | - Gian Paolo Rossi
- Internal Emergency Medicine Unit, Specialized Center for Blood Pressure Disorders-Regione Veneto, Department of Medicine—DIMED, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy; (T.M.S.); (T.S.); (V.S.)
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C AM, Wessler S, Ponnuraj K. Inhibition of Listeria Monocytogenes HtrA Protease with Camostat, Gabexate and Nafamostat Mesylates and the Binding Mode of the Inhibitors. Protein J 2023:10.1007/s10930-023-10114-8. [PMID: 37093417 PMCID: PMC10123570 DOI: 10.1007/s10930-023-10114-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
In many bacteria, the High Temperature requirement A (HtrA) protein functions as a chaperone and protease. HtrA is an important factor in stress tolerance and plays a significant role in the virulence of several pathogenic bacteria. Camostat, gabexate and nafamostat mesylates are serine protease inhibitors and have recently shown a great impact in the inhibition studies of SARS-CoV2. In this study, the inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes HtrA (LmHtrA) protease activity was analysed using these three inhibitors. The cleavage assay, using human fibrinogen and casein as substrates, revealed that the three inhibitors effectively inhibit the protease activity of LmHtrA. The agar plate assay and spectrophotometric analysis concluded that the inhibition of nafamostat (IC50 value of 6.6 ± 0.4 µM) is more effective compared to the other two inhibitors. Previous studies revealed that at the active site of the protease, these inhibitors are hydrolysed and one of the hydrolysates is covalently bound to the active site serine. To understand the mode of binding of these inhibitors at the active site of LmHtrA, docking of the inhibitors followed by molecular dynamics simulations were carried out. Analysis of the LmHtrA-inhibitor complex structures revealed that the covalently bound inhibitor is unable to occupy the S1 pocket of the LmHtrA which is in contrast to the previously determined camostat and nafamostat complex structures. This observation provides the first glimpse of the substrate specificity of LmHtrA which is not known. The obtained results also suggest that the development of novel inhibitors of LmHtrA and its homologs with active site architecture similar to LmHtrA can be pursued with suitable modification of these inhibitors. To date, only a very few studies have been carried out on identifying the inhibitors of HtrA proteolytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amrutha M C
- Centre of Advanced Study in Crystallography and Biophysics, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai, 600 025, India
| | - Silja Wessler
- Department of Biosciences and Medical Biology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunner Str. 34, Salzburg, A-5020, Austria
| | - Karthe Ponnuraj
- Centre of Advanced Study in Crystallography and Biophysics, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai, 600 025, India.
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Yu CX, Tan JW, Rullah K, Imran S, Tham CL. Insight parameter drug design for human β-tryptase inhibition integrated molecular docking, QSAR, molecular dynamics simulation, and pharmacophore modelling studies of α-keto-[1,2,4]-oxadiazoles. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2023; 41:12978-12996. [PMID: 36709457 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2023.2171131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) is severe dengue with a hallmark of vascular leakage. β-tryptase has been found to promote vascular leakage in DHF patients, which could be a potential target for DHF treatment. This study aims to develop a theoretical background for designing and selecting human β-tryptase inhibitors through computational studies. Thirty-four α-keto-[1,2,3]-oxadiazoles scaffold-based compounds were used to generate 2D-QSAR models and for molecular docking studies with β-tryptase (PDB Code 4A6L). In addition, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and molecular mechanics generalised born surface area (MM-GBSA) analysis on the binding of the reported most active compound, compound 11e, towards β-tryptase were performed. Finally, a structure-based pharmacophore model was generated. The selected 2D-QSAR models have statistically proven good models by internal and external validation as well as the y-randomization test. The docking results of compound 11e showed lower CDOCKER energy than the 4A6L co-crystallised ligand and a similar binding pattern as the 4A6L co-crystallised ligand. From molecular dynamics simulation, 4A6L in compound 11e bound state has RMSD below 2 Å throughout the 500 ns simulation, indicating the docked complex is stable. Besides, MM-GBSA analysis suggested the 4A6L-compound 11e docked complex (-66.04 Kcal/mol) is structurally as stable as the 4A6L-native ligand co-crystallized structure (-66.84 Kcal/mol). The best pharmacophore model identified features included hydrogen bond acceptor, ionic interaction, hydrophobic interaction, and aromatic ring, which contribute to the inhibitory potency of a compound. This study supplied insight and knowledge for developing novel chemical compounds with improved inhibition of β-tryptase.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chai Xin Yu
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Jian Wei Tan
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kamal Rullah
- Drug Discovery and Synthetic Chemistry Research Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Kulliyyah of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
| | - Syahrul Imran
- Atta-ur-Rahman Institute for Natural Product Discovery (AuRIns), Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Selangor Kampus Puncak Alam, Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
- Faculty of Applied Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chau Ling Tham
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
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Structure and activity of human TMPRSS2 protease implicated in SARS-CoV-2 activation. Nat Chem Biol 2022; 18:963-971. [PMID: 35676539 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-022-01059-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2) has been identified as key host cell factor for viral entry and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2. Specifically, TMPRSS2 proteolytically processes the SARS-CoV-2 Spike (S) protein, enabling virus-host membrane fusion and infection of the airways. We present here a recombinant production strategy for enzymatically active TMPRSS2 and characterization of its matured proteolytic activity, as well as its 1.95 Å X-ray cocrystal structure with the synthetic protease inhibitor nafamostat. Our study provides a structural basis for the potent but nonspecific inhibition by nafamostat and identifies distinguishing features of the TMPRSS2 substrate binding pocket that explain specificity. TMPRSS2 cleaved SARS-CoV-2 S protein at multiple sites, including the canonical S1/S2 cleavage site. We ranked the potency of clinical protease inhibitors with half-maximal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 1.4 nM to 120 µM and determined inhibitor mechanisms of action, providing the groundwork for drug development efforts to selectively inhibit TMPRSS2.
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Abstract
The spike protein (S) of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) directs infection of the lungs and other tissues following its binding to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. For effective infection, the S protein is cleaved at two sites: S1/S2 and S2′. The “priming” of the surface S protein at S1/S2 (PRRAR685↓) [the underlined basic amino acids refer to critical residues needed for the furin recognition] by furin has been shown to be important for SARS-CoV-2 infectivity in cells and small-animal models. In this study, for the first time we unambiguously identified by proteomics the fusion activation site S2′ as KPSKR815↓ (the underlined basic amino acids refer to critical residues needed for the furin recognition) and demonstrated that this cleavage was strongly enhanced by ACE2 engagement with the S protein. Novel pharmacological furin inhibitors (BOS inhibitors) effectively blocked endogenous S protein processing at both sites in HeLa cells, and SARS-CoV-2 infection of lung-derived Calu-3 cells was completely prevented by combined inhibitors of furin (BOS) and type II transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) (camostat). Quantitative analyses of cell-to-cell fusion and S protein processing revealed that ACE2 shedding by TMPRSS2 was required for TMPRSS2-mediated enhancement of fusion in the absence of S1/S2 priming. We further demonstrated that the collectrin dimerization domain of ACE2 was essential for the effect of TMPRSS2 on cell-to-cell fusion. Overall, our results indicate that furin and TMPRSS2 act synergistically in viral entry and infectivity, supporting the combination of furin and TMPRSS2 inhibitors as potent antivirals against SARS-CoV-2. IMPORTANCE SARS-CoV-2, the etiological agent of COVID-19, has so far resulted in >6.1 million deaths worldwide. The spike protein (S) of the virus directs infection of the lungs and other tissues by binding the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. For effective infection, the S protein is cleaved at two sites: S1/S2 and S2′. Cleavage at S1/S2 induces a conformational change favoring the S protein recognition by ACE2. The S2′ cleavage is critical for triggering membrane fusion and virus entry into host cells. Our study highlights the complex dynamics of interaction between the S protein, ACE2, and the host proteases furin and TMPRSS2 during SARS-CoV-2 entry and suggests that the combination of a nontoxic furin inhibitor with a TMPRSS2 inhibitor significantly reduces viral entry in lung cells, as evidenced by an average synergistic ∼95% reduction of viral infection. This represents a powerful novel antiviral approach to reduce viral spread in individuals infected by SARS-CoV-2 or future related coronaviruses.
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Mantzourani C, Vasilakaki S, Gerogianni VE, Kokotos G. The discovery and development of transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) inhibitors as candidate drugs for the treatment of COVID-19. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2022; 17:231-246. [PMID: 35072549 PMCID: PMC8862169 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2022.2029843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused the devastating pandemic named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Unfortunately, the discovery of antiviral agents to combat COVID-19 is still an unmet need. Transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) is an important mediator in viral infection and thus, TMPRRS2 inhibitors may be attractive agents for COVID-19 treatment. AREAS COVERED This review article discusses the role of TMPRSS2 in SARS-CoV-2 cell entry and summarizes the inhibitors of TMPRSS2 and their potential anti-SARS activity. Two known TMPRSS2 inhibitors, namely camostat and nafamostat, approved drugs for the treatment of pancreatitis, are under clinical trials as potential drugs against COVID-19. EXPERT OPINION Due to the lack of the crystal structure of TMPRSS2, homology models have been developed to study the interactions of known inhibitors, including repurposed drugs, with the enzyme. However, novel TMPRSS2 inhibitors have been identified through high-throughput screening, and appropriate assays studying their in vitro activity have been set up. The discovery of TMPRSS2's crystal structure will facilitate the rational design of novel inhibitors and in vivo studies and clinical trials will give a clear answer if TMPRSS2 inhibitors could be a new weapon against COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiana Mantzourani
- Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens, Greece
- Center of Excellence for Drug Design and Discovery, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Sofia Vasilakaki
- Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens, Greece
- Center of Excellence for Drug Design and Discovery, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Velisaria-Eleni Gerogianni
- Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens, Greece
- Center of Excellence for Drug Design and Discovery, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - George Kokotos
- Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens, Greece
- Center of Excellence for Drug Design and Discovery, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Sato K, Hayashi H, Shimotai Y, Yamaya M, Hongo S, Kawakami K, Matsuzaki Y, Nishimura H. TMPRSS2 Activates Hemagglutinin-Esterase Glycoprotein of Influenza C Virus. J Virol 2021; 95:e0129621. [PMID: 34406864 PMCID: PMC8513465 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01296-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza C virus (ICV) has only one kind of spike protein, the hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) glycoprotein. HE functions similarly to hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase of the influenza A and B viruses (IAV and IBV, respectively). It has a monobasic site, which is cleaved by some host enzymes. The cleavage is essential to activating the virus, but the enzyme or enzymes in the respiratory tract have not been identified. This study investigated whether the host serine proteases, transmembrane protease serine S1 member 2 (TMPRSS2) and human airway trypsin-like protease (HAT), which reportedly cleave HA of IAV/IBV, are involved in HE cleavage. We established TMPRSS2- and HAT-expressing MDCK cells (MDCK-TMPRSS2 and MDCK-HAT). ICV showed multicycle replication with HE cleavage without trypsin in MDCK-TMPRSS2 cells as well as IAV did. The HE cleavage and multicycle replication did not appear in MDCK-HAT cells infected with ICV without trypsin, while HA cleavage and multistep growth of IAV appeared in the cells. Amino acid sequences of the HE cleavage site in 352 ICV strains were completely preserved. Camostat and nafamostat suppressed the growth of ICV and IAV in human nasal surface epithelial (HNE) cells. Therefore, this study revealed that, at least, TMPRSS2 is involved in HE cleavage and suggested that nafamostat could be a candidate for therapeutic drugs for ICV infection. IMPORTANCE Influenza C virus (ICV) is a pathogen that causes acute respiratory illness, mostly in children, but there are no anti-ICV drugs. ICV has only one kind of spike protein, the hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) glycoprotein on the virion surface, which possesses receptor-binding, receptor-destroying, and membrane fusion activities. The HE cleavage is essential for the virus to be activated, but the enzyme or enzymes in the respiratory tract have not been identified. This study revealed that transmembrane protease serine S1 member 2 (TMPRSS2), and not human airway trypsin-like protease (HAT), is involved in HE cleavage. This is a novel study on the host enzymes involved in HE cleavage, and the result suggests that the host enzymes, such as TMPRSS2, may be a target for therapeutic drugs of ICV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ko Sato
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai Medical Center, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Mycology and Immunology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
- Department of Intelligent Network for Infection Control, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Hideki Hayashi
- Medical University Research Administrator, Nagasaki University School of Medicine, Sakamoto, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Shimotai
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, Japan
| | - Mutsuo Yamaya
- Department of Advanced Preventive Medicine for Infectious Disease, Tohoku University Graduate school of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Seiji Hongo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Kawakami
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Mycology and Immunology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
- Department of Intelligent Network for Infection Control, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Yoko Matsuzaki
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, Japan
| | - Hidekazu Nishimura
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai Medical Center, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
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Seidah NG, Pasquato A, Andréo U. How Do Enveloped Viruses Exploit the Secretory Proprotein Convertases to Regulate Infectivity and Spread? Viruses 2021; 13:v13071229. [PMID: 34202098 PMCID: PMC8310232 DOI: 10.3390/v13071229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of the binding of enveloped viruses surface glycoproteins to host cell receptor(s) is a major target of vaccines and constitutes an efficient strategy to block viral entry and infection of various host cells and tissues. Cellular entry usually requires the fusion of the viral envelope with host plasma membranes. Such entry mechanism is often preceded by “priming” and/or “activation” steps requiring limited proteolysis of the viral surface glycoprotein to expose a fusogenic domain for efficient membrane juxtapositions. The 9-membered family of Proprotein Convertases related to Subtilisin/Kexin (PCSK) serine proteases (PC1, PC2, Furin, PC4, PC5, PACE4, PC7, SKI-1/S1P, and PCSK9) participate in post-translational cleavages and/or regulation of multiple secretory proteins. The type-I membrane-bound Furin and SKI-1/S1P are the major convertases responsible for the processing of surface glycoproteins of enveloped viruses. Stefan Kunz has considerably contributed to define the role of SKI-1/S1P in the activation of arenaviruses causing hemorrhagic fever. Furin was recently implicated in the activation of the spike S-protein of SARS-CoV-2 and Furin-inhibitors are being tested as antivirals in COVID-19. Other members of the PCSK-family are also implicated in some viral infections, such as PCSK9 in Dengue. Herein, we summarize the various functions of the PCSKs and present arguments whereby their inhibition could represent a powerful arsenal to limit viral infections causing the present and future pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabil G. Seidah
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology Montreal Clinical Research Institute, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H2W1R7, Canada;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-514-987-5609
| | - Antonella Pasquato
- Antonella Pasquato, Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy;
| | - Ursula Andréo
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology Montreal Clinical Research Institute, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H2W1R7, Canada;
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Carroll EL, Bailo M, Reihill JA, Crilly A, Lockhart JC, Litherland GJ, Lundy FT, McGarvey LP, Hollywood MA, Martin SL. Trypsin-Like Proteases and Their Role in Muco-Obstructive Lung Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:5817. [PMID: 34072295 PMCID: PMC8199346 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypsin-like proteases (TLPs) belong to a family of serine enzymes with primary substrate specificities for the basic residues, lysine and arginine, in the P1 position. Whilst initially perceived as soluble enzymes that are extracellularly secreted, a number of novel TLPs that are anchored in the cell membrane have since been discovered. Muco-obstructive lung diseases (MucOLDs) are characterised by the accumulation of hyper-concentrated mucus in the small airways, leading to persistent inflammation, infection and dysregulated protease activity. Although neutrophilic serine proteases, particularly neutrophil elastase, have been implicated in the propagation of inflammation and local tissue destruction, it is likely that the serine TLPs also contribute to various disease-relevant processes given the roles that a number of these enzymes play in the activation of both the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2). More recently, significant attention has focused on the activation of viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 by host TLPs. The purpose of this review was to highlight key TLPs linked to the activation of ENaC and PAR2 and their association with airway dehydration and inflammatory signalling pathways, respectively. The role of TLPs in viral infectivity will also be discussed in the context of the inhibition of TLP activities and the potential of these proteases as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma L. Carroll
- School of Pharmacy, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; (E.L.C.); (J.A.R.)
| | - Mariarca Bailo
- Institute for Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK; (M.B.); (A.C.); (J.C.L.); (G.J.L.)
| | - James A. Reihill
- School of Pharmacy, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; (E.L.C.); (J.A.R.)
| | - Anne Crilly
- Institute for Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK; (M.B.); (A.C.); (J.C.L.); (G.J.L.)
| | - John C. Lockhart
- Institute for Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK; (M.B.); (A.C.); (J.C.L.); (G.J.L.)
| | - Gary J. Litherland
- Institute for Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK; (M.B.); (A.C.); (J.C.L.); (G.J.L.)
| | - Fionnuala T. Lundy
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; (F.T.L.); (L.P.M.)
| | - Lorcan P. McGarvey
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; (F.T.L.); (L.P.M.)
| | - Mark A. Hollywood
- Smooth Muscle Research Centre, Dundalk Institute of Technology, A91 HRK2 Dundalk, Ireland;
| | - S. Lorraine Martin
- School of Pharmacy, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; (E.L.C.); (J.A.R.)
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Hörnich BF, Großkopf AK, Schlagowski S, Tenbusch M, Kleine-Weber H, Neipel F, Stahl-Hennig C, Hahn AS. SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV Spike-Mediated Cell-Cell Fusion Differ in Their Requirements for Receptor Expression and Proteolytic Activation. J Virol 2021; 95:e00002-21. [PMID: 33608407 PMCID: PMC8104116 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00002-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infects cells through interaction of its spike protein (SARS2-S) with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and activation by proteases, in particular transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2). Viruses can also spread through fusion of infected with uninfected cells. We compared the requirements of ACE2 expression, proteolytic activation, and sensitivity to inhibitors for SARS2-S-mediated and SARS-CoV-S (SARS1-S)-mediated cell-cell fusion. SARS2-S-driven fusion was moderately increased by TMPRSS2 and strongly by ACE2, while SARS1-S-driven fusion was strongly increased by TMPRSS2 and less so by ACE2 expression. In contrast to that of SARS1-S, SARS2-S-mediated cell-cell fusion was efficiently activated by batimastat-sensitive metalloproteases. Mutation of the S1/S2 proteolytic cleavage site reduced effector cell-target cell fusion when ACE2 or TMPRSS2 was limiting and rendered SARS2-S-driven cell-cell fusion more dependent on TMPRSS2. When both ACE2 and TMPRSS2 were abundant, initial target cell-effector cell fusion was unaltered compared to that of wild-type (wt) SARS2-S, but syncytia remained smaller. Mutation of the S2 cleavage (S2') site specifically abrogated activation by TMPRSS2 for both cell-cell fusion and SARS2-S-driven pseudoparticle entry but still allowed for activation by metalloproteases for cell-cell fusion and by cathepsins for particle entry. Finally, we found that the TMPRSS2 inhibitor bromhexine, unlike the inhibitor camostat, was unable to reduce TMPRSS2-activated cell-cell fusion by SARS1-S and SARS2-S. Paradoxically, bromhexine enhanced cell-cell fusion in the presence of TMPRSS2, while its metabolite ambroxol exhibited inhibitory activity under some conditions. On Calu-3 lung cells, ambroxol weakly inhibited SARS2-S-driven lentiviral pseudoparticle entry, and both substances exhibited a dose-dependent trend toward weak inhibition of authentic SARS-CoV-2.IMPORTANCE Cell-cell fusion allows viruses to infect neighboring cells without the need to produce free virus and contributes to tissue damage by creating virus-infected syncytia. Our results demonstrate that the S2' cleavage site is essential for activation by TMPRSS2 and unravel important differences between SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, among those, greater dependence of SARS-CoV-2 on ACE2 expression and activation by metalloproteases for cell-cell fusion. Bromhexine, reportedly an inhibitor of TMPRSS2, is currently being tested in clinical trials against coronavirus disease 2019. Our results indicate that bromhexine enhances fusion under some conditions. We therefore caution against the use of bromhexine in high dosages until its effects on SARS-CoV-2 spike activation are better understood. The related compound ambroxol, which similarly to bromhexine is clinically used as an expectorant, did not exhibit activating effects on cell-cell fusion. Both compounds exhibited weak inhibitory activity against SARS-CoV-2 infection at high concentrations, which might be clinically attainable for ambroxol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bojan F Hörnich
- Nachwuchsgruppe Herpesviren, Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum-Leibniz-Institut für Primatenforschung, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Anna K Großkopf
- Nachwuchsgruppe Herpesviren, Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum-Leibniz-Institut für Primatenforschung, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sarah Schlagowski
- Nachwuchsgruppe Herpesviren, Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum-Leibniz-Institut für Primatenforschung, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Matthias Tenbusch
- Virologisches Institut, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Hannah Kleine-Weber
- Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum-Leibniz-Institut für Primatenforschung, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Frank Neipel
- Virologisches Institut, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Christiane Stahl-Hennig
- Abteilung Infektionsmodelle, Deutsches Primatenzentrum-Leibniz-Institut für Primatenforschung, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Alexander S Hahn
- Nachwuchsgruppe Herpesviren, Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum-Leibniz-Institut für Primatenforschung, Göttingen, Germany
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12
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Dieterle ME, Haslwanter D, Bortz RH, Wirchnianski AS, Lasso G, Vergnolle O, Abbasi SA, Fels JM, Laudermilch E, Florez C, Mengotto A, Kimmel D, Malonis RJ, Georgiev G, Quiroz J, Barnhill J, Pirofski LA, Daily JP, Dye JM, Lai JR, Herbert AS, Chandran K, Jangra RK. A Replication-Competent Vesicular Stomatitis Virus for Studies of SARS-CoV-2 Spike-Mediated Cell Entry and Its Inhibition. Cell Host Microbe 2020; 28:486-496.e6. [PMID: 32738193 PMCID: PMC7332447 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2020.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
There is an urgent need for vaccines and therapeutics to prevent and treat COVID-19. Rapid SARS-CoV-2 countermeasure development is contingent on the availability of robust, scalable, and readily deployable surrogate viral assays to screen antiviral humoral responses, define correlates of immune protection, and down-select candidate antivirals. Here, we generate a highly infectious recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) bearing the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein S as its sole entry glycoprotein and show that this recombinant virus, rVSV-SARS-CoV-2 S, closely resembles SARS-CoV-2 in its entry-related properties. The neutralizing activities of a large panel of COVID-19 convalescent sera can be assessed in a high-throughput fluorescent reporter assay with rVSV-SARS-CoV-2 S, and neutralization of rVSV-SARS-CoV-2 S and authentic SARS-CoV-2 by spike-specific antibodies in these antisera is highly correlated. Our findings underscore the utility of rVSV-SARS-CoV-2 S for the development of spike-specific therapeutics and for mechanistic studies of viral entry and its inhibition. Highly infectious recombinant VSV expressing SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) was generated rVSV-SARS-CoV-2 S resembles SARS-CoV-2 in entry and inhibitor or antibody sensitivity rVSV-SARS-CoV-2 S affords rapid screens and forward-genetic analyses of antivirals
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Affiliation(s)
- M Eugenia Dieterle
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Denise Haslwanter
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Robert H Bortz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Ariel S Wirchnianski
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Gorka Lasso
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Olivia Vergnolle
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Shawn A Abbasi
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - J Maximilian Fels
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Ethan Laudermilch
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Catalina Florez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy at West Point, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Amanda Mengotto
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Duncan Kimmel
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Ryan J Malonis
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - George Georgiev
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Jose Quiroz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Jason Barnhill
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy at West Point, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Liise-Anne Pirofski
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Johanna P Daily
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - John M Dye
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Jonathan R Lai
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Andrew S Herbert
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; The Geneva Foundation, 917 Pacific Avenue, Tacoma, WA 98402, USA.
| | - Kartik Chandran
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
| | - Rohit K Jangra
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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13
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Miki M, Yasuoka S, Tsutsumi R, Nakamura Y, Hajime M, Takeuchi Y, Miki K, Kitada S, Maekura R. Human airway trypsin-like protease enhances interleukin-8 synthesis in bronchial epithelial cells by activating protease-activated receptor 2. Arch Biochem Biophys 2019; 664:167-173. [PMID: 30677406 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2019.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 12/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Human airway trypsin-like protease (HAT) localizes at human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs). HAT enhanced release of interleukin-8 (IL-8) from HBECs at 10-100 mU/mL and the enhanced release was almost completely abolished by 50 μM leupeptin, a serine protease inhibitor. Previous reports suggested that HAT displays its physiological functions via protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2). In the present study, we examined the mechanism whereby HAT upregulates IL-8 synthesis in HBECs with a focus on PAR2. Northern blot analysis revealed that HAT enhanced IL-8 mRNA expression at concentrations of 10-100 mU/mL. PAR2 activating peptide (PAR2 AP) also enhanced IL-8 release and IL-8 mRNA expression in HBECs at 50-1,000 μM at similar levels as HAT. Knockdown of PAR2 mRNA by siRNA methods showed that PAR2 mRNA expression was significantly depressed in primary HBECs, and both HAT- and PAR2 AP-induced IL-8 mRNA elevation was significantly depressed in PAR2 siRNA-transfected HBECs. Additionally, HAT cleaved the PAR2 activating site (R36-S37 bond) of synthetic PAR2 N-terminal peptide. These results indicate that HAT stimulates IL-8 synthesis in airway epithelial cells via PAR2 and could help to amplify inflammation in chronic respiratory tract disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Miki
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, National Hospital Organization Toneyama National Hospital, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Susumu Yasuoka
- Department of Nutrition and Metabolism, University of Tokushima School of Medicine, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Rie Tsutsumi
- Department of Nutrition and Metabolism, University of Tokushima School of Medicine, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Yoichi Nakamura
- Medical Center for Allergic and Immune Diseases, Yokohama City Minato Red Cross Hospital, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Maeda Hajime
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, National Hospital Organization Toneyama National Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yukiyasu Takeuchi
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, National Hospital Organization Toneyama National Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Keisuke Miki
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, National Hospital Organization Toneyama National Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Seigo Kitada
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, National Hospital Organization Toneyama National Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Ryoji Maekura
- Graduate School of Health Care Sciences, Jikei Institute, Osaka, Japan
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14
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Giardina SF, Werner DS, Pingle M, Bergstrom DE, Arnold LD, Barany F. A Novel, Nonpeptidic, Orally Active Bivalent Inhibitor of Human β-Tryptase. Pharmacology 2018; 102:233-243. [PMID: 30134249 PMCID: PMC6242772 DOI: 10.1159/000492078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
β-Tryptase is released from mast cells upon degranulation in response to allergic and inflammatory stimuli. Human tryptase is a homotetrameric serine protease with 4 identical active sites directed toward a central pore. These active sites present an optimized scenario for the rational design of bivalent inhibitors, which bridge 2 adjacent active sites. Using (3-[1-acylpiperidin-4-yl]phenyl)methanamine as the pharmacophoric core and a disiloxane linker to span 2 active sites we have successfully produced a novel bivalent tryptase inhibitor, compound 1a, with a comparable profile to previously described inhibitors. Pharmacological properties of compound 1a were studied in a range of in vitro enzymic and cellular screening assays, and in vivo xenograft models. This non-peptide inhibitor of tryptase demonstrated superior activity (IC50 at 100 pmol/L tryptase = 1.82 nmol/L) compared to monomeric modes of inhibition. X-ray crystallography validated the dimeric mechanism of inhibition, and 1a demonstrated good oral bioavailability and efficacy in HMC-1 xenograft models. Furthermore, compound 1a demonstrated extremely slow off rates and high selectivity against-related proteases. This highly potent, orally bioavailable and selective inhibitor of human tryptase will be an invaluable tool in future studies to explore the therapeutic potential of attenuating the activity of this elusive target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah F Giardina
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York, USA,
| | - Douglas S Werner
- Coferon, Inc., 25 Health Sciences Drive, Stony Brook, New York, USA
- BlinkBio, Inc., The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida, USA
| | - Maneesh Pingle
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
- Coferon, Inc., 25 Health Sciences Drive, Stony Brook, New York, USA
- BlinkBio, Inc., The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida, USA
| | - Donald E Bergstrom
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Lee D Arnold
- Coferon, Inc., 25 Health Sciences Drive, Stony Brook, New York, USA
- Fount Therapeutics, LLC, Wilmington, Delaware, USA
| | - Francis Barany
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
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15
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Häußler D, Schulz-Fincke AC, Beckmann AM, Keils A, Gilberg E, Mangold M, Bajorath J, Stirnberg M, Steinmetzer T, Gütschow M. A Fluorescent-Labeled Phosphono Bisbenzguanidine As an Activity-Based Probe for Matriptase. Chemistry 2017; 23:5205-5209. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201700319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2017] [Revised: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Häußler
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I; University of Bonn; An der Immenburg 4 53121 Bonn Germany
| | | | - Anna-Madeleine Beckmann
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I; University of Bonn; An der Immenburg 4 53121 Bonn Germany
| | - Aline Keils
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry; Philipps University of Marburg; Marbacher Weg 6 35032 Marburg Germany
| | - Erik Gilberg
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I; University of Bonn; An der Immenburg 4 53121 Bonn Germany
- Department of Life Science Informatics, B-IT, LIMES Program Unit Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry; University of Bonn; Dahlmannstr. 2 53113 Bonn Germany
| | - Martin Mangold
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I; University of Bonn; An der Immenburg 4 53121 Bonn Germany
| | - Jürgen Bajorath
- Department of Life Science Informatics, B-IT, LIMES Program Unit Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry; University of Bonn; Dahlmannstr. 2 53113 Bonn Germany
| | - Marit Stirnberg
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I; University of Bonn; An der Immenburg 4 53121 Bonn Germany
| | - Torsten Steinmetzer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry; Philipps University of Marburg; Marbacher Weg 6 35032 Marburg Germany
| | - Michael Gütschow
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I; University of Bonn; An der Immenburg 4 53121 Bonn Germany
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