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Meziu E, Shehu K, Koch M, Schneider M, Kraegeloh A. Impact of mucus modulation by N-acetylcysteine on nanoparticle toxicity. Int J Pharm X 2023; 6:100212. [PMID: 37771516 PMCID: PMC10522980 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpx.2023.100212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Human respiratory mucus is a biological hydrogel that forms a protective barrier for the underlying epithelium. Modulation of the mucus layer has been employed as a strategy to enhance transmucosal drug carrier transport. However, a drawback of this strategy is a potential reduction of the mucus barrier properties, in particular in situations with an increased exposure to particles. In this study, we investigated the impact of mucus modulation on its protective role. In vitro mucus was produced by Calu-3 cells, cultivated at the air-liquid interface for 21 days and used for further testing as formed on top of the cells. Analysis of confocal 3D imaging data revealed that after 21 days Calu-3 cells secrete a mucus layer with a thickness of 24 ± 6 μm. Mucus appeared to restrict penetration of 500 nm carboxyl-modified polystyrene particles to the upper 5-10 μm of the layer. Furthermore, a mucus modulation protocol using aerosolized N-acetylcysteine (NAC) was developed. This treatment enhanced the penetration of particles through the mucus down to deeper layers by means of the mucolytic action of NAC. These findings were supported by cytotoxicity data, indicating that intact mucus protects the underlying epithelium from particle-induced effects on membrane integrity. The impact of NAC treatment on the protective properties of mucus was probed by using 50 and 100 nm amine-modified and 50 nm carboxyl-modified polystyrene nanoparticles, respectively. Cytotoxicity was only induced by the amine-modified particles in combination with NAC treatment, implying a reduced protective function of modulated mucus. Overall, our data emphasize the importance of integrating an assessment of the protective function of mucus into the development of therapy approaches involving mucus modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enkeleda Meziu
- INM – Leibniz Institute for New Materials, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- Department of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Kristela Shehu
- INM – Leibniz Institute for New Materials, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- Department of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Marcus Koch
- INM – Leibniz Institute for New Materials, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Marc Schneider
- Department of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Annette Kraegeloh
- INM – Leibniz Institute for New Materials, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
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2
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Pereira EPV, da Silva Felipe SM, de Freitas RM, da Cruz Freire JE, Oliveira AER, Canabrava N, Soares PM, van Tilburg MF, Guedes MIF, Grueter CE, Ceccatto VM. Transcriptional Profiling of SARS-CoV-2-Infected Calu-3 Cells Reveals Immune-Related Signaling Pathways. Pathogens 2023; 12:1373. [PMID: 38003837 PMCID: PMC10674242 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12111373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 11/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 disease, caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), emerged in late 2019 and rapidly spread worldwide, becoming a pandemic that infected millions of people and caused significant deaths. COVID-19 continues to be a major threat, and there is a need to deepen our understanding of the virus and its mechanisms of infection. To study the cellular responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection, we performed an RNA sequencing of infected vs. uninfected Calu-3 cells. Total RNA was extracted from infected (0.5 MOI) and control Calu-3 cells and converted to cDNA. Sequencing was performed, and the obtained reads were quality-analyzed and pre-processed. Differential expression was assessed with the EdgeR package, and functional enrichment was performed in EnrichR for Gene Ontology, KEGG pathways, and WikiPathways. A total of 1040 differentially expressed genes were found in infected vs. uninfected Calu-3 cells, of which 695 were up-regulated and 345 were down-regulated. Functional enrichment analyses revealed the predominant up-regulation of genes related to innate immune response, response to virus, inflammation, cell proliferation, and apoptosis. These transcriptional changes following SARS-CoV-2 infection may reflect a cellular response to the infection and help to elucidate COVID-19 pathogenesis, in addition to revealing potential biomarkers and drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Petterson Viana Pereira
- Superior Institute of Biomedical Sciences, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60714-903, CE, Brazil; (S.M.d.S.F.); (R.M.d.F.); (J.E.d.C.F.); (P.M.S.)
| | - Stela Mirla da Silva Felipe
- Superior Institute of Biomedical Sciences, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60714-903, CE, Brazil; (S.M.d.S.F.); (R.M.d.F.); (J.E.d.C.F.); (P.M.S.)
| | - Raquel Martins de Freitas
- Superior Institute of Biomedical Sciences, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60714-903, CE, Brazil; (S.M.d.S.F.); (R.M.d.F.); (J.E.d.C.F.); (P.M.S.)
| | - José Ednésio da Cruz Freire
- Superior Institute of Biomedical Sciences, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60714-903, CE, Brazil; (S.M.d.S.F.); (R.M.d.F.); (J.E.d.C.F.); (P.M.S.)
| | | | - Natália Canabrava
- Biotechnology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60714-903, CE, Brazil; (N.C.); (M.F.v.T.); (M.I.F.G.)
| | - Paula Matias Soares
- Superior Institute of Biomedical Sciences, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60714-903, CE, Brazil; (S.M.d.S.F.); (R.M.d.F.); (J.E.d.C.F.); (P.M.S.)
| | - Mauricio Fraga van Tilburg
- Biotechnology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60714-903, CE, Brazil; (N.C.); (M.F.v.T.); (M.I.F.G.)
| | - Maria Izabel Florindo Guedes
- Biotechnology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60714-903, CE, Brazil; (N.C.); (M.F.v.T.); (M.I.F.G.)
| | - Chad Eric Grueter
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA;
| | - Vânia Marilande Ceccatto
- Superior Institute of Biomedical Sciences, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60714-903, CE, Brazil; (S.M.d.S.F.); (R.M.d.F.); (J.E.d.C.F.); (P.M.S.)
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3
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Dierks A, Vanucci-Bacqué C, Schäfer AM, Lehrich T, Ruhe F, Schadzek P, Bedos-Belval F, Ngezahayo A. The Bioactive Phenolic Agents Diaryl Ether CVB2-61 and Diarylheptanoid CVB4-57 as Connexin Hemichannel Blockers. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15. [PMID: 36297285 DOI: 10.3390/ph15101173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation mediators enhance the activity of connexin (Cx) hemichannels, especially in the epithelial and endothelial tissues. As potential release routes for injury signals, such as (oligo)nucleotides, Cx hemichannels may contribute to long-lasting inflammation. Specific inhibition of Cx hemichannels may therefore be a mode of prevention and treatment of long-lasting, chronic sterile inflammation. The activity of Cx hemichannels was analysed in N2A and HeLa cells transfected with human Cx26 and Cx46 as well as in Calu-3 cells, using dye uptake as functional assay. Moreover, the possible impacts of the bioactive phenolic agents CVB2-61 and CVB4-57 on the barrier function of epithelial cells was analysed using Calu-3 cells. Both agents inhibited the dye uptake in N2A cells expressing Cx26 (>5 µM) and Cx46 (>20 µM). In Calu-3 cells, CVB2-61 and CVB4-57 reversibly inhibited the dye uptake at concentrations as low as 5 µM, without affecting the gap junction communication and barrier function, even at concentrations of 20 µM. While CVB2-61 or CVB4-57 maintained a reduced dye uptake in Calu-3 cells, an enhancement of the dye uptake in response to the stimulation of adenosine signalling was still observed after removal of the agents. The report shows that CVB2-61 and CVB4-57 reversibly block Cx hemichannels. Deciphering the mechanisms of the interactions of these agents with Cx hemichannels could allow further development of phenolic compounds to target Cx hemichannels for better and safer treatment of pathologies that involve Cx hemichannels.
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Stegmann KM, Dickmanns A, Heinen N, Blaurock C, Karrasch T, Breithaupt A, Klopfleisch R, Uhlig N, Eberlein V, Issmail L, Herrmann ST, Schreieck A, Peelen E, Kohlhof H, Sadeghi B, Riek A, Speakman JR, Groß U, Görlich D, Vitt D, Müller T, Grunwald T, Pfaender S, Balkema-Buschmann A, Dobbelstein M. Inhibitors of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase cooperate with Molnupiravir and N4-hydroxycytidine to suppress SARS-CoV-2 replication. iScience 2022; 25:104293. [PMID: 35492218 PMCID: PMC9035612 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The nucleoside analog N4-hydroxycytidine (NHC) is the active metabolite of the prodrug molnupiravir, which has been approved for the treatment of COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 incorporates NHC into its RNA, resulting in defective virus genomes. Likewise, inhibitors of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) reduce virus yield upon infection, by suppressing the cellular synthesis of pyrimidines. Here, we show that NHC and DHODH inhibitors strongly synergize in the inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 replication in vitro. We propose that the lack of available pyrimidine nucleotides upon DHODH inhibition increases the incorporation of NHC into nascent viral RNA. This concept is supported by the rescue of virus replication upon addition of pyrimidine nucleosides to the media. DHODH inhibitors increased the antiviral efficiency of molnupiravir not only in organoids of human lung, but also in Syrian Gold hamsters and in K18-hACE2 mice. Combining molnupiravir with DHODH inhibitors may thus improve available therapy options for COVID-19. Molnupiravir and DHODH inhibitors are approved drugs, facilitating clinical testing The combination may allow lower drug doses to decrease possible toxic effects Inhibitors of nucleotide biosynthesis may boost antiviral nucleoside analogs
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim M Stegmann
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center of Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Justus von Liebig Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Antje Dickmanns
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center of Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Justus von Liebig Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Natalie Heinen
- Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
| | - Claudia Blaurock
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Tim Karrasch
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center of Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Justus von Liebig Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Angele Breithaupt
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | | | - Nadja Uhlig
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology IZI, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Valentina Eberlein
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology IZI, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Leila Issmail
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology IZI, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Simon T Herrmann
- Department of Molecular Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Balal Sadeghi
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Alexander Riek
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Animal Welfare and Animal Husbandry, Celle, Germany
| | - John R Speakman
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, UK
| | - Uwe Groß
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Virology, Göttingen Center of Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Germany
| | - Dirk Görlich
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Thorsten Müller
- Department of Molecular Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany.,Institute of Psychiatric Phenomics and Genomics (IPPG), Organoid laboratory, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Grunwald
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology IZI, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stephanie Pfaender
- Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
| | - Anne Balkema-Buschmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Matthias Dobbelstein
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center of Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Justus von Liebig Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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Essalmani R, Jain J, Susan-Resiga D, Andréo U, Evagelidis A, Derbali RM, Huynh DN, Dallaire F, Laporte M, Delpal A, Sutto-Ortiz P, Coutard B, Mapa C, Wilcoxen K, Decroly E, Nq Pham T, Cohen ÉA, Seidah NG. Distinctive Roles of Furin and TMPRSS2 in SARS-CoV-2 Infectivity. J Virol 2022;:e0012822. [PMID: 35343766 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00128-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The spike protein (S) of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) directs infection of the lungs and other tissues following its binding to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. For effective infection, the S protein is cleaved at two sites: S1/S2 and S2′. The “priming” of the surface S protein at S1/S2 (PRRAR685↓) [the underlined basic amino acids refer to critical residues needed for the furin recognition] by furin has been shown to be important for SARS-CoV-2 infectivity in cells and small-animal models. In this study, for the first time we unambiguously identified by proteomics the fusion activation site S2′ as KPSKR815↓ (the underlined basic amino acids refer to critical residues needed for the furin recognition) and demonstrated that this cleavage was strongly enhanced by ACE2 engagement with the S protein. Novel pharmacological furin inhibitors (BOS inhibitors) effectively blocked endogenous S protein processing at both sites in HeLa cells, and SARS-CoV-2 infection of lung-derived Calu-3 cells was completely prevented by combined inhibitors of furin (BOS) and type II transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) (camostat). Quantitative analyses of cell-to-cell fusion and S protein processing revealed that ACE2 shedding by TMPRSS2 was required for TMPRSS2-mediated enhancement of fusion in the absence of S1/S2 priming. We further demonstrated that the collectrin dimerization domain of ACE2 was essential for the effect of TMPRSS2 on cell-to-cell fusion. Overall, our results indicate that furin and TMPRSS2 act synergistically in viral entry and infectivity, supporting the combination of furin and TMPRSS2 inhibitors as potent antivirals against SARS-CoV-2. IMPORTANCE SARS-CoV-2, the etiological agent of COVID-19, has so far resulted in >6.1 million deaths worldwide. The spike protein (S) of the virus directs infection of the lungs and other tissues by binding the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. For effective infection, the S protein is cleaved at two sites: S1/S2 and S2′. Cleavage at S1/S2 induces a conformational change favoring the S protein recognition by ACE2. The S2′ cleavage is critical for triggering membrane fusion and virus entry into host cells. Our study highlights the complex dynamics of interaction between the S protein, ACE2, and the host proteases furin and TMPRSS2 during SARS-CoV-2 entry and suggests that the combination of a nontoxic furin inhibitor with a TMPRSS2 inhibitor significantly reduces viral entry in lung cells, as evidenced by an average synergistic ∼95% reduction of viral infection. This represents a powerful novel antiviral approach to reduce viral spread in individuals infected by SARS-CoV-2 or future related coronaviruses.
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de Souza GAP, Le Bideau M, Boschi C, Ferreira L, Wurtz N, Devaux C, Colson P, La Scola B. Emerging SARS-CoV-2 Genotypes Show Different Replication Patterns in Human Pulmonary and Intestinal Epithelial Cells. Viruses 2021; 14:v14010023. [PMID: 35062227 PMCID: PMC8777977 DOI: 10.3390/v14010023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) quickly spread worldwide following its emergence in Wuhan, China, and hit pandemic levels. Its tremendous incidence favoured the emergence of viral variants. The current genome diversity of SARS-CoV-2 has a clear impact on epidemiology and clinical practice, especially regarding transmission rates and the effectiveness of vaccines. In this study, we evaluated the replication of different SARS-CoV-2 isolates representing different virus genotypes which have been isolated throughout the pandemic. We used three distinct cell lines, including Vero E6 cells originating from monkeys; Caco-2 cells, an intestinal epithelium cell line originating from humans; and Calu-3 cells, a pulmonary epithelium cell line also originating from humans. We used RT-qPCR to replicate different SARS-CoV-2 genotypes by quantifying the virus released in the culture supernatant of infected cells. We found that the different viral isolates replicate similarly in Caco-2 cells, but show very different replicative capacities in Calu-3 cells. This was especially highlighted for the lineages B.1.1.7, B.1.351 and P.1, which are considered to be variants of concern. These results underscore the importance of the evaluation and characterisation of each SARS-CoV-2 isolate in order to establish the replication patterns before performing tests, and of the consideration of the ideal SARS-CoV-2 genotype-cell type pair for each assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Augusto Pires de Souza
- Unité de Recherche Microbe Phylogeny and Evoluition (MEPHI), Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Assistance Publique—Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (G.A.P.d.S.); (M.L.B.); (C.B.); (L.F.); (N.W.); (C.D.); (P.C.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Marion Le Bideau
- Unité de Recherche Microbe Phylogeny and Evoluition (MEPHI), Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Assistance Publique—Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (G.A.P.d.S.); (M.L.B.); (C.B.); (L.F.); (N.W.); (C.D.); (P.C.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Celine Boschi
- Unité de Recherche Microbe Phylogeny and Evoluition (MEPHI), Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Assistance Publique—Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (G.A.P.d.S.); (M.L.B.); (C.B.); (L.F.); (N.W.); (C.D.); (P.C.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Lorène Ferreira
- Unité de Recherche Microbe Phylogeny and Evoluition (MEPHI), Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Assistance Publique—Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (G.A.P.d.S.); (M.L.B.); (C.B.); (L.F.); (N.W.); (C.D.); (P.C.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Nathalie Wurtz
- Unité de Recherche Microbe Phylogeny and Evoluition (MEPHI), Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Assistance Publique—Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (G.A.P.d.S.); (M.L.B.); (C.B.); (L.F.); (N.W.); (C.D.); (P.C.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Christian Devaux
- Unité de Recherche Microbe Phylogeny and Evoluition (MEPHI), Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Assistance Publique—Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (G.A.P.d.S.); (M.L.B.); (C.B.); (L.F.); (N.W.); (C.D.); (P.C.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Philippe Colson
- Unité de Recherche Microbe Phylogeny and Evoluition (MEPHI), Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Assistance Publique—Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (G.A.P.d.S.); (M.L.B.); (C.B.); (L.F.); (N.W.); (C.D.); (P.C.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Bernard La Scola
- Unité de Recherche Microbe Phylogeny and Evoluition (MEPHI), Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Assistance Publique—Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France; (G.A.P.d.S.); (M.L.B.); (C.B.); (L.F.); (N.W.); (C.D.); (P.C.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-0413-732-401
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Schooley RT, Carlin AF, Beadle JR, Valiaeva N, Zhang XQ, Clark AE, McMillan RE, Leibel SL, McVicar RN, Xie J, Garretson AF, Smith VI, Murphy J, Hostetler KY. Rethinking Remdesivir: Synthesis, Antiviral Activity, and Pharmacokinetics of Oral Lipid Prodrugs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65:e0115521. [PMID: 34310217 PMCID: PMC8448143 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01155-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Remdesivir (RDV; GS-5734) is currently the only FDA-approved antiviral drug for the treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. The drug is approved for use in adults or children 12 years or older who are hospitalized for the treatment of COVID-19 on the basis of an acceleration of clinical recovery for inpatients with this disease. Unfortunately, the drug must be administered intravenously, restricting its use to those requiring hospitalization for relatively advanced disease. RDV is also unstable in plasma and has a complex activation pathway which may contribute to its highly variable antiviral efficacy in SARS-CoV-2-infected cells. Potent orally bioavailable antiviral drugs for early treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection are urgently needed, and several, including molnupiravir and PF-07321332, are currently in clinical development. We focused on making simple, orally bioavailable lipid analogs of remdesivir nucleoside (RVn; GS-441524) that are processed to RVn monophosphate, the precursor of the active RVn triphosphate, by a single-step intracellular cleavage. In addition to high oral bioavailability, stability in plasma, and simpler metabolic activation, new oral lipid prodrugs of RVn had submicromolar anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity in a variety of cell types, including Vero E6, Calu-3, Caco-2, human pluripotent stem cell (PSC)-derived lung cells, and Huh7.5 cells. In Syrian hamsters, oral treatment with 1-O-octadecyl-2-O-benzyl-glycero-3-phosphate RVn (ODBG-P-RVn) was well tolerated and achieved therapeutic levels in plasma above the 90% effective concentration (EC90) for SARS-CoV-2. The results suggest further evaluation as an early oral treatment for SARS-CoV-2 infection to minimize severe disease and reduce hospitalizations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert T. Schooley
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Aaron F. Carlin
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - James R. Beadle
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Nadejda Valiaeva
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Xing-Quan Zhang
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Alex E. Clark
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Rachel E. McMillan
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Sandra L. Leibel
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Rachael N. McVicar
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Jialei Xie
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Aaron F. Garretson
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Victoria I. Smith
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Joyce Murphy
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Karl Y. Hostetler
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
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Khanh VC, Fukushige M, Chang YH, Hoang NN, Yamashita T, Obata-Yasuoka M, Hamada H, Osaka M, Hiramatsu Y, Ohneda O. Wharton's Jelly Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Reduce SARS-CoV2-Induced Inflammatory Cytokines Under High Glucose and Uremic Toxin Conditions. Stem Cells Dev 2021; 30:758-772. [PMID: 34074129 PMCID: PMC8356045 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2021.0065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytokine storm is recognized as one of the factors contributing to organ failures and mortality in patients with COVID-19. Due to chronic inflammation, COVID-19 patients with diabetes mellitus (DM) or renal disease (RD) have more severe symptoms and higher mortality. However, the factors that contribute to severe outcomes of COVID-19 patients with DM and RD have received little attention. In an effort to investigate potential treatments for COVID-19, recent research has focused on the immunomodulation functions of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). In this study, the correlation between DM and RD and the severity of COVID-19 was examined by a combined approach with a meta-analysis and experimental research. The results of a systematic review and meta-analysis suggested that the odd of mortality in patients with both DM and RD was increased in comparison to those with a single comorbidity. In addition, in the experimental research, the data showed that high glucose and uremic toxins contributed to the induction of cytokine storm in human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial cells (Calu-3 cells) in response to SARS-CoV Peptide Pools. Of note, the incorporation of Wharton's jelly MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (WJ-EVs) into SARS-CoV peptide-induced Calu-3 resulted in a significant decrease in nuclear NF-κB p65 and the downregulation of the cytokine storm under high concentrations of glucose and uremic toxins. This clearly suggests the potential for WJ-EVs to reduce cytokine storm reactions in patients with both chronic inflammation diseases and viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vuong Cat Khanh
- Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Biology, Departments of University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Mizuho Fukushige
- Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Biology, Departments of University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Yun Hsuan Chang
- Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Biology, Departments of University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Ngo Nhat Hoang
- Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Biology, Departments of University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Toshiharu Yamashita
- Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Biology, Departments of University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | | | - Hiromi Hamada
- Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Motoo Osaka
- Cardiovascular Surgery, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Yuji Hiramatsu
- Cardiovascular Surgery, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Osamu Ohneda
- Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Biology, Departments of University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
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9
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Schooley RT, Carlin AF, Beadle JR, Valiaeva N, Zhang XQ, Clark AE, McMillan RE, Leibel SL, McVicar RN, Xie J, Garretson AF, Smith VI, Murphy J, Hostetler KY. Rethinking Remdesivir: Synthesis, Antiviral Activity and Pharmacokinetics of Oral Lipid Prodrugs. bioRxiv 2021. [PMID: 32869033 PMCID: PMC7457622 DOI: 10.1101/2020.08.26.269159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Remdesivir (RDV, GS-5734) is currently the only FDA-approved antiviral drug for the treatment of SARS CoV-2 infection. The drug is approved for use in adults or children 12-years or older who are hospitalized for the treatment of COVID-19 on the basis of an acceleration of clinical recovery for inpatients with this disease. Unfortunately, the drug must be administered intravenously, restricting its use to those requiring hospitalization for relatively advanced disease. RDV is also unstable in plasma and has a complex activation pathway which may contribute to its highly variable antiviral efficacy in SARS-CoV-2 infected cells. Potent orally bioavailable antiviral drugs for early treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection are urgently needed and several including molnupiravir and PF-07321332 are currently in clinical development. We focused on making simple, orally bioavailable lipid analogs of Remdesivir nucleoside (RVn, GS-441524) that are processed to RVn-monophosphate, the precursor of the active RVn-triphosphate, by a single-step intracellular cleavage. In addition to high oral bioavailability, stability in plasma and simpler metabolic activation, new oral lipid prodrugs of RVn had submicromolar anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity in a variety of cell types including Vero E6, Calu-3, Caco-2, human pluripotent stem cell (PSC)-derived lung cells and Huh7.5 cells. In Syrian hamsters oral treatment with ODBG-P-RVn was well tolerated and achieved therapeutic levels in plasma above the EC90 for SARS-CoV-2. The results suggest further evaluation as an early oral treatment for SARS-CoV-2 infection to minimize severe disease and reduce hospitalizations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert T Schooley
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
| | - Aaron F Carlin
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
| | - James R Beadle
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
| | - Nadejda Valiaeva
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
| | - Xing-Quan Zhang
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
| | - Alex E Clark
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
| | - Rachel E McMillan
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
| | - Sandra L Leibel
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA.,Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Rachael N McVicar
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Jialei Xie
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
| | - Aaron F Garretson
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
| | - Victoria I Smith
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
| | - Joyce Murphy
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
| | - Karl Y Hostetler
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0676, USA
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10
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Pasman T, Baptista D, van Riet S, Truckenmüller RK, Hiemstra PS, Rottier RJ, Hamelmann NM, Paulusse JMJ, Stamatialis D, Poot AA. Development of an In Vitro Airway Epithelial-Endothelial Cell Culture Model on a Flexible Porous Poly(Trimethylene Carbonate) Membrane Based on Calu-3 Airway Epithelial Cells and Lung Microvascular Endothelial Cells. Membranes (Basel) 2021; 11:membranes11030197. [PMID: 33799867 PMCID: PMC8001677 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11030197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Due to the continuing high impact of lung diseases on society and the emergence of new respiratory viruses, such as SARS-CoV-2, there is a great need for in vitro lung models that more accurately recapitulate the in vivo situation than current models based on lung epithelial cell cultures on stiff membranes. Therefore, we developed an in vitro airway epithelial–endothelial cell culture model based on Calu-3 human lung epithelial cells and human lung microvascular endothelial cells (LMVECs), cultured on opposite sides of flexible porous poly(trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC) membranes. Calu-3 cells, cultured for two weeks at an air–liquid interface (ALI), showed good expression of the tight junction (TJ) protein Zonula Occludens 1 (ZO-1). LMVECs cultured submerged for three weeks were CD31-positive, but the expression was diffuse and not localized at the cell membrane. Barrier functions of the Calu-3 cell cultures and the co-cultures with LMVECs were good, as determined by electrical resistance measurements and fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-dextran) permeability assays. Importantly, the Calu-3/LMVEC co-cultures showed better cell viability and barrier function than mono-cultures. Moreover, there was no evidence for epithelial- and endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT and EndoMT, respectively) based on staining for the mesenchymal markers vimentin and α-SMA, respectively. These results indicate the potential of this new airway epithelial–endothelial model for lung research. In addition, since the PTMC membrane is flexible, the model can be expanded by introducing cyclic stretch for enabling mechanical stimulation of the cells. Furthermore, the model can form the basis for biomimetic airway epithelial–endothelial and alveolar–endothelial models with primary lung epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thijs Pasman
- Technical Medical (TechMed) Centre, Department of Biomaterials Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands; (T.P.); (D.S.)
| | - Danielle Baptista
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering, MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands; (D.B.); (R.K.T.)
| | - Sander van Riet
- Leiden University Medical Centre, Department of Pulmonology, Leiden University, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands; (S.v.R.); (P.S.H.)
| | - Roman K. Truckenmüller
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering, MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands; (D.B.); (R.K.T.)
| | - Pieter S. Hiemstra
- Leiden University Medical Centre, Department of Pulmonology, Leiden University, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands; (S.v.R.); (P.S.H.)
| | - Robbert J. Rottier
- Erasmus MC-Sophia Children’s Hospital, Departments of Pediatric Surgery and Cell Biology, 3000 CB Rotterdam, The Netherlands;
| | - Naomi M. Hamelmann
- Department of Biomolecular NanoTechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands; (N.M.H.); (J.M.J.P.)
| | - Jos M. J. Paulusse
- Department of Biomolecular NanoTechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands; (N.M.H.); (J.M.J.P.)
| | - Dimitrios Stamatialis
- Technical Medical (TechMed) Centre, Department of Biomaterials Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands; (T.P.); (D.S.)
| | - André A. Poot
- Technical Medical (TechMed) Centre, Department of Biomaterials Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands; (T.P.); (D.S.)
- Correspondence:
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11
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Aguiar JA, Huff RD, Tse W, Stämpfli MR, McConkey BJ, Doxey AC, Hirota JA. Transcriptomic and barrier responses of human airway epithelial cells exposed to cannabis smoke. Physiol Rep 2020; 7:e14249. [PMID: 31646766 PMCID: PMC6811686 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2019] [Revised: 08/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Globally, many jurisdictions are legalizing or decriminalizing cannabis, creating a potential public health issue that would benefit from experimental evidence to inform policy, government regulations, and user practices. Tobacco smoke exposure science has created a body of knowledge that demonstrates the conclusive negative impacts on respiratory health; similar knowledge remains to be established for cannabis. To address this unmet need, we performed in vitro functional and transcriptomic experiments with a human airway epithelial cell line (Calu-3) exposed to cannabis smoke, with tobacco smoke as a positive control. Demonstrating the validity of our in vitro model, tobacco smoke induced gene expression profiles that were significantly correlated with gene expression profiles from published tobacco exposure datasets from bronchial brushings and primary human airway epithelial cell cultures. Applying our model to cannabis smoke, we demonstrate that cannabis smoke induced functional and transcriptional responses that overlapped with tobacco smoke. Ontology and pathway analysis revealed that cannabis smoke induced DNA replication and oxidative stress responses. Functionally, cannabis smoke impaired epithelial cell barrier function, antiviral responses, and increased inflammatory mediator production. Our study reveals striking similarities between cannabis and tobacco smoke exposure on impairing barrier function, suppressing antiviral pathways, potentiating of pro-inflammatory mediators, and inducing oncogenic and oxidative stress gene expression signatures. Collectively our data suggest that cannabis smoke exposure is not innocuous and may possess many of the deleterious properties of tobacco smoke, warranting additional studies to support public policy, government regulations, and user practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A Aguiar
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ryan D Huff
- Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Wayne Tse
- Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Martin R Stämpfli
- Firestone Institute for Respiratory Health - Division of Respirology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario
| | - Brendan J McConkey
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.,Firestone Institute for Respiratory Health - Division of Respirology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario
| | - Andrew C Doxey
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.,Firestone Institute for Respiratory Health - Division of Respirology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario
| | - Jeremy A Hirota
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.,Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,Firestone Institute for Respiratory Health - Division of Respirology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario
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12
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Baddal B. Characterization of biofilm formation and induction of apoptotic DNA fragmentation by nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae on polarized human airway epithelial cells. Microb Pathog 2020; 141:103985. [PMID: 31968224 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.103985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) is a common airway commensal and opportunistic pathogen that persists within biofilm communities in vivo. Biofilm studies so far are mainly based on assays on plastic surfaces. The aim of this work was to investigate the capacity of clinical NTHi strains to form biofilm structures on polarized Calu-3 human airway epithelial cells and primary normal human bronchial epithelial cells and to characterize the biofilm architecture. Formation of adherent NTHi biofilms post colonization of host cells at multiple time-points was evaluated using confocal laser scanning microscopy and electron microscopy. NTHi biofilms were analyzed in terms of biofilm height and presence of extracellular matrix components, and their apoptotic effects on epithelial cells were measured by TUNEL assay. Strain Fi176 was observed to form robust biofilms on airway epithelia over time, while disrupting the integrity of Calu-3 monolayer by 72 h of co-culture. NTHi biofilms were observed to induce apoptotic DNA fragmentation in host cells at 24 h post infection. Biofilm formation on cell monolayers by Fi176ΔpilA strain was markedly reduced compared to WT strain. Biofilm inhibition and disruption assays by crystal violet staining indicated that DNA and proteins are part of NTHi biofilms in vitro. Our findings highlight critical stages of NTHi pathogenesis following host colonization and provide useful biofilm models for future antimicrobial drug discovery investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Buket Baddal
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Near East University, 99138, Nicosia, Cyprus; Microbial Pathogenesis Research Group, DESAM Institute, Near East University, Nicosia, Cyprus.
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13
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Dierks A, Bader A, Lehrich T, Ngezahayo A. Stimulation of the A 2B Adenosine Receptor Subtype Enhances Connexin26 Hemichannel Activity in Small Airway Epithelial Cells. Cell Physiol Biochem 2019; 53:606-622. [PMID: 31550088 DOI: 10.33594/000000160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Adenosine release and connexin (Cx) hemichannel activity are enhanced in the respiratory epithelium during pathophysiological events such as inflammation. We analysed the interplay between Cx channels and adenosine signalling in human respiratory airway epithelium using the Calu-3 cell line as a model. METHODS The Cx hemichannel activity in Calu-3 cells was evaluated by dye uptake assays. The expressed Cx isoforms and adenosine receptor subtypes were identified by PCR and western blot analysis. Pharmacological and molecular biological experiments were performed to analyse the involvement of the different adenosine receptor subtypes, the induced signalling pathways and the contribution of specific Cx isoforms to the hemichannel activity. RESULTS The adenosine receptor agonist 5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (NECA) increased the dye uptake rate in Calu-3 cells. The pannexon and Cx hemichannel inhibitor carbenoxolone (CBX) did not supress the dye uptake at pannexin-specific concentrations (100 µM). High CBX concentrations or the inhibitor La3+, both effective on Cx hemichannels, were needed to inhibit the dye uptake. The NECA-related increase of dye uptake depended on enhanced cAMP synthesis and subsequent activation of the protein kinase A (PKA) as shown by quantification of cAMP levels and pharmacological inhibition of the adenylyl cyclase and the PKA. Further pharmacological inhibition as well as knockdown experiments with specific siRNA showed that the A2B adenosine receptor was the subtype mainly responsible for the increased dye uptake. The NECA-related increase of the dye uptake rate correlated with a decrease of Cx43 mRNA and an increase of Cx26 mRNA content in the cells as well as Cx26 protein synthesis and was inhibited by Cx26 knockdown using Cx26 siRNA. Of note, a siRNA-induced knockdown of Cx43 increased the content of Cx26 mRNA and correspondingly the dye uptake rate. CONCLUSION The Calu-3 cell model shows that stimulation of the A2B adenosine receptor subtype activates synthesis of cAMP. cAMP activates PKA and induces thereby an increase in Cx26 and a decrease in Cx43 mRNA levels. As a result, the synthesis of Cx26 is reinforced, leading to an enhanced Cx hemichannel activity. The report identifies a mechanism that integrates adenosine release and Cx hemichannel activity and shows how adenosine signalling and Cx channels may act together to promote persistent inflammation, which is observed in several chronic diseases of the respiratory airway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Dierks
- Department of Cell Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Cell Biology and Biophysics, Leibniz University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Almke Bader
- Department of Cell Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Cell Biology and Biophysics, Leibniz University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Tina Lehrich
- Department of Cell Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Cell Biology and Biophysics, Leibniz University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Anaclet Ngezahayo
- Department of Cell Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Cell Biology and Biophysics, Leibniz University Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience (ZNS), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hannover, Germany,
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14
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Nguyen TT, Yi EJ, Hwang KM, Cho CH, Park CW, Kim JY, Rhee YS, Park ES. Formulation and evaluation of carrier-free dry powder inhaler containing sildenafil. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2019; 9:319-333. [PMID: 30276666 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-018-0586-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Pulmonary delivery of sildenafil for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension could overcome the limitations of intravenous and oral administration routes, such as poor patient compliance and systemic side effects. In this study, a carrier-free dry powder inhaler (DPI) formulation was developed, using spray drying technique and L-leucine as a dispersibility enhancer. Sildenafil citrate salt and sildenafil free base were evaluated for drug transport using a Calu-3 cell model, and their suitability for DPI production by spray drying was tested. Characteristics of the resultant carrier-free DPI powders were examined, namely crystallinity, morphology, size distribution, density, zeta potential, and aerodynamic performance. A Box-Behnken design was adopted to optimize the formulation and process conditions, including leucine amount, fraction of methanol in spraying solvent, and inlet temperature. While both sildenafil forms exhibited sufficient permeability for lung absorption, only sildenafil base resulted in DPI powders which were stable for 6 months. The introduction of leucine into the formulations effectively enhanced aerodynamic performance of the powders and particles with favorable size, shape, and density were produced. The optimal DPI formulation determined from experimental design possesses excellent aerodynamic performance with 89.39% emitted dose and 80.08% fine particle fraction, indicating the possibility of incorporating sildenafil into carrier-free DPIs for pulmonary delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thi-Tram Nguyen
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Jin Yi
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu-Mok Hwang
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Cheol-Hee Cho
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Chun-Woong Park
- College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 361-763, Republic of Korea
| | - Ju-Young Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Woosuk University, Wanju-gun, 565-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Yun-Seok Rhee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Seok Park
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea.
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15
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Ordonez SR, van Eijk M, Escobar Salazar N, de Cock H, Veldhuizen EJA, Haagsman HP. Antifungal activities of surfactant protein D in an environment closely mimicking the lung lining. Mol Immunol 2018; 105:260-269. [PMID: 30562646 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2018.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
At the lung lining innate defenses protect our lungs against inhaled fungal cells that could pose a threat to our health. These defenses are comprised of mucociliary clearance, soluble effector molecules and roaming phagocytic cells, such as macrophages and neutrophils. How important each of these defenses is during fungal clearance depends on the specific fungal pathogen in question and on the stage of infection. In this study the localization and antifungal activity of the lung surfactant protein D (SP-D) was studied in an environment mimicking the lung lining. To this end Calu-3 cells were grown on an air-liquid interface allowing them to polarize and to produce mucus at their apical surface. Additionally, neutrophils were added to study their role in fungal clearance. Two fungal pathogens were used for these experiments: Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus, both of clinical relevance. During fungal infection SP-D localized strongly to both fungal surfaces and stayed bound through the different stages of infection. Furthermore, SP-D decreased fungal adhesion to the epithelium and increased fungal clearance by neutrophils from the epithelial surface. These findings suggest that SP-D plays an important role at the different stages of pulmonary defense against fungal intruders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soledad R Ordonez
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Martin van Eijk
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Natalia Escobar Salazar
- Microbiology & Institute of Biomembranes, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Hans de Cock
- Microbiology & Institute of Biomembranes, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Edwin J A Veldhuizen
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Henk P Haagsman
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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16
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Rigo LA, Carvalho-Wodarz CS, Pohlmann AR, Guterres SS, Schneider-Daum N, Lehr CM, Beck RCR. Nanoencapsulation of a glucocorticoid improves barrier function and anti-inflammatory effect on monolayers of pulmonary epithelial cell lines. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2017; 119:1-10. [PMID: 28512018 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2017.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The anti-inflammatory effect of polymeric deflazacort nanocapsules (NC-DFZ) was investigated, and possible improvement of epithelial barrier function using filter grown monolayers of Calu-3 cells was assessed. NC prepared from poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) had a mean size around 200nm, slightly negative zeta potential (∼-8mV), and low polydispersity index (<0.10). Encapsulation of DFZ had an efficiency of 85%. No cytotoxic effects were observed at particle concentration of 9.85×1011NC/ml, which was therefore chosen to evaluate the effect of NC-DFZ at 1% (w/v) of PCL and 0.5% (w/v) of DFZ on the epithelial barrier function of Calu-3 monolayers. Nanoencapsulated drug at 0.5% (w/v) increased transepithelial electrical resistance and decreased permeability of the paracellular marker sodium fluorescein, while non-encapsulated DFZ failed to improve these parameters. Moreover, NC-DFZ reduced the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) mediated secretion of the inflammatory marker IL-8. In vitro dissolution testing revealed controlled release of DFZ from nanocapsules, which may explain the improved effect of DFZ on the cells. These data suggest that nanoencapsulation of pulmonary delivered corticosteroids could be advantageous for the treatment of inflammatory conditions, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas A Rigo
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Cristiane S Carvalho-Wodarz
- Drug Delivery (DDEL), Helmholtz-Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), University Campus, Building E8.1, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Adriana R Pohlmann
- Departamento de Química Orgânica, Instituto de Química, UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91501-970, Brazil
| | - Silvia S Guterres
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Nicole Schneider-Daum
- Drug Delivery (DDEL), Helmholtz-Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), University Campus, Building E8.1, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Claus-Michael Lehr
- Drug Delivery (DDEL), Helmholtz-Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), University Campus, Building E8.1, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Ruy C R Beck
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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17
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Ugwu MC, Oli A, Esimone CO, Agu RU. Organic cation rhodamines for screening organic cation transporters in early stages of drug development. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2016; 82:9-19. [PMID: 27235784 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2016.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2016] [Revised: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the suitability of rhodamine-123, rhodamine-6G and rhodamine B as non-radioactive probes for characterizing organic cation transporters in respiratory cells. Fluorescent characteristics of the compounds were validated under standard in vitro drug transport conditions (buffers, pH, and light). Uptake/transport kinetics and intracellular accumulation of the compounds were investigated. Uptake/transport mechanisms were investigated by comparing the effect of pH, temperature, concentration, polarity, OCTs/OCTNs inhibitors/substrates, and metabolic inhibitors on the cationic dyes uptake in Calu-3 cells. Fluorescence stability and intensity of the compounds were altered by buffer composition, light, and pH. Uptake of the dyes was concentration-, temperature- and pH-dependent. OCTs/OCTNs inhibitors significantly reduced intracellular accumulation of the compounds. Whereas rhodamine-B uptake was sodium-dependent, pH had no effect on rhodamine-123 and rhodamine-6G uptake. Transport of the dyes across the cells was polarized: (AP→BL>BL→AP transport) and saturable: {Vmax=14.08±2.074, Km=1821±380.4 (rhodamine-B); Vmax=6.555±0.4106, Km=1353±130.4 (rhodamine-123) and Vmax=0.3056±0.01402, Km=702.9±60.97 (rhodamine-6G)}. The dyes were co-localized with MitoTracker®, the mitochondrial marker. Cationic rhodamines, especially rhodamine-B and rhodamine- 6G can be used as organic cation transporter substrates in respiratory cells. During such studies, buffer selection, pH and light exposure should be taken into consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malachy C Ugwu
- Biopharmaceutics and Drug Delivery Lab, College of Pharmacy, 5968 College Street, PO Box 15000, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada; Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology & Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Near NAFDAC Zonal Lab, Agulu, Anambra State, Nigeria
| | - Angus Oli
- Biopharmaceutics and Drug Delivery Lab, College of Pharmacy, 5968 College Street, PO Box 15000, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada; Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology & Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Near NAFDAC Zonal Lab, Agulu, Anambra State, Nigeria
| | - Charles O Esimone
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology & Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Near NAFDAC Zonal Lab, Agulu, Anambra State, Nigeria
| | - Remigius U Agu
- Biopharmaceutics and Drug Delivery Lab, College of Pharmacy, 5968 College Street, PO Box 15000, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada.
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18
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Asai A, Okuda T, Sonoda E, Yamauchi T, Kato S, Okamoto H. Drug Permeation Characterization of Inhaled Dry Powder Formulations in Air-Liquid Interfaced Cell Layer Using an Improved, Simple Apparatus for Dispersion. Pharm Res 2015; 33:487-97. [PMID: 26490362 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-015-1804-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE An improved, simple apparatus was developed to easily and uniformly disperse dry powders onto an air-liquid interfaced cultured cell layer. We investigated drug permeation in cell cultures with access to the air-liquid interface (ALI) following deposition of a dry powder using the apparatus. METHOD The improved apparatus for dispersing the powders was assembled. Dry powders containing model drugs were prepared and dispersed onto the cell layer with ALI. After the dispersion, the permeation of each model drug was measured and compared with other samples (solutions with the same compositions). RESULTS The improved apparatus could with ease uniformly disperse 40% of the loading dose onto the cell layer with ALI. Dry powders showed higher drug permeability compared to the samples. without cytotoxicity or an effect on tight junctions. The high drug permeability of dry powders was independent of the molecular weight of model drugs. The contribution of active transport was small, while an increase in passive drug transport via trans- and paracellular routes was observed. CONCLUSIONS Inhaled dry powder formulations achieved higher drug permeability than their solution formulations in ALI. A high local concentration of drugs on the cell layer, caused by direct attachment of the inhaled dry powder, contributed to increased drug permeability via both trans- and paracellular routes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayumu Asai
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, 468-8503, Japan
| | - Tomoyuki Okuda
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, 468-8503, Japan
| | - Erina Sonoda
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, 468-8503, Japan
| | - Tomoyo Yamauchi
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, 468-8503, Japan
| | - Saki Kato
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, 468-8503, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Okamoto
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, 468-8503, Japan.
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19
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Hibbitts A, O'Mahony AM, Forde E, Nolan L, Ogier J, Desgranges S, Darcy R, MacLoughlin R, O'Driscoll CM, Cryan SA. Early-stage development of novel cyclodextrin-siRNA nanocomplexes allows for successful postnebulization transfection of bronchial epithelial cells. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv 2015; 27:466-77. [PMID: 24665866 DOI: 10.1089/jamp.2013.1045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Successful delivery of small interfering RNA (siRNA) to the lungs remains hampered by poor intracellular delivery, vector-mediated cytotoxicity, and an inability to withstand nebulization. Recently, a novel cyclodextrin (CD), SC12CDClickpropylamine, consisting of distinct lipophilic and cationic subunits, has been shown to transfect a number of cell types. However, the suitability of this vector for pulmonary siRNA delivery has not been assessed to date. To address this, a series of high-content analysis (HCA) and postnebulization assays were devised to determine the potential for CD-siRNA delivery to the lungs. METHODS SC12CDClickpropylamine-siRNA mass ratios (MRs) were examined for size and zeta potential. In-depth analysis of nanocomplex uptake and toxicity in Calu-3 bronchial epithelial cells was examined using IN Cell(®) HCA assays. Nebulized SC12CDClickpropylamine nanocomplexes were assessed for volumetric median diameter (VMD) and fine particle fraction (FPF) and compared with saline controls. Finally, postnebulization stability was determined by comparing luciferase knockdown elicited by SC12CDClickpropylamine nanocomplexes before and after nebulization. RESULTS SC12CDClickpropylamine-siRNA complexation formed cationic nanocomplexes of ≤200 nm in size depending on the medium and led to significantly higher levels of siRNA associated with Calu-3 cells compared with RNAiFect-siRNA-treated cells at all MRs (p<0.001, n=3×4), with evidence of toxicity only at MRs 50-100. Nebulization of SC12CDClickpropylamine nanocomplexes using the Aeroneb(®) Pro resulted in VMDs of ∼4 μm and FPFs of ∼57% at all MRs. SC12CDClickpropylamine-siRNA-mediated luciferase knockdown was found to be 39.8±3.6% at MR=20 before and 35.6±4.55% after nebulization, comparable to results observed using unnebulized commercial transfection reagent, RNAiFect. CONCLUSIONS SC12CDClickpropylamine nanocomplexes can be effectively nebulized for pulmonary delivery of siRNA using Aeroneb technology to mediate knockdown in airway cells. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study examining the suitability of SC12CDClickpropylamine-siRNA nanocomplexes for pulmonary delivery. Furthermore, this work provides an integrated nanomedicine-device combination for future in vitro and in vivo preclinical and clinical studies of inhaled siRNA therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Hibbitts
- 1 School of Pharmacy, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland , Dublin, Ireland
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Fowler R, Vllasaliu D, Falcone FH, Garnett M, Smith B, Horsley H, Alexander C, Stolnik S. Uptake and transport of B12-conjugated nanoparticles in airway epithelium. J Control Release 2013; 172:374-381. [PMID: 24008152 PMCID: PMC3898795 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2013.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2013] [Revised: 08/20/2013] [Accepted: 08/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Non-invasive delivery of biotherapeutics, as an attractive alternative to injections, could potentially be achieved through the mucosal surfaces, utilizing nanoscale therapeutic carriers. However, nanoparticles do not readily cross the mucosal barriers, with the epithelium presenting a major barrier to their translocation. The transcytotic pathway of vitamin B12 has previously been shown to 'ferry' B12-decorated nanoparticles across intestinal epithelial (Caco-2) cells. However, such studies have not been reported for the airway epithelium. Furthermore, the presence in the airways of the cell machinery responsible for transepithelial trafficking of B12 is not widely reported. Using a combination of molecular biology and immunostaining techniques, our work demonstrates that the bronchial cell line, Calu-3, expresses the B12-intrinsic factor receptor, the transcobalamin II receptor and the transcobalamin II carrier protein. Importantly, the work showed that sub-200 nm model nanoparticles chemically conjugated to B12 were internalised and transported across the Calu-3 cell layers, with B12 conjugation not only enhancing cell uptake and transepithelial transport, but also influencing intracellular trafficking. Our work therefore demonstrates that the B12 endocytotic apparatus is not only present in this airway model, but also transports ligand-conjugated nanoparticles across polarised epithelial cells, indicating potential for B12-mediated delivery of nanoscale carriers of biotherapeutics across the airways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn Fowler
- Division of Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Driton Vllasaliu
- Division of Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Franco H Falcone
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Science, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Martin Garnett
- Division of Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Bryan Smith
- UCB Pharma, 208 Bath Road, Slough, Berkshire SL1 3WE, UK
| | - Helen Horsley
- UCB Pharma, 208 Bath Road, Slough, Berkshire SL1 3WE, UK
| | - Cameron Alexander
- Division of Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Snow Stolnik
- Division of Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK.
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