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Feelemyer J, Duncan DT, Akhidenor N, Mazumdar M, Irvine NM, Scheidell JD, Brewer RA, Turpin RE, Hucks-Ortiz C, Dyer TV, Cleland CM, Mayer KH, Khan MR. Police Harassment and Psychiatric, Sexual, and Substance Use Risk Among Black Sexual Minority Men and Black Transgender Women in the HIV Prevention Trials 061 Cohort. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2024:10.1007/s40615-024-01909-1. [PMID: 38609695 PMCID: PMC11470103 DOI: 10.1007/s40615-024-01909-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Black sexual minority men and Black transgender women (BSMM/BTW) experience disproportionate levels of HIV/STI-related risk factors as well as police harassment (PH). PH is linked to psychiatric risk and could play a role in substance use, sexual risk behavior, and HIV/STI risk. METHODS We used data from the HIV Prevention Trials Network 061(HPTN 061) study to examine associations between PH and HIV/STI-related outcomes. Using PH exposure measured at baseline and 6-month study visits, we examined an ordinal exposure (PH reported at both visits, PH reported at either visit, versus PH reported at neither baseline nor 6 months) and a binary exposure of persistent PH reported at both visits (yes versus no). We estimate risk ratios (RR) for associations between PH and depression, use of alcohol and methamphetamine, multiple partnerships, condomless sex, and syphilis. RESULTS Persistent PH (binary) was associated with a 20% or greater increase in the risk of depression (RR, 1.26 (1.07, 1.47)) and multiple partnerships (RR, 1.20 (1.05, 1.39)). There was evidence that ordinal PH was associated with elevated risk of alcohol use (RR, 1.17 (1.00, 1.36)); the point estimate for the association between persistent PH and alcohol use was similar but the imprecision was greater (RR, 1.16 (0.95, 1.42)). CONCLUSION PH may influence not only mental health but also behavioral risks that contribute to HIV/STI among BSMM/BTW, highlighting the potential wide-ranging and downstream effects of PH on health. Further research is required to confirm associations and elucidate pathways through which PH may influence HIV/STI among BSMM/BTW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Feelemyer
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Dustin T Duncan
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Naomi Akhidenor
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Medha Mazumdar
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Natalia M Irvine
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Joy D Scheidell
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Rodman E Turpin
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD, USA
| | | | - Typhanye V Dyer
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Charles M Cleland
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kenneth H Mayer
- Fenway Institute, Fenway Health and Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Maria R Khan
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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2
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Pamplin JR, Kelsall NC, Keyes KM, Bates LM, Prins SJ. Race, criminalization and urban mental health in the United States. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2023; 36:219-236. [PMID: 36762668 PMCID: PMC10079600 DOI: 10.1097/yco.0000000000000857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW As efforts to increase policing and roll back criminal legal system reforms in major U.S. cities rise, the collateral consequences of increased criminalization remain critical to document. Although the criminalization of mental illness has been well studied in the U.S., the mental health effects of criminalization are comparatively under-researched. In addition, despite extreme racial disparities in U.S. policing, there is limited understanding of how criminalization may contribute to racial disparities in mental health. RECENT FINDINGS Literature included in this review covers various types of criminalization, including direct and indirect impacts of incarceration, criminalization of immigration, first-hand and witnessed encounters with police, and the effects of widely publicized police brutality incidents. All forms of criminalization were shown to negatively impact mental health (depression, anxiety and suicidality), with evidence suggestive of disproportionate impact on Black people. SUMMARY There is evidence of significant negative impact of criminalization on mental health; however, more robust research is needed to address the limitations of the current literature. These limitations include few analyses stratified by race, a lack of focus on nonincarceration forms of criminalization, few longitudinal studies limiting causal inference, highly selected samples limiting generalizability and few studies with validated mental health measures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Seth J Prins
- Department of Epidemiology
- Department of Sociomedical Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
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3
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Graves SL, Wang Y. It’s Not That They Are Big, It’s Just That They Are Black: The Impact of Body Mass Index, School Belonging, and Self Esteem on Black Boys’ School Suspension. SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/2372966x.2022.2072693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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4
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Gunadi C, Shi Y. Cannabis decriminalization and racial disparity in arrests for cannabis possession. Soc Sci Med 2022; 293:114672. [PMID: 34954673 PMCID: PMC9170008 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Minorities often bear the brunt of unequal enforcement of drug laws. In the U.S., Blacks have been disproportionately more likely to be arrested for cannabis possession than Whites despite a similar rate of cannabis use. Decriminalizing cannabis has been argued as a way to reduce racial disparity in cannabis possession arrests. To date, however, the empirical evidence to support this argument is almost non-existent. OBJECTIVES To examine whether cannabis decriminalization was associated with reduced racial disparity in arrests for cannabis possession between Blacks and Whites in the U.S. METHODS Using FBI Uniform Crime Report data from 37 U.S. states, cannabis possession arrest rates were calculated separately for Blacks and Whites from 2000 to 2019. A difference-in-differences framework was used to estimate the association between cannabis decriminalization and racial disparity in cannabis possession arrest rates (Blacks/Whites ratio) among adults and youths. RESULTS Cannabis possession arrest rates declined over 70% among adults and over 40% among youths after the implementation of cannabis decriminalization in 11 states. Among adults, decriminalization was associated with a roughly 17% decrease in racial disparity in arrest rates between Blacks and Whites. Among youths, arrest rates declined among both Blacks and Whites but there was no evidence for a change in racial disparity between Blacks and Whites following decriminalization. CONCLUSIONS Cannabis decriminalization was associated with substantially lower cannabis possession arrest rates among both adults and youths and among both Blacks and Whites. It reduced racial disparity between Blacks and Whites among adults but not youths. These findings suggested that cannabis decriminalization had its intended consequence of reducing arrests and may have potential to reduce racial disparity in arrests at least among adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Gunadi
- Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health and Human
Longevity Science, University of California San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Yuyan Shi
- Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health and Human
Longevity Science, University of California San Diego, CA, USA
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5
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Martinez A, de la Rosa R, Mujahid M, Thakur N. Structural racism and its pathways to asthma and atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2021; 148:1112-1120. [PMID: 34743832 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2021.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Black, Latinx, and Indigenous people in the United States experience a disproportionate burden of asthma and atopic dermatitis. The study of these disease disparities has focused on proximal socioenvironmental exposures and on the biomechanistic (including genetic) differences between racial and ethnic groups. Although biomedical research in allergy and immunology stands to benefit from the inclusion of diverse study populations, the narrow focus on biologic mechanisms disregards the complexity of interactions across biologic and structural factors, including the effects of structural racism. Structural racism is the totality of ways in which society fosters discrimination by creating and reinforcing inequitable systems through intentional policies and practices sanctioned by government and institutions. It is embedded across multiple levels, including the economic, educational, health care, and judicial systems, which are manifested in inequity in the physical and social environment. In this review, we present a conceptual framework and pull from the literature to demonstrate how structural racism is a root cause of atopic disease disparities by way of residential segregation, socioeconomic position, and mass incarceration, which may lead to aberrations in the innate and adaptive immune response and the augmentation of physiologic stress responses, contributing to a disproportionate disease burden for racial and ethnic populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adali Martinez
- School of Medicine, the University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, Calif
| | | | - Mahasin Mujahid
- School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, Calif
| | - Neeta Thakur
- School of Medicine, the University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, Calif.
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6
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Khan MR, Kapadia F, Geller A, Mazumdar M, Scheidell JD, Krause KD, Martino RJ, Cleland CM, Dyer TV, Ompad DC, Halkitis PN. Racial and ethnic disparities in "stop-and-frisk" experience among young sexual minority men in New York City. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0256201. [PMID: 34437565 PMCID: PMC8389488 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Although racial/ethnic disparities in police contact are well documented, less is known about other dimensions of inequity in policing. Sexual minority groups may face disproportionate police contact. We used data from the P18 Cohort Study (Version 2), a study conducted to measure determinants of inequity in STI/HIV risk among young sexual minority men (YSMM) in New York City, to measure across-time trends, racial/ethnic disparities, and correlates of self-reported stop-and-frisk experience over the cohort follow-up (2014-2019). Over the study period, 43% reported stop-and-frisk with higher levels reported among Black (47%) and Hispanic/Latinx (45%) than White (38%) participants. Stop-and-frisk levels declined over follow-up for each racial/ethnic group. The per capita rates among P18 participants calculated based on self-reported stop-and-frisk were much higher than rates calculated based on New York City Police Department official counts. We stratified respondents' ZIP codes of residence into tertiles of per capita stop rates and observed pronounced disparities in Black versus White stop-and-frisk rates, particularly in neighborhoods with low or moderate levels of stop-and-frisk activity. YSMM facing the greatest economic vulnerability and mental disorder symptoms were most likely to report stop-and-frisk. Among White respondents levels of past year stop-and-frisk were markedly higher among those who reported past 30 day marijuana use (41%) versus those reporting no use (17%) while among Black and Hispanic/Latinx respondents stop-and-frisk levels were comparable among those reporting marijuana use (38%) versus those reporting no use (31%). These findings suggest inequity in policing is observed not only among racial/ethnic but also sexual minority groups and that racial/ethnic YSMM, who are at the intersection of multiple minority statuses, face disproportionate risk. Because the most socially vulnerable experience disproportionate stop-and-frisk risk, we need to reach YSMM with community resources to promote health and wellbeing as an alternative to targeting this group with stressful and stigmatizing police exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria R. Khan
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Farzana Kapadia
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Amanda Geller
- Department of Criminology, Law and Society, University of California - Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Medha Mazumdar
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Joy D. Scheidell
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Kristen D. Krause
- Center for Health, Identity, Behavior & Prevention Studies, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Richard J. Martino
- Center for Health, Identity, Behavior & Prevention Studies, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Charles M. Cleland
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Typhanye V. Dyer
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Danielle C. Ompad
- Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Perry N. Halkitis
- Center for Health, Identity, Behavior & Prevention Studies, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Departments of Biostatistics and Epidemiology and Urban-Global Health, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
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7
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Jahn JL, Agenor M, Chen JT, Krieger N. Frequent police stops, parental incarceration and mental health: results among US non-Hispanic Black and White adolescent girls and boys. J Epidemiol Community Health 2021; 75:658-664. [PMID: 33361203 DOI: 10.1136/jech-2020-214578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND National monitoring of police-public contact does not extend below age 16 and few studies have examined associations with adolescent mental health. METHODS We describe the distribution of police stops in a nationally representative cross-sectional sample of adolescents ages 12 to 18 years in the Panel Study of Income Dynamics Child Development Supplement 2002 and 2007 (n=2557). We used survey-weighted race/ethnicity-stratified and gender-stratified regression models to examine associations between the frequency of police stops and both depressive symptoms and subjective well-being (emotional, psychological and social). We adjusted for several socioeconomic covariates and evaluated effect modification by parental incarceration. RESULTS We estimated that 9.58% of adolescents were stopped two or more times. Despite fewer police stops compared with boys, Black and White girls who were stopped at least two times in the last 6 months had higher average depression scores relative to girls who were not stopped (Black: 2.13 (95% CI: 0.73 to 3.53), White: 2.17 (95% CI: 1.07 to 3.27)) and these associations were stronger among girls whose parents had been incarcerated. Police stops were significantly associated with higher depressive scores for White, but not Black, boys (2+ vs 0 stops: White: 1.33 (95% CI: 0.31 to 2.36, Black: 0.53 (95% CI: -0.28 to 1.34)). Associations between subjective well-being and police stops were stronger among non-Hispanic Black relative to White girls, whereas for boys, associations varied across subjective well-being subscales. CONCLUSION National monitoring data and public health research should examine adolescent police contact at younger ages stratified by both race/ethnicity and gender in order to better understand its relationship with adolescent mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaquelyn L Jahn
- Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Madina Agenor
- Department of Community Health, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jarvis T Chen
- Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nancy Krieger
- Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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8
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Thomas MD, Reeves AN, Jewell NP, Michaels EK, Allen AM. US law enforcement policy predictors of race-specific police fatalities during 2015-16. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0252749. [PMID: 34161363 PMCID: PMC8221500 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0252749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests that law enforcement organizational factors contribute to higher incidence and racial disparities in police killings. To determine whether agency policies contribute to race-specific civilian fatalities, this exploratory study compared fatality rates among agencies with and without selected policies expected to reduce killings. A cross-section of 1085 fatalities in the 2015-2016 The Counted public-use database were matched to 481 agencies in the 2013 Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) database. Negative binomial regression estimated incidence rate ratios (IRR) adjusted for agency type, number of officers, percent female personnel, median income, percent with a bachelor's degree, violent crime rate, and population size, with inference using robust standard errors. Agencies with greater proportions of full-time personnel (range 43-100%) had lower rates of all (IRR = 0.85; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.77-0.93) and non-White civilian killings (IRR = 0.85; CI = 0.73-0.99). Mission statements predicted lower rates of all (IRR = 0.70; CI = 0.58-0.84) and White killings (IRR = 0.60; CI = 0.40-0.90). Community evaluation and more types of personnel incentives predicted lower rates of White (IRR = 0.82; CI = 0.68-0.99) and non-White killings (IRR = 0.94; CI = 0.89-1.00), respectively. Increasing video use predicted higher rates of White killings (IRR = 1.13; CI = 1.01-1.28). No policies were significantly associated with Black civilian killings. Law enforcement policies that help reduce police killings may vary across racial groups with the least benefit for Black civilians. Impact evaluations and meta-analyses of initiatives aimed to mitigate fatalities should be explored, particularly policies to address anti-Black bias. A national registry tracking all police killings and agency policies is urgently needed to inform law enforcement policies aimed to mitigate civilian fatalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn D. Thomas
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Alexis N. Reeves
- Department of Epidemiologic Science, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Nicholas P. Jewell
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
| | - Eli K. Michaels
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
| | - Amani M. Allen
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
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9
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Remch M, Duncan DT, Geller A, Turpin R, Dyer T, Scheidell JD, Cleland CM, Kaufman JS, Brewer R, Hucks-Ortiz C, van der Mei W, Mayer KH, Khan MR. Police harassment and psychosocial vulnerability, distress, and depressive symptoms among black men who have sex with men in the U.S.: Longitudinal analysis of HPTN 061. SSM Popul Health 2021; 13:100753. [PMID: 33665335 PMCID: PMC7902537 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The mental health impact of exposure to police harassment is understudied, particularly among Black men who have sex with men (BMSM), a group at elevated risk of exposure to such discrimination. This study aimed to identify the associations among BMSM between recent police harassment and psychosocial vulnerability, psychological distress, and depression measured six months later. Data come from the HIV Prevention Trials Network (HPTN) 061 Study, a cohort study of BMSM recruited in 6 U.S. cities (Atlanta, GA, Boston, MA, Los Angeles, CA, New York, NY, San Francisco, CA, and Washington DC). Participants completed baseline, 6-month follow-up, and 12-month follow-up interviews. A convenience sample of 1553 BMSM was recruited between July 2009 and October 2010 of whom 1155 returned for a follow-up interview 12 months later. Accounting for previous police interaction, poverty, psychopathology, drug use, and alcohol use, we estimated associations between recent police harassment reported at the 6 month follow-up interview and 12 month outcomes including psychosocial vulnerability (elevated racial/sexual identity incongruence), psychological distress (being distressed by experiences of racism and/or homophobia), and depression. About 60% of men reported experiencing police harassment between the baseline and 6-month interview due to their race and/or sexuality. Adjusted analyses suggested police harassment was independently associated with a 10.81 (95% CI: 7.97, 13.66) point increase and 8.68 (95% CI: 6.06, 11.30) point increase in distress due to experienced racism and distress due to experienced homophobia scores, respectively. Police harassment perceived to be dually motivated predicted disproportionate levels of distress. Police harassment is prevalent and associated with negative influences on psychosocial vulnerability and psychological distress among BMSM. Reducing exposure to police harassment may improve the psychosocial health of BMSM. We examine the impact of police harassment on Black men who have sex with men. Data from the HPTN 061 Study show that police harassment is highly prevalent. Police harassment is associated with psychosocial vulnerability. Police harassment is associated with psychological distress. Harassment motivated by racism and homophobia is associated with added distress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly Remch
- Department of Epidemiology, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Dustin T Duncan
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Amanda Geller
- Department of Criminology, Law and Society, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Rodman Turpin
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Typhanye Dyer
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Joy D Scheidell
- Department of Population Health, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Charles M Cleland
- Department of Population Health, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jay S Kaufman
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, & Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Russell Brewer
- Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - Willem van der Mei
- Department of Population Health, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kenneth H Mayer
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Fenway Institute, Fenway Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Maria R Khan
- Department of Population Health, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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Abstract
The current pandemic is defined by the transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus that can lead to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). How is SARS-CoV-2 transmitted? In this review, we use a global lens to examine the sociological contexts that are potentially and systematically involved in high rates of SARS-CoV-2 transmission, including lack of personal protective equipment, population density and confinement. Altogether, this review provides an in-depth conspectus of the current literature regarding how SARS-CoV-2 disproportionately impacts many minority communities. By contextualising and disambiguating transmission risks that are particularly prominent for disadvantaged populations, this review can assist public health efforts throughout and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic.
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11
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Tran NK, Goldstein ND, Purtle J, Massey PM, Lankenau SE, Suder JS, Tabb LP. The heterogeneous effect of marijuana decriminalization policy on arrest rates in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2009-2018. Drug Alcohol Depend 2020; 212:108058. [PMID: 32442749 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Marijuana decriminalization holds potential to reduce health inequities. However, limited attention has focused on assessing the impact of decriminalization policies across different populations. This study aims to determine the differential effect of a marijuana decriminalization policy change in Philadelphia, PA on marijuana arrests by demographic characteristics. METHODS Using a comparative interrupted time series design, we assessed whether the onset of marijuana decriminalization in Philadelphia County was associated with reduction in arrests rates from 2009 to 2018 compared to Dauphin County. Stratified models were used to describe the differential impact of decriminalization across different demographic populations. RESULTS Compared to Dauphin, the mean arrest rate for all marijuana-related crimes in Philadelphia declined by 19.9 per 100,000 residents (34.9% reduction), 17.1 per 100,000 residents (43.1% reduction) for possession, and 2.8 per 100,000 resident (15.9% reduction) for sales/manufacturing. Arrest rates also differed by demographic characteristics post-decriminalization. Notably, African Americans had a greater absolute/relative reduction in possession-based arrests than Whites. However, relative reductions for sales/manufacturing-based arrests was nearly 3 times lower for African Americans. Males had greater absolute/relative reduction for possession-based arrests, but lower relative reduction for sales/manufacturing-based arrests compared to females. There were no substantial absolute differences by age; however, youths (vs. adults) experienced higher relative reduction in arrest rates. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest an absolute/relative reduction for possession-based arrests post-decriminalization; however, relative disparities in sales/manufacturing-based arrests, specifically for African Americans, increased. More consideration towards the heterogeneous effect of marijuana decriminalization are needed given the unintended harmful effects of arrest on already vulnerable populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen K Tran
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, 3215 Market St., Philadelphia, PA, 19104, United States.
| | - Neal D Goldstein
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, 3215 Market St., Philadelphia, PA, 19104, United States
| | - Jonathan Purtle
- Department of Health Management and Policy, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Philip M Massey
- Department of Community Health and Prevention, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Stephen E Lankenau
- Department of Community Health and Prevention, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Joanna S Suder
- Civil Division, Delaware Department of Justice, Wilmington, DE, United States
| | - Loni P Tabb
- Department of Health Management and Policy, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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12
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Jones-Eversley SD, Rice Ll J, Adedoyin AC, James-Townes L. A Pragmatic Epidemiological Approach to Confronting the Genocidal Death Effect of Homicide and Suicide among Young Black Males in the United States. SOCIAL WORK IN PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 35:47-67. [PMID: 32156202 DOI: 10.1080/19371918.2020.1736705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Genocide is a dehumanizing crime that threatens the welfare of any civilized society. Yet, before the annihilation of any targeted human group, the collective outcomes of the genocidal process (e.g., systemic desecrations) and genocidal death effect (e.g., years of mass deaths and death disparities) have often gone undetected, underestimated, or ignored by public health and human rights advocates. From1950-2010, the mass homicide-suicide killings engendering the premature deaths of Black males, ages15-24 years, corroborate that aspects of the genocidal process and genocidal death effect are happening in America. The mass killings of young Black males from these preventable homicide and suicide deaths are ethically alarming, and the determinants of death impacting their premature deaths command immediate primordial prevention and reinforced prevention efforts. An epidemiological genocide prevention matrix is explored as an innovative approach to address, prevent, and research premature deaths resulting from homicide and suicide, and genocidal death effect of young Black males. Undergirded by the Theory of Epidemiologic Transition, this article also examines the mass killings of young Black males through the genocidal and pragmatic lens. Death disparities, determinants of death, and genocidal death effect definitions are operationalized, and the Genocidal Death Effect Conceptual Framework is debuted in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon D Jones-Eversley
- Department of Family Studies and Community Development, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
| | - Johnny Rice Ll
- Department of Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement, Coppin State University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - A Christson Adedoyin
- Department of Social Work,School of Public Health, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Lori James-Townes
- Department of Family Studies and Community Development, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
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Roussos G, Dovidio JF. Enhancing the salience of free speech rights increases differential perceived free speech protections for criminal acts against Black versus White targets. JOURNAL OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/jasp.12601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gina Roussos
- Department of Psychology Yale University New Haven Connecticut
| | - John F. Dovidio
- Department of Psychology Yale University New Haven Connecticut
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Assari S, Caldwell CH. Teacher Discrimination Reduces School Performance of African American Youth: Role of Gender. Brain Sci 2018; 8:E183. [PMID: 30274393 PMCID: PMC6210327 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8100183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Gender may alter African Americans' vulnerability to discrimination. The type of outcomes that follow exposure to discrimination may also be gender-specific. Although teacher discrimination is known to deteriorate school performance, it is yet unknown whether male and female African American youth differ in the effect of teacher discrimination on school performance. Objective: This cross-sectional study explored the moderating role of gender on the effect of teacher discrimination on school performance in a national sample of African American youth. Methods: The National Survey of American Life-Adolescent Supplement (NSAL-A) enrolled a nationally representative sample (n = 810) of 13⁻17-year-old African American youth. Demographic factors, socioeconomic status, teacher discrimination, and school performance (grade point average, GPA) were measured. Linear multivariable regression models were applied for data analysis. RESULTS Males and females reported similar levels of perceived teacher discrimination. In the pooled sample, higher teacher discrimination was associated with lower school performance among African American youth (b = -0.35; 95% confidence interval (CI) = -0.49 to -0.22). Gender interacted with perceived teacher discrimination (b = 12; 95% CI = 0.24⁻2.02), suggesting a significant difference between males and females in the magnitude of the association between perceived teacher discrimination and GPA. In stratified models, perceived teacher discrimination was associated with worse school performance of females (b = -12; 95% CI = -0.03 to -2.78) but not males (b = 0.01; 95% CI = -0.07 to 0.08). CONCLUSION In line with previous studies, gender was found to alter the vulnerability of African American youth to perceived discrimination. African American boys and girls may differ in their sensitivity to the effects of teacher discrimination on school performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shervin Assari
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
- Center for Research on Ethnicity, Culture and Health, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
- Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Cleopatra Howard Caldwell
- Center for Research on Ethnicity, Culture and Health, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
- Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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For Black men, being tall increases threat stereotyping and police stops. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:2711-2715. [PMID: 29483263 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1714454115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Height seems beneficial for men in terms of salaries and success; however, past research on height examines only White men. For Black men, height may be more costly than beneficial, primarily signaling threat rather than competence. Three studies reveal the downsides of height in Black men. Study 1 analyzes over 1 million New York Police Department stop-and-frisk encounters and finds that tall Black men are especially likely to receive unjustified attention from police. Then, studies 2 and 3 experimentally demonstrate a causal link between perceptions of height and perceptions of threat for Black men, particularly for perceivers who endorse stereotypes that Black people are more threatening than White people. Together, these data reveal that height is sometimes a liability for Black men, particularly in contexts in which threat is salient.
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Darker Skin Tone Increases Perceived Discrimination among Male but Not Female Caribbean Black Youth. CHILDREN-BASEL 2017; 4:children4120107. [PMID: 29231903 PMCID: PMC5742752 DOI: 10.3390/children4120107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Background: Among most minority groups, males seem to report higher levels of exposure and vulnerability to racial discrimination. Although darker skin tone may increase exposure to racial discrimination, it is yet unknown whether skin tone similarly influences perceived discrimination among male and female Caribbean Black youth. Objective: The current cross-sectional study tests the role of gender on the effects of skin tone on perceived discrimination among Caribbean Black youth. Methods: Data came from the National Survey of American Life-Adolescent Supplement (NSAL-A), 2003–2004, which included 360 Caribbean Black youth (ages 13 to 17). Demographic factors (age and gender), socioeconomic status (SES; family income, income to needs ratio, and subjective SES), skin tone, and perceived everyday discrimination were measured. Linear regressions were used for data analysis. Results: In the pooled sample, darker skin tone was associated with higher levels of perceived discrimination among Caribbean Black youth (b = 0.48; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 0.07–0.89). A significant interaction was found between gender and skin tone (b = 1.17; 95% CI = 0.49–1.86), suggesting a larger effect of skin tone on perceived discrimination for males than females. In stratified models, darker skin tone was associated with more perceived discrimination for males (b = 1.20; 95% CI = 0.69–0.72) but not females (b = 0.06; 95% CI = −0.42–0.55). Conclusion: Similar to the literature documenting male gender as a vulnerability factor to the effects of racial discrimination, we found that male but not female Caribbean Black youth with darker skin tones perceive more discrimination.
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Powell W, Banks KH, Mattis JS. Buried hatchets, marked locations: Forgiveness, everyday racial discrimination, and African American men's depressive symptomatology. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ORTHOPSYCHIATRY 2016; 87:646-662. [PMID: 27786503 PMCID: PMC5408301 DOI: 10.1037/ort0000210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Everyday racial discrimination (ERD) is linked to pronounced depressive symptomatology among African American men. Yet, many African American men do not experience depressive symptoms following ERD exposure often because they use positive coping strategies that offset its effects. Granting forgiveness is 1 coping strategy associated with less depression. However, extant findings about the mental health benefits of forgiveness are somewhat mixed and pay scarce attention to offenses which are fleeting, historically rooted, and committed outside of close personal relationships. Evidence further suggest age-related differences in forgiveness, ERD exposure, and depressive symptoms. We explore the extent to which 3 strategies of granting forgiveness of ERD-letting go of negative emotion (negative release), embracing positive emotion (positive embrace), or combining both (combined)-are associated with less depressive symptomatology in 674 African American men (ages 18 through 79). Building on past findings, we also test whether these forgiveness strategies moderate the ERD-depressive symptoms relationship for men in different age groups (18 through 25, 26 through 39, and 40). Higher combined and negative release forgiveness were directly related to lower depressive symptoms among 18 through 25 year olds. We also detected a less pronounced positive relationship between ERD and depressive symptoms among men reporting high levels of combined (18 through 25 and 26 through 39 groups) and negative release (26 through 39 and 40+ groups) forgiveness. We observed a more pronounced positive ERD-depressive symptoms relationship among 18 through 25 and 26 through 39 year olds reporting lower forgiveness. When faced with frequent ERD, younger African American men may have the most difficult time burying hatchets without marking their location but experience more positive mental health benefits when they do. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- Wizdom Powell
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | | | - Jacqueline S Mattis
- Department of Personality and Social Contexts, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Noonan AS, Velasco-Mondragon HE, Wagner FA. Improving the health of African Americans in the USA: an overdue opportunity for social justice. Public Health Rev 2016; 37:12. [PMID: 29450054 PMCID: PMC5810013 DOI: 10.1186/s40985-016-0025-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Using a modified social ecological model, we conducted a review of the literature and nationwide statistics on African American health. We discuss the main social determinants of health and main health disparities, risk factors, the leading causes of morbidity and mortality, and access to health services for blacks in the USA. The mechanisms through which social determinants, including racism, exert their deleterious effects on black health are discussed at the macro and individual levels. Incarceration and mental health care issues are highlighted as priorities to be addressed. African Americans remain the least healthy ethnic group in the USA, a somber legacy of years of racial and social injustice and a formidable challenge to equitable health care for all. Systemic causes of suboptimal black health require equally systemic solutions; positive trends in black health indicators seem to be driven by social development programs, economic investment in education, participation of African Americans in policy, and decision-making and expansion of access to health care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allan S Noonan
- United States Public Health Services, Hunt Valley, Maryland, 21030 USA
| | | | - Fernando A Wagner
- 3Morgan State University School of Community Health and Policy, 4530 Portage Avenue Campus, 1700 E. Cold Spring Lane, Baltimore, MD 21251 USA
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