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Vicens-Bordas J, Sarand AP, Beato M, Buhmann R. Hamstring Injuries, From the Clinic to the Field: A Narrative Review Discussing Exercise Transfer. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:729-737. [PMID: 38917984 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2024-0049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 04/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The optimal approach to hamstring training is heavily debated. Eccentric exercises reduce injury risk; however, it is argued that these exercises transfer poorly to improved hamstring function during sprinting. Some argue that other exercises, such as isometric exercises, result in better transfer to running gait and should be used when training to improve performance and reduce injury risk. Given the performance requirements of the hamstrings during the terminal swing phase, where they are exposed to high strain, exercises should aim to improve the torque production during this phase. This should improve the hamstrings' ability to resist overlengthening consequently, improving performance and limiting strain injury. Most hamstring training studies fail to assess running kinematics postintervention. Of the limited evidence available, only eccentric exercises demonstrate changes in swing-phase kinematics following training. Studies of other exercise modalities investigate effects on markers of performance and injury risk but do not investigate changes in running kinematics. CONCLUSIONS Despite being inconsistent with principles of transfer, current evidence suggests that eccentric exercises result in transfer to swing-phase kinematics. Other exercise modalities may be effective, but the effect of these exercises on running kinematics is unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Vicens-Bordas
- Sport Performance Analysis Research Group (SPARG) and Sport and Physical Activity Studies Center (CEEAF), University of Vic-Central University of Catalonia, Vic, Spain
| | - Ali Parvaneh Sarand
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - Marco Beato
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Buhmann
- School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
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Hu Z, Liu Y, Huang K, Huang H, Li F, Yuan X. Comparing the Effect of Isoinertial Flywheel Training and Traditional Resistance Training on Maximal Strength and Muscle Power in Healthy People: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Life (Basel) 2024; 14:908. [PMID: 39063661 PMCID: PMC11277740 DOI: 10.3390/life14070908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2024] [Revised: 07/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to analyze whether isoinertial flywheel training (FWT) is superior to traditional resistance training (TRT) in enhancing maximal strength and muscle power in healthy individuals. METHODS Electronic searches were conducted in the Web of Science, PubMed, Cochrane Library, SPORTDiscus, and Scopus databases up to 21 April 2024. Outcomes were analyzed as continuous variables using either a random or fixed effects model to calculate the standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS A total of sixteen articles, involving 341 subjects, met the inclusion criteria and were included in the statistical analyses. The pooled results indicate no statistically significant differences between FWT and TRT in developing maximal strength in healthy individuals (SMD = 0.24, 95% CI [-0.26, 0.74], p = 0.35). Additionally, the pooled outcomes showed a small-sized effect in muscle power with FWT (SMD = 0.47, 95% CI [0.10, 0.84]), which was significantly higher than that with TRT (p = 0.01) in healthy individuals. Subgroup analysis revealed that when the total number of FWT sessions is between 12 and 18 (1-3 times per week), it significantly improves muscle power (SMD = 0.61, 95% CI [0.12, 1.09]). Significant effects favoring FWT for muscle power were observed in both well-trained (SMD = 0.58, 95% CI [0.04, 1.13]) and untrained individuals (SMD = 1.40, 95% CI [0.23, 2.57]). In terms of exercise, performing flywheel training with squat and lunge exercises significantly enhances muscle power (SMD = 0.43; 95% CI: 0.02-0.84, and p = 0.04). Interestingly, FWT was superior to weight stack resistance training (SMD = 0.61, 95% CI [0.21, 1.00]) in enhancing muscle power, while no significant differences were found compared to barbell free weights training (SMD = 0.36, 95% CI [-0.22, 0.94]). CONCLUSIONS This meta-analysis confirms the superiority of FWT compared to TRT in promoting muscle power in both healthy untrained and well-trained individuals. Squats and lunges for FWT are more suitable for improving lower limb explosive power. It is recommended that coaches and trainers implement FWT for six weeks, 2-3 times per week, with at least a 48 h interval between each session. Although FWT is not superior to free weights training, it is advisable to include FWT in sport periodization to diversify the training stimuli for healthy individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongzhong Hu
- School of Sports Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (Z.H.); (K.H.); (H.H.); (F.L.)
| | - Yuhang Liu
- China Athletics College, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China;
| | - Keke Huang
- School of Sports Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (Z.H.); (K.H.); (H.H.); (F.L.)
| | - Hao Huang
- School of Sports Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (Z.H.); (K.H.); (H.H.); (F.L.)
| | - Feng Li
- School of Sports Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (Z.H.); (K.H.); (H.H.); (F.L.)
| | - Xiaoyi Yuan
- China Athletics College, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China;
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Asimakidis ND, Mukandi IN, Beato M, Bishop C, Turner AN. Assessment of Strength and Power Capacities in Elite Male Soccer: A Systematic Review of Test Protocols Used in Practice and Research. Sports Med 2024:10.1007/s40279-024-02071-8. [PMID: 39026085 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-024-02071-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Strength and power represent two crucial physical qualities for the attainment of a high level of performance considering the frequency and the importance of explosive actions occurring during elite soccer match-play. Evaluation of strength and power is a multifaceted concept involving a vast array of tests and outcome variables. Nevertheless, a comprehensive and systematic search of strength and power assessment procedures in elite soccer has yet to be undertaken. OBJECTIVES The aims of this systematic review were to: (1) identify the tests and outcome variables used to assess strength and power of elite male soccer players; (2) provide normative values for the most common tests of strength and power across different playing levels; and (3) report the reliability values of these strength and power tests. METHODS A systematic review of the academic databases MEDLINE, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and OVID for studies published until August 2023 was conducted, following the Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they: (1) were original research studies, published in a peer-reviewed journal, and written in English language; (2) had the primary aim to assess strength and/or power; (3) players were male and older than 17 years of age (i.e., mean age of the group); and (4) their playing level was defined as "professional", "international" or "elite". RESULTS Regarding strength testing, 115 studies and 29 different tests were identified. The three most frequent strength tests were the knee extensor isokinetic strength test (58 studies), the knee flexor isokinetic strength test (55 studies) and the Nordic hamstring strength test (13 studies). In terms of power testing, 127 studies with 31 different tests were included. The three most frequent power tests were the countermovement jump with hands fixed on hips (99 studies), the squat jump (48 studies) and the vertical jump with arm swing (29 studies). CONCLUSIONS The wide range of different tests and outcome variables identified in this systematic review highlights the large diversity in the employed testing procedures. The establishment of a hybrid testing approach, combining standardised and widely accepted tests for establishing normative standards and enabling comparisons across different contexts, with flexible context-specific testing batteries, has the potential to maximise the impact of testing information for practitioners. In addition, the limited reporting of reliability data across studies highlights the need for practitioners to establish their own reliability measure within their specific contexts, informing the selection of certain tests and outcome variables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos D Asimakidis
- Faculty of Science and Technology, London Sport Institute, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, London, NW4 4BT, UK.
- Performance Department, Ipswich Town Football Club, Ipswich, UK.
| | - Irvin N Mukandi
- Faculty of Science and Technology, London Sport Institute, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, London, NW4 4BT, UK
- Performance Department, Ipswich Town Football Club, Ipswich, UK
| | - Marco Beato
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, UK
| | - Chris Bishop
- Faculty of Science and Technology, London Sport Institute, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, London, NW4 4BT, UK
| | - Anthony N Turner
- Faculty of Science and Technology, London Sport Institute, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, London, NW4 4BT, UK
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Kadlubowski B, Keiner M, Wirth K, Csapo R. Association between Sprint and Jump Performance and Maximum Strength in Standing Calf Raise or Squat in Elite Youth Soccer Players. Sports (Basel) 2024; 12:87. [PMID: 38668555 PMCID: PMC11054242 DOI: 10.3390/sports12040087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2024] [Revised: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Soccer is a complex sports discipline that requires players to engage in diverse high-intensity and multidirectional activities. The optimization of strength and conditioning programs requires a comprehensive understanding of the physical attributes influencing player performance. While previous research has demonstrated the influence of knee and hip extensor muscles on the performance in sprints and other explosive movements, this study aimed to establish the relationship between plantar flexor muscle strength and high-intensity actions. Back squat (BS) and calf raise (CR) one-repetition maxima as well as linear sprint (5-, 10-, 30 m) and drop jump performance from different heights (15, 30, 45 and 60 cm) were measured in 45 elite youth players (age: 16.62 ± 1.1 years). Results showed significant negative correlations between BS strength and sprint times (r = -0.60 to -0.61), confirming the importance of lower limb extensor muscle strength in short-distance sprints. While no significant correlations were found with sprint performances, CR strength was significantly associated with drop jump test results from 45 and 60 cm drop height (r = 0.36 to 0.46). These findings demonstrate that isolated CR strength positively influences the performance in actions involving rapid stretch-shortening cycles, which suggests that current strength and conditioning programs for youth soccer players should be extended to also include exercises specifically targeting the plantar flexor muscles. While this cross-sectional study provides novel insights into the complex interplay between muscle strength and soccer-specific performance, its findings need to be corroborated in longitudinal studies directly testing the impact of plantar flexor strength training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Kadlubowski
- Department of Sport and Human Movement Science, Centre for Sport Science and University Sports, University of Vienna, 1150 Vienna, Austria;
- Vienna Doctoral School of Pharmaceutical, Nutritional and Sport Sciences, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Keiner
- Department of Training and Exercise Science, German University of Health and Sport, 10587 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Klaus Wirth
- Department of Training and Sport, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria;
| | - Robert Csapo
- Department of Sport and Human Movement Science, Centre for Sport Science and University Sports, University of Vienna, 1150 Vienna, Austria;
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5
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Beato M, de Keijzer KL, Muñoz-Lopez A, Raya-González J, Pozzo M, Alkner BA, Dello Iacono A, Vicens-Bordas J, Coratella G, Maroto-Izquierdo S, Gonzalo-Skok O, McErlain-Naylor SA, Martin-Rivera F, Hernandez-Davo JL, Arrones LS, Sabido R, de Hoyo M, Fernandez-Gonzalo R, Norrbrand L. Current Guidelines for the Implementation of Flywheel Resistance Training Technology in Sports: A Consensus Statement. Sports Med 2024; 54:541-556. [PMID: 38175461 PMCID: PMC10978721 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01979-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Flywheel resistance training has become more integrated within resistance training programs in a variety of sports due to the neuromuscular, strength, and task-specific enhancements reported with this training. OBJECTIVE This paper aimed to present the consensus reached by internationally recognized experts during a meeting on current definitions and guidelines for the implementation of flywheel resistance training technology in sports. METHODS Nineteen experts from different countries took part in the consensus process; 16 of them were present at the consensus meeting (18 May 2023) while three submitted their recommendations by e-mail. Prior to the meeting, evidence summaries were developed relating to areas of priority. This paper discusses the available evidence and consensus process from which recommendations were made regarding the appropriate use of flywheel resistance training technology in sports. The process to gain consensus had five steps: (1) performing a systematic review of systematic reviews, (2) updating the most recent umbrella review published on this topic, (3) first round discussion among a sample of the research group included in this consensus statement, (4) selection of research group members-process of the consensus meeting and formulation of the recommendations, and (5) the consensus process. The systematic analysis of the literature was performed to select the most up-to-date review papers available on the topic, which resulted in nine articles; their methodological quality was assessed according to AMSTAR 2 (Assessing the Methodological Quality of Systematic Review 2) and GRADE (Grading Recommendations Assessment Development and Evaluation). Statements and recommendations scoring 7-9 were considered appropriate. RESULTS The recommendations were based on the evidence summary and researchers' expertise; the consensus statement included three statements and seven recommendations for the use of flywheel resistance training technology. These statements and recommendations were anonymously voted on and qualitatively analyzed. The three statements reported a score ranging from 8.1 to 8.8, and therefore, all statements included in this consensus were considered appropriate. The recommendations (1-7) had a score ranging from 7.7 to 8.6, and therefore, all recommendations were considered appropriate. CONCLUSIONS Because of the consensus achieved among the experts in this project, it is suggested that practitioners and researchers should adopt the guidelines reported in this consensus statement regarding the use of flywheel resistance technology in sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Beato
- School of Allied Health Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, UK.
| | | | - Alejandro Muñoz-Lopez
- Departamento de Motricidad Humana y Rendimiento Deportivo, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | | | - Marco Pozzo
- Master de Fútbol, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain
- SmartCoach Technologies, Inc., Seville, Spain
| | - Björn A Alkner
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Eksjö, Region Jönköping County, Sweden
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Antonio Dello Iacono
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland
| | - Jordi Vicens-Bordas
- Sport, Exercise, and Human Movement (SEaHM), University of Vic-Central University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain
- Sport and Physical Activity Studies Centre (CEEAF), University of Vic-Central University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Giuseppe Coratella
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Oliver Gonzalo-Skok
- Department of Communication and Education, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Seville, Spain
| | | | - Fernando Martin-Rivera
- Research Group in Prevention and Health in Exercise and Sport, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | | | | | - Rafael Sabido
- Sport Research Centre, Department of Sport Sciences, Miguel Hernández University, Elche, Spain
| | - Moises de Hoyo
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
- Performance Department, Aston Villa Football Club, Birmingham, UK
| | - Rodrigo Fernandez-Gonzalo
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Unit of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lena Norrbrand
- Division of Environmental Physiology, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Solna, Sweden
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Wezenbeek E, Denolf S, Bourgois JG, Philippaerts RM, De Winne B, Willems TM, Witvrouw E, Verstockt S, Schuermans J. Impact of (long) COVID on athletes' performance: a prospective study in elite football players. Ann Med 2023; 55:2198776. [PMID: 37126052 PMCID: PMC10134946 DOI: 10.1080/07853890.2023.2198776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate possible persistent performance deficits after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in elite athletes. METHODS A prospective cohort study in three Belgian professional male football teams was performed during the 2020 - 2021 season. Participants were submitted to strength, jump, and sprint tests and an aerobic performance test (the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test (YYIR)). These tests were repeated at fixed time intervals throughout the season. Assessment of SARS-CoV-2 infection was performed by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test before each official game. RESULTS Of the 84 included participants, 22 were infected with SARS-CoV-2 during follow-up. At the first testing after infection (52.0 ± 11.2 days after positive PCR testing) significantly higher percentages of maximal heart rate (%HRmax) were seen - within the isolated group of infected players- during (p = .006) and after the YYIR (2 min after, p = .013), compared to pre-infection data. This increase in %HRmax was resolved at the second YYIR testing after infection (127.6 ± 33.1 days after positive PCR testing). Additionally, when comparing the first test after infection in formerly infected to non-infected athletes, significantly higher %HRmax were found during (p < .001) and after the YYIR test (p < .001),No significant deficits were found for the jump, muscular strength or sprint tests. Aerobic performance seems compromised even weeks after infection. Simultaneously, anaerobic performance seemed to be spared. Because of the potential detrimental effects on the immune system, caution might be advised with high-intensity exposure until aerobic performance is restored.KEY MESSAGESElite football players' aerobic performance seems to be affected for weeks after they return to sports after a SARS-CoV-2 infection.Similarly, anaerobic performance tests showed no discernible changes between both before and after SARS-CoV-2 infections.Regular YYIR testing is recommended to monitor aerobic performance after SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Wezenbeek
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - J G Bourgois
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Performance and Sports Sciences, KAA Ghent - UGent, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | | - S Verstockt
- Department of Electronics and Information Systems, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Oliveira TP, Espada MC, Massini DA, Robalo RAM, Almeida TAF, Hernández-Beltrán V, Gamonales JM, Castro EA, Pessôa Filho DM. Effects of Exercise and Sports Intervention and the Involvement Level on the Mineral Health of Different Bone Sites in the Leg, Hip, and Spine: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6537. [PMID: 37569078 PMCID: PMC10419061 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20156537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
The current study analysed whether the osteogenic stimuli of exercises and sports have an independent effect on bone mineral density (BMD). Studies with a design having two different cohorts were searched and selected to distinguish the effect due to long-term involvement (i.e., athletes vs. non-active young with good bone health) and due to the planning of intervention (i.e., pre- vs. post-training) with exercises and sports. Moreover, only studies investigating the bone sites with a body-weight support function (i.e., lower limb, hip, and spine regions) were reviewed, since the osteogenic effects have incongruous results. A meta-analysis was performed following the recommendations of PRISMA. Heterogeneity (I2) was determined by combining Cochran's Q test with the Higgins test, with a significance level of α = 0.05. The studies reporting the effect of involvement in exercise and sports showed high heterogeneity for the lower limb, total hip, and spine (I2 = 90.200%, 93.334%, and 95.168%, respectively, with p < 0.01) and the effect size on sports modalities (Hedge's g = 1.529, 1.652, and 0.417, respectively, with p < 0.05) ranging from moderate to high. In turn, the studies reporting the effect of the intervention planning showed that there was no heterogeneity for the lower limb (I2 = 0.000%, p = 0.999) and spine (I2 = 77.863%, p = 0.000); however, for the hip, it was moderate (I2 = 49.432%, p = 0.054), with a low effect between the pre- and post-training moments presented only for the hip and spine (Hedge's g = 0.313 and 0.353, respectively, with p < 0.05). The current analysis supported the effect of involvement in exercise and sports by evidencing the effect of either weight-bearing or non-weight-bearing movements on BMD at the femoral, pelvic, and lumbar bones sites of the athletes when comparing to non-athletes or non-active peers with healthy bones. Moreover, the effect of different exercise and sports interventions highlighted the alterations in the BMD in the spine bone sites, mainly with long-term protocols (~12 months) planned with a stimulus with high muscle tension. Therefore, exercise and sport (mainly systematic long-term practice) have the potential to increase the BMD of bones with body-weight support beyond the healthy values reached during life phases of youth and adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago P. Oliveira
- Graduate Programme in Human Development and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro 13506-900, Brazil; (T.P.O.); (D.A.M.); (T.A.F.A.); (E.A.C.)
| | - Mário C. Espada
- Instituto Politécnico de Setúbal, Escola Superior de Educação, 2914-504 Setúbal, Portugal; (M.C.E.); (R.A.M.R.)
- Life Quality Research Centre (LQRC-CIEQV, Leiria), Complexo Andaluz, Apartado, 2040-413 Rio Maior, Portugal
- CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Danilo A. Massini
- Graduate Programme in Human Development and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro 13506-900, Brazil; (T.P.O.); (D.A.M.); (T.A.F.A.); (E.A.C.)
- Department of Physical Education, School of Sciences (FC), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru 17033-360, Brazil
| | - Ricardo A. M. Robalo
- Instituto Politécnico de Setúbal, Escola Superior de Educação, 2914-504 Setúbal, Portugal; (M.C.E.); (R.A.M.R.)
- Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Tiago A. F. Almeida
- Graduate Programme in Human Development and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro 13506-900, Brazil; (T.P.O.); (D.A.M.); (T.A.F.A.); (E.A.C.)
- Department of Physical Education, School of Sciences (FC), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru 17033-360, Brazil
| | - Víctor Hernández-Beltrán
- Research Group in Optimization of Training and Performance Sports, Faculty of Sport Science, University of Extremadura, 10005 Cáceres, Spain; (V.H.-B.); (J.M.G.)
| | - José M. Gamonales
- Research Group in Optimization of Training and Performance Sports, Faculty of Sport Science, University of Extremadura, 10005 Cáceres, Spain; (V.H.-B.); (J.M.G.)
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Francisco de Vitoria, 28223 Madrid, Spain
| | - Eliane A. Castro
- Graduate Programme in Human Development and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro 13506-900, Brazil; (T.P.O.); (D.A.M.); (T.A.F.A.); (E.A.C.)
- LFE Research Group, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Dalton M. Pessôa Filho
- Graduate Programme in Human Development and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro 13506-900, Brazil; (T.P.O.); (D.A.M.); (T.A.F.A.); (E.A.C.)
- Department of Physical Education, School of Sciences (FC), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru 17033-360, Brazil
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8
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Younes-Egana O, Mielgo-Ayuso J, M. Stojanović MD, Bird SP, Calleja-González J. Effectiveness of Eccentric Overload Training in Basketball Players: A Systematic Review. J Hum Kinet 2023; 87:243-257. [PMID: 37559764 PMCID: PMC10407313 DOI: 10.5114/jhk/167469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Several studies have confirmed the efficacy of flywheel eccentric overload training in order to improve or increase muscle volume and strength, as well as several performance-related fitness attributes, but to date, there are no studies that have reviewed the effects of these training methods in basketball. Therefore, the present systematic review aimed to collect the updated information about the influence of flywheel training on performance of basketball players. A search in four electronic databases (PubMed, SCOPUS, Web of Science, and Google Scholar) was conducted up to November 20, 2022. Articles were selected as valid for review if: (i) they were an experimental trial published in English; (ii) participants were basketball players without illnesses or injuries, and (iii) a rotational inertial overload method was used as a performance-dependent variable. A total of 93 articles were found. After filtering procedures, only seven studies were considered in this systematic review. In the selected studies, 203 participants were included, 58 females and 145 males. Focusing on basketball related performance variables, all the studies included the countermovement jump (CMJ), while five included sprinting and a change of direction test (COD). The results showed an improvement in performance-related variables associated with basketball (sprint, CMJ, and COD) through the use of inertial methods. Improvements were reported in professional, semi-professional and amateur players as well as both male and female players. However, given the low number of studies, additional investigations on this topic are warranted before a "clear picture" can be drawn concerning the effects of flywheel eccentric overload training in basketball players.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Stephen P. Bird
- School of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Southern Queensland, Ipswich, Australia
| | - Julio Calleja-González
- Faculty of Education and Sport, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Vitoria, Spain
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9
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Bright TE, Handford MJ, Mundy P, Lake J, Theis N, Hughes JD. Building for the Future: A Systematic Review of the Effects of Eccentric Resistance Training on Measures of Physical Performance in Youth Athletes. Sports Med 2023; 53:1219-1254. [PMID: 37097414 PMCID: PMC10185653 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01843-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Eccentric resistance training is recognised as an effective stimulus for enhancing measures of muscular strength and power in adult populations; however, its value in youth athletes is currently not well understood. OBJECTIVE The aim of this systematic review was to critically appraise the effects of eccentric resistance training on measures of physical performance (i.e. muscular strength, jump, sprint and change of direction) in youth athletes 18 years of age and under. METHODS Original journal articles published between 1950 and June 2022 were retrieved from electronic search engines of PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Google Scholar's advanced search option. Full journal articles investigating the acute and chronic effects of eccentric resistance training on measures of physical performance in youth athletes (i.e. a person 18 years of age or under who competes in sport) were included. The methodological quality and bias of each study were assessed prior to data extraction using a modified Downs and Black checklist. RESULTS The search yielded 749 studies, of which 436 were duplicates. Three-hundred studies were excluded based upon title and abstract review and a further 5 studies were removed following the modified Downs and Black checklist. An additional 14 studies were identified during backward screening. Accordingly, 22 studies were included in our systematic review. The Nordic hamstring exercise and flywheel inertial training were the most frequently used eccentric resistance training methods in youth athletes. Improvements in physical performance following the Nordic hamstring exercise are dependent upon an increase in the breakpoint angle, rather than training volume (sets and repetitions), and are further elevated with the addition of hip extension exercises or high-speed running. A minimum of 3 familiarisation trials is necessary to elicit meaningful adaptations following flywheel inertial training. Furthermore, an emphasis should be placed upon decelerating the rotating flywheel during the final one to two thirds of the eccentric phase, rather than gradually throughout the entire eccentric phase. CONCLUSIONS The findings of this systematic review support the inclusion of eccentric resistance training in youth athletes to improve measures of muscular strength, jump, sprint and change of direction performance. The current eccentric resistance training methods are predominantly limited to the Nordic hamstring exercise and flywheel inertial training; however, the efficacy of accentuated eccentric loading to improve jump performance warrants attention in future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E. Bright
- Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, UK
- School of Sport, Health and Wellbeing, Plymouth Marjon University, Derriford Rd, Plymouth, PL6 8BH UK
| | - Matthew J. Handford
- Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, UK
| | | | - Jason Lake
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Chichester University, Chichester, UK
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA Australia
| | - Nicola Theis
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, UK
| | - Jonathan D. Hughes
- Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, UK
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Buonsenso A, Centorbi M, Iuliano E, Di Martino G, Della Valle C, Fiorilli G, Calcagno G, di Cagno A. A Systematic Review of Flywheel Training Effectiveness and Application on Sport Specific Performances. Sports (Basel) 2023; 11:sports11040076. [PMID: 37104150 PMCID: PMC10144427 DOI: 10.3390/sports11040076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The objective of this systematic review was to examine the effectiveness of flywheel training, which allows for the replication of specific sports movements, overloading both the concentric and eccentric phases. Inclusion criteria were injury prevention outcomes; ability in terms of strength, power, sprinting, jumping and change of direction; competitive athletes; and RCTs. Exclusion criteria were a lack of a control group and lack of baseline and/or follow-up data. The databases used were Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Sage. The revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool was used to assess the quality of the selected RCTs. The Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine 2011 Levels of Evidence was used. A PICOS (participants, intervention, comparators, study outcomes, and study design) approach was used to evaluate eligibility. A total of 21 RCTs with 8 to 54 participants in each study analyzed flywheel technology and its application in nine sports. The results showed that flywheel training is a good strategy to improve sports performance, providing variation in training methodologies and athletes’ adherence. Further studies are needed to define guidelines on training modality, weekly frequency, volume, and inertia load. Only a few studies have applied the flywheel device directly to overload specific multidirectional movements at different joint angles. This method is not exempt from criticalities, such as the cost and the ability to carry out only individual training.
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Filetti C, Ruscello B, Leo I, Porta M, Chiari A, Miranda C, Rago V. Hypertrophic adaptations to a 6-week in-season barbell vs. flywheel squat added to regular soccer training. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2023; 63:60-68. [PMID: 35415999 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.22.13793-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to compare the hypertrophic adaptations to barbell or flywheel squat exercise added to regular in-season soccer training. METHODS Quadriceps' (rectus femoris [RF], vastus medialis [VM] and vastus lateralis [VL]) cross-sectional area (CSA) in its portions (proximal [PROX], middle [MID], and distal [DIST]) was measured on both legs before and after a 6-week barbell (80 to 90% one-maximum repetition; N.=7) or flywheel (0.0611 to 0.0811 kg·m2; N.=7) in an U19 professional soccer team using a 3T magnetic resonance imaging. Both groups underwent 5 sets × 6 reps per session of squat separated by 3-min rest, while controlling the time under tension (within 0.5 and 0.8 s). RESULTS The barbell squat group experienced moderate CSA increments in the VM<inf>MID</inf> and the VL<inf>DIST</inf> of the right leg (d=0.98-0.99). Additionally, the flywheel group experience large CSA increments in the RF<inf>MID</inf>, VL<inf>PROX</inf> and VL<inf>MID</inf> of the right leg (d=1.00-1.84). On average, flywheel squat training largely produced greater force during exercise compared to the barbell squat training (29.2 vs. 12.2 N·kg-1; d=5.95), whereas the barbell squat training produced moderately greater power output (10.5 vs. 9.7; d=0.52). CONCLUSIONS Barbell squat training seems to be more effective for VM hypertrophy whereas flywheel squat triggers greater RF and VL hypertrophy as complementary to regular field-based soccer practice and competition within a short range of time (6 weeks) during the in-season. These findings can be considered also from either strength or reconditioning perspective based on the increase in the quadriceps muscles' CSA as mechanism underlying strength/power adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristoforo Filetti
- School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy.,School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Rome, Italy.,Unione Sportiva Salernitana 1919, Salerno, Italy.,Performance Department, FC Paris Saint Germain, Paris, France
| | - Bruno Ruscello
- School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy.,School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Rome, Italy.,Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy.,LUISS SportLab, LUISS University, Rome, Italy
| | - Italo Leo
- Unione Sportiva Salernitana 1919, Salerno, Italy.,Department of Human, Philosophical and Educational Sciences, University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy.,Department of Sport Rehab, San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d'Aragona University Hospital, Salerno, Italy
| | - Marco Porta
- School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Rome, Italy
| | - Aldo Chiari
- Parthenope Sant'Antimo Basket, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Vincenzo Rago
- Faculty of Health and Sports Sciences, European University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal -
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Tumiñá-Ospina DM, Rivas-Campo Y, García-Garro PA, Gómez-Rodas A, Afanador DF. Efectividad de los ejercicios nórdicos sobre la incidencia de lesiones de isquiotibiales en futbolistas profesionales y amateur masculinos entre los 15 y 41 años. Revisión sistemática. REVISTA IBEROAMERICANA DE CIENCIAS DE LA ACTIVIDAD FÍSICA Y EL DEPORTE 2022. [DOI: 10.24310/riccafd.2022.v11i3.15338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introducción: Las lesiones musculares son comunes en futbolistas, siendo la lesión de isquiotibiales la más frecuente. Objetivo: Analizar la evidencia existente sobre los efectos de los ejercicios nórdicos en la incidencia de lesiones de isquiotibiales en jugadores de fútbol profesional y amateur masculinos entre los 15 y 41 años. Materiales y métodos: Se llevó a cabo una revisión sistemática siguiendo las recomendaciones de la declaración PRISMA, realizando la búsqueda de artículos en PubMed, BVS, Cochrane, Web OF Science y SCOPUS, además de consultar Google Scholar. La búsqueda se realizó basada en la estrategia PICO con los siguientes términos: hamstring muscles, exercise, rehabilitation, therapy, athletic injuries, soccer. Resultados: un total de 257 artículos resultaron de la búsqueda, siendo 5 los artículos incluidos en este estudio. Todos los estudios evidenciaron efectos positivos de los ejercicios nórdicos para los deportistas. Conclusiones: los ejercicios nórdicos redujeron la incidencia de lesión de isquiotibiales en 4 de los estudios analizados, el porcentaje de cumplimiento de las sesiones de intervención condicionaron la calidad de los efectos mientras que el momento de aplicación de la intervención (pre- o post-entreno) no influyó
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Silva JR. The soccer season: performance variations and evolutionary trends. PeerJ 2022; 10:e14082. [PMID: 36217385 PMCID: PMC9547588 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The physiological demands of soccer challenge the entire spectrum of the response capacity of the biological systems and fitness requirements of the players. In this review we examined variations and evolutionary trends in body composition, neuromuscular and endurance-related parameters, as well as in game-related physical parameters of professional players. Further, we explore aspects relevant for training monitoring and we reference how different training stimulus and situational variables (e.g., competition exposure) affect the physiological and performance parameters of players. Generally, improvements of small magnitude in non- (non-CMJ) and countermovement-based jumps (CMJBased) and in the sprint acceleration (ACCPhase) and maximal velocity phase (MVPhase) are observed from start of preparation phase (PPS) to beginning of competition phase (BCP). A greater magnitude of increases is observed in physiological and endurance performance measures within this period; moderate magnitude in sub-maximal intensity exercise (velocity at fixed blood lactate concentrations; V2-4mmol/l) and large magnitude in VO2max, maximal aerobic speed (MAS) and intense intermittent exercise performance (IE). In the middle of competition phase (MCP), small (CMJBased and ACCPhase), moderate (non-CMJ; MVPhase; VO2max; sub-maximal exercise) and large (MAS and IE) improvements were observed compared to PPS. In the end of competition period (ECP), CMJBased and MVPhase improve to a small extent with non-CMJ, and ACCPhase, VO2max, MAS, sub-maximal intensity exercise and IE revealing moderate increments compared to PPS. Although less investigated, there are generally observed alterations of trivial magnitude in neuromuscular and endurance-related parameters between in-season assessments; only substantial alterations are examined for IE and sub-maximal exercise performance (decrease and increase of small magnitude, respectively) from BCP to MCP and in VO2max and IE (decrements of small magnitude) from MCP to ECP. Match performance may vary during the season. Although, the variability between studies is clear for TD, VHSR and sprint, all the studies observed substantial increments in HSR between MCP and ECP. Finally, studies examining evolutionary trends by means of exercise and competition performance measures suggests of a heightened importance of neuromuscular factors. In conclusion, during the preseason players "recover" body composition profile and neuromuscular and endurance competitive capacity. Within in-season, and more robustly towards ECP, alterations in neuromuscular performance seem to be force-velocity dependent, and in some cases, physiological determinants and endurance performance may be compromised when considering other in-season moments. Importantly, there is a substantial variability in team responses that can be observed during in-season. Consequently, this informs on the need to both provide a regular training stimulus and adequate monitorization throughout the season.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joao Renato Silva
- Center for Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Portugal
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Hody S, Warren BE, Votion DM, Rogister B, Lemieux H. Eccentric Exercise Causes Specific Adjustment in Pyruvate Oxidation by Mitochondria. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2022; 54:1300-1308. [PMID: 35320143 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The impact of eccentric exercise on mitochondrial function has only been poorly investigated and remains unclear. This study aimed to identify the changes in skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiration, specifically triggered by a single bout of eccentric treadmill exercise. METHODS Male adult mice were randomly divided into eccentric (ECC; downhill running), concentric (CON; uphill running), and unexercised control groups ( n = 5/group). Running groups performed 18 bouts of 5 min at 20 cm·s -1 on an inclined treadmill (±15° to 20°). Mice were sacrificed 48 h after exercise for blood and quadriceps muscles collection. Deep proximal (red) and superficial distal (white) muscle portions were used for high-resolution respirometric measurements. RESULTS Plasma creatine kinase activity was significantly higher in the ECC compared with CON group, reflecting exercise-induced muscle damage ( P < 0.01). The ECC exercise induced a significant decrease in oxidative phosphorylation capacity in both quadriceps femoris parts ( P = 0.032 in proximal portion, P = 0.010 in distal portion) in comparison with the CON group. This observation was only made for the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) pathway using pyruvate + malate as substrates. When expressed as a flux control ratio, indicating a change related to mitochondrial quality rather than quantity, this change seemed more prominent in distal compared with proximal portion of quadriceps muscle. No significant difference between groups was found for the NADH pathway with glutamate or glutamate + malate as substrates, for the succinate pathway or for fatty acid oxidation. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that ECC exercise specifically affects pyruvate mitochondrial transport and/or oxidation 48 h after exercise, and this alteration mainly concerns the distal white muscle portion. This study provides new perspectives to improve our understanding of the mitochondrial adaptation associated with ECC exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Hody
- Department of Motricity Sciences, University of Liège, Liège, BELGIUM
| | - Blair E Warren
- Faculty Saint-Jean, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, CANADA
| | - Dominique-Marie Votion
- Equine Pole, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Liège, BELGIUM
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Regional Lean Soft Tissue and Intracellular Water Are Associated with Changes in Lower-Body Neuromuscular Performance: A Pilot Study in Elite Soccer Players. Eur J Investig Health Psychol Educ 2022; 12:882-892. [PMID: 35893080 PMCID: PMC9332301 DOI: 10.3390/ejihpe12080064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The assessment of body composition over a competitive season provides valuable information that can help sports professionals to evaluate the efficacy of training and nutritional strategies, as well as monitoring athletes’ health status. The purpose of this study was to examine the association of changes in body composition and hydration status with changes in lower-body neuromuscular performance in soccer. Twenty-two male professional soccer players (mean ± SD; age: 26.4 ± 4.8 years; height: 184.3 ± 5.7 cm; body mass: 81.1 ± 6.5 kg; body fat: 11.6 ± 1.5%) took part in the study, for which they were tested at the initial and final stage of the competitive season. Total (whole body) and regional (arms and legs) lean soft tissue (LST) were estimated to obtain the body composition profile. Total body water (TBW) content, including extracellular (ECW) and intracellular (ICW) water, was obtained to monitor players’ hydration status. Countermovement jump (CMJ) height, power, and strength were used to derive players’ lower-body neuromuscular performance. The results showed that changes in legs LST and ICW significantly (p < 0.01) explained (r2 = 0.39) the improvements in CMJ height, power, and strength from the initial to the final stage of the season. Given the high demand imposed on the lower limbs during a soccer season, being more susceptible to change compared to whole-body LST, assessing regional LST and ICW would be more appropriate to provide extended information on players’ readiness.
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Evaluation of 10-Week Neuromuscular Training Program on Body Composition of Elite Female Soccer Players. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11071062. [PMID: 36101440 PMCID: PMC9312219 DOI: 10.3390/biology11071062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
(1) Background: This study was conducted to investigate the effects of a 10-week neuromuscular training program (NMT) on the sum of six skinfolds (Σ6S) and body composition variables in elite female soccer players. (2) Methods: Forty-four Spanish elite female soccer players (age: 24.0 ± 4.2 years; height: 164.3 ± 5.5 cm; body mass: 60.4 ± 5.5 kg; body mass index (BMI): 22.4 ± 2.2 kg/m2) were randomly assigned to a control group (CG) or to an experimental group (EG). Participants in the EG completed a specific NMT program of 24 min, three times per week, which included exercises from six different categories (mobility, dynamic stability, anterior chain strength, lumbopelvic control, posterior chain strength, and change of direction). The CG followed their normal strength and conditioning program. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included anthropometric measurements (weight, height, limb circumferences, and bone breadths), and subsequently, body composition factors BMI, Σ6S, body mass, muscle mass, and lean body mass were calculated. Nutrition was standardized by a nutritionist and also load monitored. (3) Results: A two-way mixed analysis of variance (group × time) revealed that there was a significant (p ≤ 0.001) group × time interaction between body mass, fat mass, and Σ6S in favor of NMT. A significant interaction was also observed for body skeletal muscle mass and lean body mass favoring NMT. (4) Conclusions: The application of an NMT program seems to be a useful strategy to improve body composition in elite female soccer players.
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Effects of Six Weeks of Flywheel Single-Leg Romanian Deadlift Training on Speed, Jumping and Change of Direction Performance. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19031200. [PMID: 35162219 PMCID: PMC8834620 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19031200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Several studies have confirmed the efficacy of flywheel training, mainly in the bilateral half-squat exercise. The aim of the present study was to analyze the effects of single-leg Romanian deadlift flywheel training on speed, jumping and change of direction performance. Seventeen young healthy males underwent two periods of 3-week training based on two weekly sessions of 3 sets × 7 repetitions or 4 sets × 7 repetitions of single-leg Romanian deadlifts (0.037 kg/m² moment inertia) with their dominant and non-dominant leg. After the first three weeks of the program, the CMJ, the 10 m, 30 m and total sprint times, as well as the COD-90 test, presented likely substantial beneficial effects and a small decrease in the relationship between the sprint and COD-90 test performance. After the second period of the three-week training, likely detrimental effects were observed in some of the change of direction conditions and an increase in the relationship between the sprint and the COD-180 performance. It could be hypothesized that most of the flywheel training effects reported in the traditional protocols lasting a minimum of 5–6 weeks would occur in the first weeks of training.
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Gonzalo-Skok O, Sánchez-Sabaté J, Tous-Fajardo J, Mendez-Villanueva A, Bishop C, Piedrafita E. Effects of Direction-Specific Training Interventions on Physical Performance and Inter-Limb Asymmetries. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19031029. [PMID: 35162053 PMCID: PMC8834310 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19031029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
This study analyzed the effects of two different training programs on functional performance and inter-limb asymmetries in basketball players. Twenty-four elite youth basketball players were randomly assigned to a training program including variable unilateral horizontal movements (VUH, n = 12) or unilateral lateral movements (VUL, n = 12). Eccentric-overload training (EOT) was performed twice a week for a six-week period. Functional performance assessment included a countermovement jump test, unilateral multidirectional jumping tests (i.e., lateral, horizontal, and vertical), a rebound jump test, a limb symmetry index, a 25 m linear sprint test, and several change of direction (COD) tests. Within-group analysis showed substantial improvements in almost all functional tests in both groups (ES = 0.35–0.89). Furthermore, almost all jumping asymmetries were improved in both groups (ES = 0.38–0.69) except for vertical jumping asymmetry in VUL (ES = −0.04). Between-group analyses showed a substantial and possibly better performance in vertical jumping asymmetry and 5 m in VUH compared to that of VUL, respectively. In contrast, lateral jumping with left (ES = 1.22) and right leg (ES = 0.49) were substantially greater in VUL than in VUH. Specific force-vector training programs induced substantial improvements in both functional performance tests and inter-limb asymmetries, although greater improvements of lateral and horizontal variables may depend on the specific force vector targeted.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jorge Sánchez-Sabaté
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad San Jorge, Campus Universitario, Autov A23 km 299, 50830 Villanueva de Gállego, Zaragoza, Spain;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-672-096-586
| | | | | | - Chris Bishop
- London Sport Institute, School of Science and Technology, Middlesex University, Greenlands Lane, Allianz Park, London NW4 1RL, UK;
| | - Eduardo Piedrafita
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad San Jorge, Campus Universitario, Autov A23 km 299, 50830 Villanueva de Gállego, Zaragoza, Spain;
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Beato M, Maroto-Izquierdo S, Hernández-Davó JL, Raya-González J. Flywheel Training Periodization in Team Sports. Front Physiol 2021; 12:732802. [PMID: 34819871 PMCID: PMC8606557 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.732802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Beato
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom.,Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
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Contemporary practices of strength and conditioning coaches in professional soccer. Biol Sport 2021; 38:377-390. [PMID: 34475621 PMCID: PMC8329977 DOI: 10.5114/biolsport.2021.99328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study describes the contemporary practices of strength and conditioning coaches in professional soccer. Fifty-two strength and conditioning coaches from professional leagues across 18 countries completed an online survey, consisting of 45 questions, with eight sections: (a) background information, (b) muscular strength and power development, (c) speed development, (d) plyometrics, (e) flexibility development, (f) physical testing, (g) technology use, and (h) programing. A frequency analysis was used to assess and report responses to fixed response questions, and thematic-analysis used for open-ended questions to create clear, identifiable and distinct themes. All strength and conditioning coaches were educated to degree level or higher, 65% held strength and conditioning certifications and 54% held soccer coaching certifications. Concentric (100%) and eccentric (98%) modes of resistance were the most commonly prescribed, whereas the squat (including variations) (52%) was deemed the most important exercise for soccer players. Hang clean (33%) and multiple hops/lunges (89%) were the most programed Olympic weightlifting and plyometric exercises. Global Positioning Systems (94%) were the most utilized technology-based equipment. Time, scheduling and fixtures were the biggest issues faced, which made it difficult to periodize training programs and apply appropriate training loads. Furthermore, strength and conditioning coaches would like to further integrate technology to comprehensively monitor and test players, while also believing that technology will continue to be developed and integrated in the future. Strength and conditioning coaches from professional soccer can use the information from this study to review current practices and also provide ideas for diversifying or modifying future practices.
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Boykin JR, Tinsley GM, Harrison CM, Prather J, Zaragoza J, Tinnin M, Smith S, Wilson C, Taylor LW. Offseason Body Composition Changes Detected by Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry versus Multifrequency Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis in Collegiate American Football Athletes. Sports (Basel) 2021; 9:112. [PMID: 34437373 PMCID: PMC8402408 DOI: 10.3390/sports9080112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Tracking changes in body composition may provide key information about the effectiveness of training programs for athletes. This study reports on the agreement between bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) for tracking body composition changes during a seven-week offseason training program in 29 NCAA collegiate American football players. Body composition in subjects (mean ± SD; age: 19.7 ± 1.5 y; height: 179.8 ± 6.6 cm; body mass (BM: 96.1 ± 12.6 kg; DXA body fat: 20.9 ± 4.4%) was estimated using BIA (InBody 770) and DXA (Hologic Horizon) before and after the training intervention. Repeated measures ANOVA and post hoc comparisons were performed. Longitudinal agreement between methods was also examined by concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) and Bland-Altman analysis alongside linear regression to identify bias. Significant method by time interactions were observed for BM (DXA: 1.1 ± 2.4 kg; BIA: 1.4 ± 2.5 kg; p < 0.03), arms fat-free mass (FFM) (DXA: 0.4 ± 0.5 kg; BIA: 0.2 ± 0.4 kg; p < 0.03), and legs FFM (DXA: 0.6 ± 1.1 kg; BIA: 0.1 ± 0.6 kg; p < 0.01). Post hoc comparisons indicated that DXA-but not BIA-detected increases in FFM of the arms and legs. Time main effects, but no method by time interactions, were observed for total FFM (DXA: 1.6 ± 1.9 kg; BIA: 1.2 ± 2.1 kg; p = 0.004) and trunk FFM (DXA: 0.7 ± 1.3 kg; BIA: 0.5 ± 1.0 kg; p = 0.02). Changes in total BM (CCC = 0.96), FFM (CCC = 0.49), and fat mass (CCC = 0.50) were significantly correlated between BIA and DXA. DXA and BIA may similarly track increases in whole-body FFM in American collegiate football players; however, BIA may possess less sensitivity in detecting segmental FFM increases, particularly in the appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake R. Boykin
- Energy Balance & Body Composition Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology & Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA; (J.R.B.); (G.M.T.)
| | - Grant M. Tinsley
- Energy Balance & Body Composition Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology & Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA; (J.R.B.); (G.M.T.)
| | - Christine M. Harrison
- Human Performance Laboratory, School of Exercise & Sport Science, University of Mary Hardin-Baylor, Belton, TX 76513, USA; (C.M.H.); (J.P.); (M.T.); (S.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Jessica Prather
- Human Performance Laboratory, School of Exercise & Sport Science, University of Mary Hardin-Baylor, Belton, TX 76513, USA; (C.M.H.); (J.P.); (M.T.); (S.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Javier Zaragoza
- School of Kinesiology, Applied Health and Recreation, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA;
| | - Matthias Tinnin
- Human Performance Laboratory, School of Exercise & Sport Science, University of Mary Hardin-Baylor, Belton, TX 76513, USA; (C.M.H.); (J.P.); (M.T.); (S.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Shay Smith
- Human Performance Laboratory, School of Exercise & Sport Science, University of Mary Hardin-Baylor, Belton, TX 76513, USA; (C.M.H.); (J.P.); (M.T.); (S.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Camden Wilson
- Human Performance Laboratory, School of Exercise & Sport Science, University of Mary Hardin-Baylor, Belton, TX 76513, USA; (C.M.H.); (J.P.); (M.T.); (S.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Lem W. Taylor
- Human Performance Laboratory, School of Exercise & Sport Science, University of Mary Hardin-Baylor, Belton, TX 76513, USA; (C.M.H.); (J.P.); (M.T.); (S.S.); (C.W.)
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22
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Cormier P, Freitas TT, Seaman K. A systematic review of resistance training methodologies for the development of lower body concentric mean power, peak power, and mean propulsive power in team-sport athletes. Sports Biomech 2021:1-34. [PMID: 34346844 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2021.1948601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to systematically review training methods prescribed to develop lower-body power, determine their effectiveness for the development of lower-body mechanical power and their implementation in an annual training cycle amongst team-sport athletes. The absolute and relative outcome values of concentric mean power, peak power and mean propulsive power were extracted from 19 studies. Outcomes were assessed using baseline to post intervention percent change, effect sizes, and the level of evidence concerning the method's effectiveness. A thorough analysis of the literature indicated that, based on the high level of evidence, traditional (e.g., strength training alone) and combination training (e.g., complex and contrast) methods should be considered. Further, optimal load and velocity-based training can be implemented if coaches have access to the appropriate equipment to monitor movement velocity and mechanical power in every session. This is of particular importance in periods of the season where high volumes of technical-tactical training and congested fixture periods are present. Also, flywheel, eccentric overload and weightlifting methods have been shown to be effective although the level of evidence is low. Future research should expand on current training practices whilst adequately reporting actual training loads from sport-specific training and games alongside strength-power training protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Cormier
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
| | - Tomás T Freitas
- UCAM Research Center for High Performance Sport - Catholic University of Murcia, UCAM, Spain
- NAR - Nucleus of High Performance in Sport, São Paulo, Brazil
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Catholic University of Murcia, UCAM, Murcia, Spain
| | - Kenneth Seaman
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
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23
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Allen WJC, De Keijzer KL, Raya-González J, Castillo D, Coratella G, Beato M. Chronic effects of flywheel training on physical capacities in soccer players: a systematic review. Res Sports Med 2021; 31:228-248. [PMID: 34315310 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2021.1958813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The aims of the current systematic review were to evaluate the current literature surrounding the chronic effect of flywheel training on the physical capacities of soccer players, and to identify areas for future research to establish guidelines for its use.Studies were identified following a search of electronic databases (PubMed and SPORTDiscus) in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Protocols (PRISMA).Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria and were included. The methodological quality of the included studies ranged between 10 and 18 with an average score of 15 points using the PEDro scale. The training duration ranged from 6 weeks to 27 weeks, with volume ranging from 1 to 6 sets and 6 to 10 repetitions, and frequency from 1 to 2 times a week. This systematic review reported that a diverse range of flywheel training interventions can effectively improve strength, power, jump, and changes of direction in male soccer players of varying levels.Flywheel training interventions improve the physical capacities of soccer players of varying levels. Nonetheless, the current literature suggests contrasting evidence regarding flywheel training induced changes in sprint speed and acceleration capacity of soccer players.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J C Allen
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, UK
| | - Kevin L De Keijzer
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, UK
| | | | - Daniel Castillo
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Isabel I, Burgos, Spain
| | - Giuseppe Coratella
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Italy
| | - Marco Beato
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, UK
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24
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Implementing Strength Training Strategies for Injury Prevention in Soccer: Scientific Rationale and Methodological Recommendations. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:456-461. [DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Due to the negative effects that injuries have on performance, club finances, and long-term player health (permanent disability after a severe injury), prevention strategies are an essential part of both sports medicine and performance. Purpose: To summarize the current evidence regarding strength training for injury prevention in soccer and to inform its evidence-based implementation in research and applied settings. Conclusions: The contemporary literature suggests that strength training, proposed as traditional resistance, eccentric, and flywheel training, may be a valid method to reduce injury risk in soccer players. Training strategies involving multiple components (eg, a combination of strength, balance, plyometrics) that include strength exercises are effective at reducing noncontact injuries in female soccer players. In addition, the body of research currently published supports the use of eccentric training in sports, which offers unique physiological responses compared with other resistance exercise modalities. It seems that the Nordic hamstring exercise, in particular, is a viable option for the reduction of hamstring injuries in soccer players. Moreover, flywheel training has specific training peculiarities and advantages that are related to the combination of both concentric and eccentric contraction, which may play an important role in injury prevention. It is the authors’ opinion that strength and conditioning coaches should integrate the strength training methods proposed here in their weekly training routine to reduce the likelihood of injuries in their players; however, further research is needed to verify the advantages and disadvantages of these training methods to injury prevention using specific cohorts of soccer players.
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25
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Drury B, Clarke H, Moran J, Fernandes JFT, Henry G, Behm DG. Eccentric Resistance Training in Youth: A Survey of Perceptions and Current Practices by Strength and Conditioning Coaches. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2021; 6:21. [PMID: 33670687 PMCID: PMC8006255 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk6010021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Eccentric resistance training (ERT) in youth is advocated for aiding performance and injury risk. However, research investigating the applied practices of ERT in youth is in its infancy. In this study, we surveyed the perceptions and practices of practitioners utilizing ERT in youth to provide an understanding of its current application in practice. METHODS Sixty-four strength and conditioning coaches completed an online survey reporting their current use of ERT in youth using both open and closed questions. RESULTS Coaches deemed the inclusion of ERT important in youth with its inclusion based upon factors such as maturation status, training age and strength levels. Coaches also displayed an awareness of the physiological responses to eccentric exercise in youth compared to adults. ERT was primarily used for injury prevention, with the majority of coaches using body-weight and tempo exercises. Furthermore, utilizing eccentric hamstrings exercises was reported as highly important. The frequency of ERT tended to increase in older age groups and coaches mainly prescribed self-selected rest intervals. Finally, the need for further research into the training guidelines of ERT in youth was highlighted, in which coaches require more information on how maturation influences training adaptations and the fatigue-recovery responses. CONCLUSION Coaches emphasized the importance of including ERT for both performance and injury prevention factors in youth although further research is required to generate practical guidelines for coaches in order to support its inclusion within practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Drury
- Department of Applied Sport Sciences, Hartpury University, Gloucestershire GL19 3BE, UK; (H.C.); (J.F.T.F.); (G.H.)
| | - Hannah Clarke
- Department of Applied Sport Sciences, Hartpury University, Gloucestershire GL19 3BE, UK; (H.C.); (J.F.T.F.); (G.H.)
| | - Jason Moran
- School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK;
| | - John F. T. Fernandes
- Department of Applied Sport Sciences, Hartpury University, Gloucestershire GL19 3BE, UK; (H.C.); (J.F.T.F.); (G.H.)
| | - Greg Henry
- Department of Applied Sport Sciences, Hartpury University, Gloucestershire GL19 3BE, UK; (H.C.); (J.F.T.F.); (G.H.)
| | - David G. Behm
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, NL A1C 5S7, Canada;
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26
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Suarez-Arrones L, Nakamura FY, Maldonado RA, Torreno N, Di Salvo V, Mendez-Villanueva A. Applying a holistic hamstring injury prevention approach in elite football: 12 seasons, single club study. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2021; 31:861-874. [PMID: 33382128 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The aim was to investigate the preventive effect of a complex training program based on holistic hamstring health understanding in elite professional soccer players. This study involved an elite club in Europe and was conducted over 12 seasons. The last 2 seasons were the intervention period, and the others were the control seasons. During the intervention period, players performed a complex program organized into different interventions throughout the week having as a priority the player health. Hamstring injuries, absenteeism, injury rates, and injury burden between the control and intervention seasons were compared using a rate ratio (RR) with 95% CI. Players had a mean exposure of 333.5 ± 18.6 hours per season with no significant differences between the intervention and control seasons. The overall injury rate was 3 times lower during the two intervention seasons than during the previous seasons (P < .01); the match injury rate was 2.7 times lower (P < .01) and the training rate 4.3 times (P < .01). Injury burden was almost 4 times lower during the two intervention seasons than during the previous seasons (P < .01), and recurrences in the control group were 10% vs 0% in the intervention group. Hamstring injuries were reduced ~3 times during the seasons in which elite football players were exposed to multicomponent, complex prevention training with individual approaches based on player needs, management of training load, individualized physiotherapy treatment, and planned staff communication, in comparison to the control seasons without a clearly defined and structured injury prevention intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Suarez-Arrones
- Department of Sport and Informatics, Section of Physical Education and Sport, Pablo de Olavide University, Sevilla, Spain.,Performance and Health Department, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fábio Yuzo Nakamura
- Associate Graduate Program in Physical Education UPE/UFPB, João Pessoa, Brazil.,Research Centre in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development, CIDESD, University Institute of Maia, ISMAI, Maia, Portugal
| | | | - Nacho Torreno
- Performance and Health Department, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Valter Di Salvo
- Football Performance & Science Department, ASPIRE Academy, Doha, Qatar.,Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
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27
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Raya-González J, Castillo D, de Keijzer KL, Beato M. The effect of a weekly flywheel resistance training session on elite U-16 soccer players' physical performance during the competitive season. A randomized controlled trial. Res Sports Med 2021; 29:571-585. [PMID: 33401975 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2020.1870978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of a weekly flywheel resistance training session over a 10-week period on U16 soccer players' physical performance with special attention to change of direction ability (e.g., deficit [CODdef]). Twenty elite young soccer players were assigned to an experimental (EG, n = 10) or control (CG, n = 10) group. Unilateral countermovement jumps with dominant (CMJd) and non-dominant (CMJnd) leg, 10, 20, and 30-m linear sprint test and change of direction sprint test in 5 + 5 (COD10) and 10 + 10 m (COD20) were performed before and after flywheel training period. Significant within-group differences were found in CG in COD10 (p = 0.01; effect size [ES] = large) and CODdef10 (p = 0.03; ES = small) with dominant leg, while differences in EG were observed in CMJ (p = 0.001-0.01; ES = moderate-large) and in all COD and CODdef variables (p = 0.001-0.04; ES = large). Between-groups analysis revealed differences in favour of the EG in CMJ (p = 0.03-0.05) and COD and CODdef variables (p = 0.001-0.05). These findings suggest a weekly flywheel training session is suitable for improving jumping and COD abilities in U16 elite soccer players in season.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Castillo
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Isabel I, Burgos, Spain
| | | | - Marco Beato
- School of Health and Sports Science, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, UK
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28
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di Cagno A, Iuliano E, Buonsenso A, Giombini A, Di Martino G, Parisi A, Calcagno G, Fiorilli G. Effects of Accentuated Eccentric Training vs Plyometric Training on Performance of Young Elite Fencers. J Sports Sci Med 2020; 19:703-713. [PMID: 33239944 PMCID: PMC7675629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of 6-weeks accentuated eccentric training, using a rotary inertial device, on range of motion, assessed with Inter Malleolar Distance test, anthropometry, lower limb explosive and reactive strength, assessed with Squat Jump, Countermovement Jump and 7-Repeated Hop tests, in young elite fencers. Moreover, the effects on hamstring eccentric strength and two technical fencing movements, lunge and advance-advance lunge, were evaluated with motion analysis. The second aim was to evaluate the duration of the accentuated eccentric training residual effects, 6 weeks after the end of the training. Fifty-four male fencers were randomly assigned either to the Inertial Group (IG; n = 26; aged 17.3 ± 1.9 years) such as experimental group, or to the Plyometric Group (PG; n = 28; aged 17.6 ± 2.7 years) such as control group. IG carried out four exercises using the rotary inertial device attached to their waist by a rope. PG carried out several plyometric exercises at the same time in which the IG performed the accentuated eccentric training. MANOVA showed significant improvements in the vertical jumps height post training, with no differences between IG and PG. Significant improvements for technical movements, lunge distance (p = 0.006) and advance-advance lunge distance (p = 0.00005), were found within-group and between-groups (p = 0.00001), with higher improvements in IG than in PG. The univariate analysis showed a significant improvement in lower limb range of motion with higher increase in IG than in PG. The main findings were the significant improvement in lunge and advance-advance lunge distance, maintaining with the same execution time. These results suggested that it is important to apply accentuated eccentric load on specific sport movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra di Cagno
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Enzo Iuliano
- University eCampus, Department of Psychology, Novedrate (Como), Italy
| | - Andrea Buonsenso
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Arrigo Giombini
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Giulia Di Martino
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Attilio Parisi
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Calcagno
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Giovanni Fiorilli
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
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29
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Fiorilli G, Quinzi F, Buonsenso A, Di Martino G, Centorbi M, Giombini A, Calcagno G, di Cagno A. Does Warm-up Type Matter? A Comparison between Traditional and Functional Inertial Warm-up in Young Soccer Players. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2020; 5:jfmk5040084. [PMID: 33467299 PMCID: PMC7739264 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk5040084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional inertial training, a popular high-intensity training mode, provides high neuromuscular activation, developing proprioception, postural control, power, and sprint time. Aim of the study was to assess the acute effects of two types of warm-up (WU), inertial warm-up (IWU) vs. traditional warm-up (TWU), on explosive and reactive strength, sprint, and Change of Directions (COD) in young soccer players. In a randomized cross-over design study, twelve soccer players (aged 13.3 ± 0.7) performed 16 min of IWU and 16 min of TWU. IWU and TWU were spaced two weeks apart. Pre and post intervention tests, aimed at assessing explosive and reactive strength, sprint, and COD ability included: Squat Jump test (SJ), Countermovement Jump test (CMJ), Drop Jump test (DJ), Seven Repetition Hopping test (7R-HOP), 40 m-sprint test (40 m), and Illinois Agility Test (IAT). RM-ANOVA, used to compare differences between IWU and TWU effects (the level of significance set at ρ ≤ 0.05), showed enhanced performance after the IWU compared to the TWU. In addition, the effects of the IWU on performance lasted longer after the IWU than after the TWU. For IAT, the enhanced effects of IWU on performance lasted up to ten minutes after the administration of the IWU. Our results suggest that IWU affects functional changes displaying earlier adaptation in explosive and reactive strength with longer lasting effects compared to TWU and it could be recommended in young soccer athletes as a WU procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Fiorilli
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, v. De Sanctis 1, 86100 Campobasso, Italy; (G.F.); (G.C.)
| | - Federico Quinzi
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Lauro de Bosis Square, 15, 00197 Rome, Italy; (F.Q.); (G.D.M.); (M.C.); (A.G.); (A.d.C.)
| | - Andrea Buonsenso
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, v. De Sanctis 1, 86100 Campobasso, Italy; (G.F.); (G.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-327-3804241
| | - Giulia Di Martino
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Lauro de Bosis Square, 15, 00197 Rome, Italy; (F.Q.); (G.D.M.); (M.C.); (A.G.); (A.d.C.)
| | - Marco Centorbi
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Lauro de Bosis Square, 15, 00197 Rome, Italy; (F.Q.); (G.D.M.); (M.C.); (A.G.); (A.d.C.)
| | - Arrigo Giombini
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Lauro de Bosis Square, 15, 00197 Rome, Italy; (F.Q.); (G.D.M.); (M.C.); (A.G.); (A.d.C.)
| | - Giuseppe Calcagno
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, v. De Sanctis 1, 86100 Campobasso, Italy; (G.F.); (G.C.)
| | - Alessandra di Cagno
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Lauro de Bosis Square, 15, 00197 Rome, Italy; (F.Q.); (G.D.M.); (M.C.); (A.G.); (A.d.C.)
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30
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Inertial flywheel knee- and hip-dominant hamstring strength exercises in professional soccer players: Muscle use and velocity-based (mechanical) eccentric overload. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0239977. [PMID: 33007010 PMCID: PMC7531833 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0239977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The primary aim of the present study was to analyze mechanical responses during inertial knee- and hip-dominant hamstring strengthening exercises (flywheel leg-curl and hip-extension in conic-pulley), and the secondary aim was to measure and compare regional muscle use using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Mean power, peak power, mean velocity, peak velocity and time in the concentric (CON) and eccentric (ECC) phases were measured. The transverse relaxation time (T2) shift from pre- to post-exercise were calculated for the biceps femoris long (BFl) and short (BFs) heads, semitendinosus (ST) and semimembranosus (SM) muscles at proximal, middle and distal areas of the muscle length. Peak and mean power in flywheel leg-curl were higher during the CON than the ECC phase (p<0.01). ECC peak power was higher than CON phase (p<0.01) in conic-pulley hip-extension exercise, while mean power was higher during the CON than ECC phase (p<0.01). Flywheel leg-curl showed a higher T2 values in ST and BFs and BFl (p<0.05), while the conic-pulley hip-extension had a higher T2 values in the proximal region of the ST and BFl (p<0.05). In conclusion, ECC overload was only observed in peak power during the conic-pulley hip-extension exercise. Flywheel leg-curl involved a greater overall use of the 4 muscle bellies, more specifically in the ST and BFs, with a selective augmented activity (compared with the conic-pulley) in the 3 regions of the BFs, while conic-pulley hip-extension exercise selectively targeted the proximal and medial regions of the BFl. Physiotherapists and strength and conditioning coaches should consider this when optimizing the training and recovery process for hamstring muscles, especially after injury.
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31
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Beato M, Dello Iacono A. Implementing Flywheel (Isoinertial) Exercise in Strength Training: Current Evidence, Practical Recommendations, and Future Directions. Front Physiol 2020; 11:569. [PMID: 32581845 PMCID: PMC7283738 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Beato
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
| | - Antonio Dello Iacono
- Institute of Clinical Exercise and Health Science, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Hamilton, United Kingdom
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32
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Raya-González J, Castillo D, Beato M. The Flywheel Paradigm in Team Sports: A Soccer Approach. Strength Cond J 2020. [DOI: 10.1519/ssc.0000000000000561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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33
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Fiorilli G, Mariano I, Iuliano E, Giombini A, Ciccarelli A, Buonsenso A, Calcagno G, di Cagno A. Isoinertial Eccentric-Overload Training in Young Soccer Players: Effects on Strength, Sprint, Change of Direction, Agility and Soccer Shooting Precision. J Sports Sci Med 2020; 19:213-223. [PMID: 32132845 PMCID: PMC7039027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The isoinertial training method owes its efficacy to an accommodated resistance and optimal individualized eccentric overload. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of a 6-week isoinertial eccentric-overload training program - using a flywheel inertial device during the execution of specific soccer exercises - on explosive and reactive strength, sprint ability, change of direction (COD) performance and soccer shooting precision. Thirty-four junior soccer players were randomly assigned to a plyometric training group (PT) (n = 16, aged 13.36 ± 0.80), which underwent a six-week traditional soccer training program, and a flywheel eccentric overload group (FEO) (n = 18, aged 13.21 ± 1.21), which received additional training consisting of two inertial eccentric-overload training sessions per week. Pre and post intervention tests were carried out to assess explosive and reactive strength, sprint ability, COD ability, agility using the Y-agility test (YT) and soccer shooting precision. The FEO showed significantly higher values than the PT in squat jump height (SJh) (p = 0.01), drop jump height (DJh) (p = 0.003), 7 repeated hop test heights (p = 0.001), the Illinois test (ILL) (p = 0.001), and the Loughborough Soccer Shooting Test (SHOT) (p = 0.02). Finally, the FEO showed significant between-group differences in DJh (p = 0.007), ILL (p = 0.0002), YT (p = 0.002), a linear sprint test (SPRINT) (p = 0.001), and SHOT (p = 0.003). These results confirmed the positive effect of isoinertial training. The use of an isoinertial device to overload multidirectional movements in specific sport conditions leads to greater performance improvements than conventional soccer training. The absence of knowledge of the eccentric overload applied by the isoinertial device, which is different in any exercise repetition, may stimulate the athlete's neural adaptations, improving their soccer skills and in particular their soccer shooting precision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Fiorilli
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Intrieri Mariano
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Enzo Iuliano
- Faculty of Psychology, eCampus University, Novedrate, Italy
| | - Arrigo Giombini
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Italian University of Sport and Movement of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Antonello Ciccarelli
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Italian University of Sport and Movement of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Buonsenso
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Calcagno
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Alessandra di Cagno
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Italian University of Sport and Movement of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
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McNeill C, Beaven CM, McMaster DT, Gill N. Eccentric Training Interventions and Team Sport Athletes. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2019; 4:jfmk4040067. [PMID: 33467382 PMCID: PMC7739426 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk4040067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Eccentric resistance training has been shown to improve performance outcomes in a range of populations, making it a popular choice for practitioners. Evidence suggests that neuromuscular adaptations resulting from eccentric overload (EO) and accentuated eccentric loading (AEL) methods could benefit athletic populations competing in team sports. The purpose of this review was to determine the effects of eccentric resistance training on performance qualities in trained male team sport athletes. A systematic review was conducted using electronic databases PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science in May 2019. The literature search resulted in 1402 initial articles, with 14 included in the final analysis. Variables related to strength, speed, power and change of direction ability were extracted and effect sizes were calculated with a correction for small sample size. Trivial, moderate and large effect sizes were reported for strength (-0.17 to 1.67), speed (-0.08 to 1.06), power (0.27 to 1.63) and change of direction (0.48 to 1.46) outcomes. Eccentric resistance training appears to be an effective stimulus for developing neuromuscular qualities in trained male team sport athletes. However, the range of effect sizes, testing protocols and training interventions suggest that more research is needed to better implement this type of training in athletic populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor McNeill
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Centre, The University of Waikato, 3116 Tauranga, New Zealand (D.T.M.); (N.G.)
- Correspondence:
| | - C. Martyn Beaven
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Centre, The University of Waikato, 3116 Tauranga, New Zealand (D.T.M.); (N.G.)
| | - Daniel T. McMaster
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Centre, The University of Waikato, 3116 Tauranga, New Zealand (D.T.M.); (N.G.)
- New Zealand Rugby Union, 6011 Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Nicholas Gill
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Centre, The University of Waikato, 3116 Tauranga, New Zealand (D.T.M.); (N.G.)
- New Zealand Rugby Union, 6011 Wellington, New Zealand
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Suarez-Arrones L, Lara-Lopez P, Maldonado R, Torreno N, De Hoyo M, Nakamura FY, Di Salvo V, Mendez-Villanueva A. The effects of detraining and retraining periods on fat-mass and fat-free mass in elite male soccer players. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7466. [PMID: 31423358 PMCID: PMC6697042 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study was to examine the effects of a detraining period (DTP) (i.e., off-season) with an individually prescribed training program, and a retraining period (RTP) (i.e., pre-season) combining soccer and flywheel-based strength training on fat-free mass (FFM) and fat-mass (FM) in 10 elite professional male soccer players. The present study used a controlled repeated-measures research design to investigate the changes in FFM and FM using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Whole body %FM increased (effect size (ES) = 0.87 ± 0.46) and FFM reduced after DTP (ES = −0.30 ± 0.19), returning to values comparable to the end of the previous season after RTP. At regional levels, arms, legs, and trunk %FM increased (ES = from 0.42 to 1.29) while trunk-FFM was reduced (ES = −0.40 ± 0.26) after DTP, returning to the values observed at the end of the previous season after RTP. Legs-FFM did not change after DTP, with a substantial increase after RTP in comparison with pre-season values (ES = 0.34 ± 0.29 and 0.53 ± 0.36 for the right and left leg, respectively). Despite the small sample size of the present study, the findings indicate that elite soccer players can be allowed 2 weeks of rest during a five-week DTP, since the changes in %FM and FFM were relatively small, and FM and FFM returned to the optimal initial values for competition after the proposed RTP during the pre-season.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Suarez-Arrones
- Department of Sport and Informatics, Section of Physical Education and Sport, Pablo de Olavide University, Sevilla, Spain.,Performance Department, FC Basel 1893, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pilar Lara-Lopez
- Football Science Department, Pablo de Olavide University, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Rafael Maldonado
- Sports Science Department, FC Girondins de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Nacho Torreno
- Performance Department, FC Basel 1893, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Fabio Yuzo Nakamura
- The College of Healthcare Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia.,Associate Graduate Program in Physical Education UPE/UFPB, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Valter Di Salvo
- Football Performance & Science Department, Aspire Academy, Doha, Qatar.,Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
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Franchi MV, Maffiuletti NA. Distinct modalities of eccentric exercise: different recipes, not the same dish. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2019; 127:881-883. [PMID: 31070957 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00093.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Martino V Franchi
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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Suarez-Arrones L, Lara-Lopez P, Torreno N, Saez de Villarreal E, Di Salvo V, Mendez-Villanueva A. Effects of Strength Training on Body Composition in Young Male Professional Soccer Players. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:sports7050104. [PMID: 31060280 PMCID: PMC6571943 DOI: 10.3390/sports7050104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Revised: 04/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The present prospective cohort study investigated changes in body composition (BC) in young male football players (n = 18, 16.1 ± 0.8 years; 181.0 ± 0.1 cm; 71.3 ± 4.9 kg) after combined football and strength training (ST) during a whole in-season period (26 weeks). BC was measured at whole-body absolute and regional levels by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in eighteen players at the beginning and at the end of the competitive period. The ST was organized into three different session types: ST in the gym, specific ST on the field, and individual ST (weak points). The results of the present study indicated that fat-free mass (FFM) was substantially higher following the competitive period (5.1% ± 1.2%), while percentage of fat showed no changes during the competitive period. At the regional level, arms’ and legs’ FFM increased at the end of the season, and bone mineral content (BMC) and density (BMD) increased in arms, legs, pelvis, thoracic spine, and lumbar spine. In conclusion, within the limitation of the potential positive impact of growth and/or maturation, present results seem to indicate that an ST program that supplements football-related training sessions could be an effective option to increase FFM, BMC, and BMD at both whole-body and regional level across the competitive season in young male professional football players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Suarez-Arrones
- Performance Department, FC Basel 1893, 4002 Basel, Switzerland.
- Department of Football & Science, Pablo de Olavide University, 41013 Sevilla, Spain.
| | - Pilar Lara-Lopez
- Performance Department, FC Basel 1893, 4002 Basel, Switzerland.
- Department of Football & Science, Pablo de Olavide University, 41013 Sevilla, Spain.
| | - Nacho Torreno
- Performance Department, FC Basel 1893, 4002 Basel, Switzerland.
| | | | - Valter Di Salvo
- Football Performance & Science Department, ASPIRE Academy, 22287 Doha, Qatar.
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", 00135 Roma, Italy.
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Weakley J, Fernández-Valdés B, Thomas L, Ramirez-Lopez C, Jones B. Criterion Validity of Force and Power Outputs for a Commonly Used Flywheel Resistance Training Device and Bluetooth App. J Strength Cond Res 2019; 33:1180-1184. [PMID: 30908378 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Weakley, J, Fernández-Valdés, B, Thomas, L, Ramirez-Lopez, C, and Jones, B. Criterion validity of force and power outputs for a commonly used flywheel resistance training device and bluetooth app. J Strength Cond Res 33(5): 1180-1184, 2019-Flywheels are a resistance training device that can increase lean body mass, strength, and power. However, because of their unique design and the inertia from the concentric portion directly relating to the force that is applied during the eccentric portion, monitoring the training stimulus can be difficult. Consequently, the aim of this study was to assess the validity of the kMeter app for quantifying force and power at a range of different isoinertial loads from a flywheel training device when compared against a criterion measure. Eleven subjects volunteered to take part in this study, with subjects completing between 5 and 35 repetitions of the harness squat with 0.05, 0.10, 0.15 kg·m isoinertial load. A synchronized dual force plate and tricamera optoelectronic setup was used as the criterion measure to calculate force and power output, while the kMeter app was used as the practical measure. Very large to nearly perfect relationships were observed between the 2 measures, with trivial to moderate bias reported. In addition, typical error of the estimate (TEE) was found to be <10% at all isoinertial loads. These findings suggest that the kMeter app, when used in conjunction with the kBox flywheel device, demonstrates acceptable levels of validity. However, because of the TEE, the kMeter app may not be able to accurately detect small differences and therefore be suitable for research purposes. These findings suggest that the kMeter app is an acceptable method of monitoring flywheel resistance training. Furthermore, it is advised that practitioners use mean power rather than mean force.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathon Weakley
- Institute for Sport, Physical Activity and Leisure, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
- Yorkshire Carnegie Rugby Union Club, Kirkstall Training Ground, Leeds Rugby Academy, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | | | - Liam Thomas
- Institute for Sport, Physical Activity and Leisure, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Carlos Ramirez-Lopez
- Institute for Sport, Physical Activity and Leisure, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
- Yorkshire Carnegie Rugby Union Club, Kirkstall Training Ground, Leeds Rugby Academy, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Ben Jones
- Institute for Sport, Physical Activity and Leisure, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
- Yorkshire Carnegie Rugby Union Club, Kirkstall Training Ground, Leeds Rugby Academy, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
- Leeds Rhinos Rugby Club, Headingley Carnegie Stadium, Leeds, United Kingdom
- The Rugby Football League, Red Hall, Leeds, United Kingdom
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