Group flow: A scoping review of definitions, theoretical approaches, measures and findings

United agency in joint action: A survey study of its prevalence, facilitating factors, and social and emotional effects

United agency refers to a sense of 'acting as one' that sometimes occurs when people engage in joint actions such as group music-making, dancing, and team sports. First-hand accounts of united agency have been reported in a variety of settings, but there exists little systematic evidence regarding when and why the sense of united agency arises. The current study addressed this gap using an online survey in which participants reported general information about their experiences of united agency as well as detailed descriptions of a single memorable experience. Most participants reported experiencing united agency at least occasionally, and those scoring higher on extraversion, agreeableness, and cognitive empathy experienced it more frequently. Memorable experiences of united agency were reported more often in joint actions characterized by synchronous or highly rhythmic coordination, salient shared goals, close or long-term relationships among co-performers, and small to medium group sizes. United agency was often accompanied by positive affect, feelings of alignment and social connection with co-performers, a sense of empowerment, and heightened attention. Together, these findings elucidate the individual characteristics and joint action features that facilitate united agency, shed light on its positive social and emotional consequences, and suggest important avenues for further work investigating its underlying mechanisms.

Psycho-physio-neurological correlates of qualitative attention, emotion and flow experiences in a close-to-real-life extreme sports situation: low- and high-altitude slackline walking

It has been indicated that extreme sport activities result in a highly rewarding experience, despite also providing fear, stress and anxiety. Studies have related this experience to the concept of flow, a positive feeling that individuals undergo when they are completely immersed in an activity. However, little is known about the exact nature of these experiences, and, there are still no empirical results to characterize the brain dynamics during extreme sport practice. This work aimed at investigating changes in psychological responses while recording physiological (heart rate-HR, and breathing rate-BR) and neural (electroencephalographic-EEG) data of eight volunteers, during outdoors slackline walking in a mountainous environment at two different altitude conditions (1 m-low-walk- and 45 m-high-walk-from the ground). Low-walk showed a higher score on flow scale, while high-walk displayed a higher score in the negative affect aspects, which together point to some level of flow restriction during high-walk. The order of task performance was shown to be relevant for the physiological and neural variables. The brain behavior during flow, mainly considering attention networks, displayed the stimulus-driven ventral attention network-VAN, regionally prevailing (mainly at the frontal lobe), over the goal-directed dorsal attention network-DAN. Therefore, we suggest an interpretation of flow experiences as an opened attention to more changing details in the surroundings, i.e., configured as a 'task-constantly-opened-to-subtle-information experience', rather than a 'task-focused experience'.

Physiological synchrony and shared flow state in Javanese gamelan: positively associated while improvising, but not for traditional performance

The experience of shared flow refers to the optimal balance between challenge and ability for a given task, resulting from interpersonal action in a group situation. The performance of Javanese gamelan is an ideal setting to investigate shared flow, due to the requirement that all performers on varying instrumental parts work harmoniously, allowing for shared flow and its native equivalent, ngeli. To minimise the disruption of flow, while still measuring it continuously, one way to assess a person's state is by measuring physiological responses of the sympathetic (i.e., fight-or-flight) system, namely heart rate and skin conductance. Flow has been related to physiological signatures, and shared actions in music-making have been related to synchronised physiology. However, to our knowledge, no study yet has directly investigated the links between shared physiology and shared flow. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the associations between flow states, physiological synchrony, and Javanese gamelan playing. Subsequently, we tested for differences between advanced and beginner groups playing traditional gamelan pieces and improvising. Firstly, a factor analysis revealed a two-factor solution of Awareness and Absorption for self-reported shared flow. Next, using inter-subject correlation to assess synchrony and circular shuffling to infer significance, we found a greater proportion of significance in traditional playing compared to improvised playing for the experienced group, and the opposite for the beginner group. Lastly, linear mixed models revealed largely positive associations between synchronised physiology and shared flow during improvised playing, and negative associations during traditional playing, regardless of experience levels. This study demonstrates methodological possibilities for the quantitative study of shared flow in music-making contexts, and potential differences in shared flow experience in improvised and traditional, or prescribed, playing.

Social compensation of performance drops in dyadic exercises-Two experiments testing the role of relationship quality

The purpose of this study was to analyze whether the social compensation of performance drops in a team setting depends on the relationship quality. Two experiments were conducted. Experiment 1: In a team-building condition, the relationship quality between subject and confederate was manipulated. The performance situation consisted of an isometric strength task. A joint team result had to be achieved in a second run, whereby the subject received manipulated feedback on the confederate's performance, hence suggesting a sudden drop. The results showed no compensation effect. Experiment 2: Given that one potential reason for the lack of effect appeared to be the isometric holding task, the study design was maintained, but the task was modified into a dynamic one. Performance drops were compensated for. However, the relationship quality did not affect compensation behavior. It is possible that implicit team building through the necessary joint agreement on goals interfered with the effect in both conditions.

Exploring Intergroup Peer Exclusion: Validation of the Latency Social-Psychological Developmental Questionnaire (LSPD)

Intergroup peer exclusion has been studied mainly from a pathological aspect. Currently, methods of diagnosis and treatment focus on this pathological point of view. Qualitative research has revealed that social intergroup peer exclusion has a role in the developmental task of the latency stage. The study’s main aim was to develop and validate a quick and easy quantitative questionnaire for use in a school setting that reflects the social developmental variables exposed in previous qualitative research. The 32-item Latency Social-Psychological Developmental questionnaire (LSPD) and the Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Questionnaire were administered to 20 Grade 4 and Grade 5 classes at four co-ed public elementary schools (N = 373 participants). Factor analysis revealed six developmental factors, and correlations were found between these factors and loneliness. The LSPD is a tool for assessing latency stage development among children who experienced exclusion as well as the developmental status of the entire class. The LSPD can assist in identifying specific development areas to focus on in treatment and intervention.

The impact of time spent working from home on affective commitment in the workplace: The mediating role of social relationships and collective aims

Introduction

Working from home has become increasingly prevalent due to the COVID-19 pandemic, creating new challenges for organizations and employees. According to the latent deprivation model proposed by Jahoda, work provides latent benefits alongside its material rewards, and losing such benefits leads to a decline in well-being. Organizational affective commitment, or affective commitment within the organization, is a prominent concept in organizational psychology that is linked to lower workforce fluctuation and increased work performance. The present research examined the impact of time spent working from home on affective commitment by examining Jahoda's "latent functions," including social contact and collective purpose, representing an innovative application of the latent deprivation model in the context of home office.

Methods

Using an online questionnaire, we collected data from 456 participants (239 female and 217 male) who had been employed for at least 2 years and who had spent a proportion of their time working from home in March and April 2021. The data were analyzed using a path model, in which the potential adverse effect of time spent in home office on affective commitment to the workplace was mitigated by latent functions.

Results

Specifically, we found that more time spent in home office was associated with a decrease in social contact, the impact of which on affective commitment was mediated through the perception of collective purpose.

Discussion

Our findings emphasize the role of the latent benefits of work experienced by employees even when working from home, and the role of those benefits in supporting employees' commitment to the workplace. We argue that a deeper understanding of such factors is vital, as working from home is expected to remain widespread even after the pandemic.

Group‐based flow: The influence of cardiovascular synchronization and identifiability

Previous work has demonstrated the role of group-based flow in group performance and experience, but the physiological correlates of these relations are largely unknown. We examined the relation between cardiovascular synchronization, self-reported flow, and performance in a three-person online gaming task. We included measures of Heart Rate (HR), Pre-Ejection Period (PEP), and Cardiac Output (CO) as indices of task engagement and challenge (vs. threat) motivation. Group members were identifiable (i.e., visible) or anonymous during the game. Results indicated that PEP (as a marker of task engagement) and within-group synchronization in PEP, predicted flow, and that synchronization in PEP mediated the relation between group performance and experienced flow. The anonymity vs. identifiability of group members did not play a role in these effects. Results are discussed in terms of implications for flow theory, group dynamics, and physiological synchrony.

First few seconds for flow: A comprehensive proposal of the neurobiology and neurodynamics of state onset

Flow is a cognitive state that manifests when there is complete attentional absorption while performing a task. Flow occurs when certain internal as well as external conditions are present, including intense concentration, a sense of control, feedback, and a balance between the challenge of the task and the relevant skillset. Phenomenologically, flow is accompanied by a loss of self-consciousness, seamless integration of action and awareness, and acute changes in time perception. Research has begun to uncover some of the neurophysiological correlates of flow, as well as some of the state's neuromodulatory processes. We comprehensively review this work and consider the neurodynamics of the onset of the state, considering large-scale brain networks, as well as dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and endocannabinoid systems. To accomplish this, we outline an evidence-based hypothetical situation, and consider the flow state in a broader context including other profound alterations in consciousness, such as the psychedelic state and the state of traumatic stress that can induce PTSD. We present a broad theoretical framework which may motivate future testable hypotheses.

Achieving Flow: An Exploratory Investigation of Elite College Athletes and Musicians

While studies on the characteristics of flow states and their relation to peak performance exist, little is known about the dynamics by which flow states emerge and develop over time. The current paper qualitatively explores the necessary pre-conditions to enter flow, and the development of flow over time until its termination. Using an elicitation interview, participants (10 athletes and 12 musicians) were asked to recall their flow experiences in sports or music performances. The analysis resulted in the identification of the following three phases that athletes and musicians experience during flow: (1) Preparation to enter flow; (2) Entry into the flow state and; (3) Exit from the flow state. These three phases are characterized by several sub-themes contributing to the experience of flow. The function of emotions is crucial, as they play a core role across all three phases and regulate flow over time. The findings provide insights into the phenomenological characteristics of the transition and maintenance of the three proposed phases and the temporal dynamics of flow.

Team Flow Is a Unique Brain State Associated with Enhanced Information Integration and Interbrain Synchrony

Team flow occurs when a group functions in a high task engagement to achieve a goal, commonly seen in performance and sports. Team flow can enable enhanced positive experiences, as compared with individual flow or regular socializing. However, the neural basis for this enhanced behavioral state remains unclear. Here, we identified neural correlates (NCs) of team flow in human participants using a music rhythm task with electroencephalogram hyperscanning. Experimental manipulations held the motor task constant while disrupting the corresponding hedonic music to interfere with the flow state or occluding the partner's positive feedback to impede team interaction. We validated these manipulations by using psychometric ratings and an objective measure for the depth of flow experience, which uses the auditory-evoked potential (AEP) of a task-irrelevant stimulus. Spectral power analysis at both the scalp sensors and anatomic source levels revealed higher β-γ power specific to team flow in the left middle temporal cortex (L-MTC). Causal interaction analysis revealed that the L-MTC is downstream in information processing and receives information from areas encoding the flow or social states. The L-MTC significantly contributes to integrating information. Moreover, we found that team flow enhances global interbrain integrated information (II) and neural synchrony. We conclude that the NCs of team flow induce a distinct brain state. Our results suggest a neurocognitive mechanism to create this unique experience.

The Symphony of Team Flow in Virtual Teams. Using Artificial Intelligence for Its Recognition and Promotion

More and more teams are collaborating virtually across the globe, and the COVID-19 pandemic has further encouraged the dissemination of virtual teamwork. However, there are challenges for virtual teams – such as reduced informal communication – with implications for team effectiveness. Team flow is a concept with high potential for promoting team effectiveness, however its measurement and promotion are challenging. Traditional team flow measurements rely on self-report questionnaires that require interrupting the team process. Approaches in artificial intelligence, i.e., machine learning, offer methods to identify an algorithm based on behavioral and sensor data that is able to identify team flow and its dynamics over time without interrupting the process. Thus, in this article we present an approach to identify team flow in virtual teams, using machine learning methods. First of all, based on a literature review, we provide a model of team flow characteristics, composed of characteristics that are shared with individual flow and characteristics that are unique for team flow. It is argued that those characteristics that are unique for team flow are represented by the concept of collective communication. Based on that, we present physiological and behavioral correlates of team flow which are suitable – but not limited to – being assessed in virtual teams and which can be used as input data for a machine learning system to assess team flow in real time. Finally, we suggest interventions to support team flow that can be implemented in real time, in virtual environments and controlled by artificial intelligence. This article thus contributes to finding indicators and dynamics of team flow in virtual teams, to stimulate future research and to promote team effectiveness.

Prefrontal Inter-brain Synchronization Reflects Convergence and Divergence of Flow Dynamics in Collaborative Learning: A Pilot Study

Flow is a highly motivated and affectively positive state in which a person is deeply engaged in an activity and feeling enjoyment from it. In collaborative activities, it would be optimal if all participants were in a state of flow. However, flow states fluctuate amongst individuals due to differences in the dynamics of motivation and cognition. To explore the possibility that inter-brain synchronization can provide a quantitative measure of the convergence and divergence of collective motivational dynamics, we conducted a pilot study to investigate the relationship between inter-brain synchronization and the interpersonal similarity of flow state dynamics during the collaborative learning process. In two English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes, students were divided into groups of three-four and seated at desks facing each other while conducting a 60-min group work. In both classes, two groups with four members were randomly selected, and their medial prefrontal neural activities were measured simultaneously using wireless functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) devices. Later the participants observed their own activities on recorded videos and retrospectively rated their subjective degree of flow state on a seven-point scale for each 2-min period. For the pairs of students whose neural activities were measured, the similarity of their flow experience dynamics was evaluated by the temporal correlation between their flow ratings. Prefrontal inter-brain synchronization of the same student pairs during group work was evaluated using wavelet transform coherence. Statistical analyses revealed that: (1) flow dynamics were significantly more similar for the student pairs within the same group compared to the pairs of students assigned across different groups; (2) prefrontal inter-brain synchronization in the relatively short time scale (9.3-13.9 s) was significantly higher for the within-group pairs than for the cross-group pairs; and (3) the prefrontal inter-brain synchronization at the same short time scale was significantly and positively correlated with the similarity of flow dynamics, even after controlling for the effects of within- vs. cross-group pair types from the two variables. These suggest that inter-brain synchronization can indeed provide a quantitative measure for converging and diverging collective motivational dynamics during collaborative learning, with higher inter-brain synchronization corresponding to a more convergent flow experience.

A Space for Collaborative Creativity. How Collective Improvising Shapes 'a Sense of Belonging'

In this contribution, we draw on findings from a non-formal, community music project to elaborate on the relationship between the concept of eudaimonia, as defined by Seligman, the interactive dimensions of collective free improvisation, and the concept of collaborative creativity. The project revolves around The Ostend Street Orkestra (TOSO), a music ensemble within which homeless adults and individuals with a psychiatric or alcohol/drug related background engage in collective musical improvisation. Between 2017 and 2019 data was collected through open interviews and video recordings of rehearsals and performances. Participant data was analyzed through inductive analysis based on the principles of grounded theory. One interesting finding was the discrepancy in the participant interviews between social relationships indicative of a negative affect about social group interaction versus strong feelings of group coherence and belonging. Video recordings of performances and rehearsals showed clear enjoyment and pleasure while playing music. Alongside verbal reflection through one-on-one interviews video recordings and analysis of moment-to moment observations should be used, in order to capture the complexity of community music projects with homeless people. The initial open coding was aligned with the five elements of the PERMA model. Overall, we observed more focus on Relationship (sense of belonging), Engagement (flow in rehearsals and performances) and Meaning (belonging to something greater than yourself) and less on Positive Emotion and Accomplishment (goal setting).

Adaptation to Spanish and psychometric study of the Flow State Scale-2 in the field of musical performers

Flow is a positive and optimal state of mind, during which people are highly motivated and absorbed in the activity they are doing. It is an experience that can occur in any area of life. One of the measurement instruments which is most commonly used to evaluate this construct is the Flow State Scale-2 (FSS-2). This instrument has been used in different languages, mainly in the field of sport. In this research work, the FSS-2 has been translated into Spanish and administered to 486 musicians from different regions of Spain in order to examine the psychometric properties. A version which uses six dimensions from the original questionnaire has been used—those that constitute the experience of flow—and four alternative models have been analysed (Six related factors model, two second order factor models and a bifactor model).The results revealed that the dimension time could be controversial and more research could be needed. In general terms, the six-factor model (RMSEA = .04; GFI = .99; AGFI = .99) and a second-factor one (RMSEA = .033; GFI = .99; AGFI = .99) are solutions consistent with previous studies and show that the questionnaire can be considered a reliable (Alphas of the dimensions range from .81 to .94; Omegas from .86 to .97; and mean discrimination of the dimensions from .64 to .88) and useful tool, both in clinical and educational contexts, as well as an instrument for the evaluation of this construct in future research. However, the results of this study also suggest that flow can be explored in greater depth in musicians, taking into account that the writing of the original items was based on the experience of athletes and that the role of time in flow needs to be investigated.

Shared flow in teams: team vibration as emergent property, metaphor and surrogate measure

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to contribute to the literature on team management and flow theory by framing shared flow in teams (SFT) as a unique construct of much interest for team performance, as well as by proposing team vibration as a metaphor and measurable property of SFT.

Design/methodology/approach

An inductive approach is used to identify the occurrence of SFT by means of team vibration, and scale development procedures are used to offer an instrument to measure team vibration.

Findings

The current state of knowledge does not allow researchers and team leaders to assume that flow in teams depends on team members being in full flow too. Accordingly, it is shown that SFT is an emergent phenomenon of the complex interaction of team members, thus not corresponding to the mere aggregation of flow of individual team members. Moreover, it is also shown that the emergent property of team vibration is an efficient surrogate measure for SFT because it enables better communication in measurement.

Practical implications

Team managers should hire professionals that contribute to high levels of vibration in teams because this is expected to leverage desirable team processes and outcomes. Such individuals possess an ideal balance of individual and group focus. However, the authors warn that managers should be careful in assuming that individuals in full state of flow are necessary for the occurrence of flow in teams.

Originality/value

This study frames SFT as a unique construct in the literature of flow in groups, in addition to developing a metaphor and surrogate measure (team vibration) and a measurement instrument.