Human Cytomegalovirus miR-UL148D Facilitates Latent Viral Infection by Targeting Host Cell Immediate Early Response Gene 5

Human cytomegalovirus microRNAs: strategies for immune evasion and viral latency

Viruses use various strategies and mechanisms to deal with cells and proteins of the immune system that form a barrier against infection. One of these mechanisms is the encoding and production of viral microRNAs (miRNAs), whose function is to regulate the gene expression of the host cell and the virus, thus creating a suitable environment for survival and spreading viral infection. miRNAs are short, single-stranded, non-coding RNA molecules that can regulate the expression of host and viral proteins, and due to their non-immunogenic nature, they are not eliminated by the cells of the immune system. More than half of the viral miRNAs are encoded and produced by Orthoherpesviridae family members. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) produces miRNAs that mediate various processes in infected cells to contribute to HCMV pathogenicity, including immune escape, viral latency, and cell apoptosis. Here, we discuss which cellular and viral proteins or cellular pathways and processes these mysterious molecules target to evade immunity and support viral latency in infected cells. We also discuss current evidence that their function of bypassing the host's innate and adaptive immune system is essential for the survival and multiplication of the virus and the spread of HCMV infection.

MicroRNAs in infectious diseases: potential diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are conserved, short, non-coding RNAs that play a crucial role in the post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. They have been implicated in the pathogenesis of cancer and neurological, cardiovascular, and autoimmune diseases. Several recent studies have suggested that miRNAs are key players in regulating the differentiation, maturation, and activation of immune cells, thereby influencing the host immune response to infection. The resultant upregulation or downregulation of miRNAs from infection influences the protein expression of genes responsible for the immune response and can determine the risk of disease progression. Recently, miRNAs have been explored as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets in various infectious diseases. This review summarizes our current understanding of the role of miRNAs during viral, fungal, bacterial, and parasitic infections from a clinical perspective, including critical functional mechanisms and implications for their potential use as biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Current Knowledge on the Interaction of Human Cytomegalovirus Infection, Encoded miRNAs, and Acute Aortic Syndrome

Aortic dissection is a clinicopathological entity caused by rupture of the intima, leading to a high mortality if not treated. Over time, diagnostic and investigative methods, antihypertensive therapy, and early referrals have resulted in improved outcomes according to registry data. Some data have also emerged from recent studies suggesting a link between Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection and aortic dissection. Furthermore, the use of microRNAs has also become increasingly widespread in the literature. These have been noted to play a role in aortic dissections with elevated levels noted in studies as early as 2017. This review aims to provide a broad and holistic overview of the role of miRNAs, while studying the role of HCMV infection in the context of aortic dissections. The roles of long non-coding RNAs, circular RNAs, and microRNAs are explored to identify changes in expression during aortic dissections. The use of such biomarkers may one day be translated into clinical practice to allow early detection and prognostication of outcomes and drive preventative and therapeutic options in the future.

Advances in studies of circulating microRNAs: origination, transportation, and distal target regulation

In the past few years, numerous advances emerged in terms of circulating microRNA(miRNA) regulating gene expression by circulating blood to the distal tissues and cells. This article reviewed and summarized the process of circulating miRNAs entering the circulating system to exert gene regulation, especially exogenous miRNAs (such as plant miRNAs), from the perspective of the circulating miRNAs source (cell secretion or gastrointestinal absorption), the transport form and pharmacokinetics in circulating blood, and the evidence of distal regulation to gene expression, thereby providing a basis for their in-depth research and even application prospects.

A Novel Pathway of Functional microRNA Uptake and Mitochondria Delivery

Extracellular microRNAs (miRNAs) play a critical role in horizontal gene regulation. Uptake of extracellular miRNAs by recipient cells and their intracellular transport, however, remains elusive. Here RNA phase separation is shown as a novel pathway of miRNA uptake. In the presence of serum, synthetic miRNAs rapidly self-assembly into ≈110 nm discrete nanoparticles, which enable miRNAs' entry into different cells. Depleting serum cationic proteins prevents the formation of such nanoparticles and thus blocks miRNA uptake. Different from lipofectamine-mediated miRNA transfection in which majority of miRNAs are accumulated in lysosomes of transfected cells, nanoparticles-mediated miRNA uptake predominantly delivers miRNAs into mitochondria in a polyribonucleotide nucleotidyltransferase 1(PNPT1)-dependent manner. Functional assays further show that the internalized miR-21 via miRNA phase separation enhances mitochondrial translation of cytochrome b (CYB), leading to increase in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) reduction in HEK293T cells. The findings thus reveal a previously unrecognized mechanism for uptake and delivery functional extracellular miRNAs into mitochondria.

Hematopoietic stem cells and betaherpesvirus latency

The human betaherpesviruses including human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), human herpesvirus (HHV)-6a and HHV-6b, and HHV-7 infect and establish latency in CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HPCs). The diverse repertoire of HPCs in humans and the complex interactions between these viruses and host HPCs regulate the viral lifecycle, including latency. Precise manipulation of host and viral factors contribute to preferential maintenance of the viral genome, increased host cell survival, and specific manipulation of the cellular environment including suppression of neighboring cells and immune control. The dynamic control of these processes by the virus regulate inter- and intra-host signals critical to the establishment of chronic infection. Regulation occurs through direct viral protein interactions and cellular signaling, miRNA regulation, and viral mimics of cellular receptors and ligands, all leading to control of cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation. Hematopoietic stem cells have unique biological properties and the tandem control of virus and host make this a unique environment for chronic herpesvirus infection in the bone marrow. This review highlights the elegant complexities of the betaherpesvirus latency and HPC virus-host interactions.

Viral miRNA regulation of host gene expression

Viruses have evolved a multitude of mechanisms to combat barriers to productive infection in the host cell. Virally-encoded miRNAs are one such means to regulate host gene expression in ways that benefit the virus lifecycle. miRNAs are small non-coding RNAs that regulate protein expression but do not trigger the adaptive immune response, making them powerful tools encoded by viruses to regulate cellular processes. Diverse viruses encode for miRNAs but little sequence homology exists between miRNAs of different viral species. Despite this, common cellular pathways are targeted for regulation, including apoptosis, immune evasion, cell growth and differentiation. Herein we will highlight the viruses that encode miRNAs and provide mechanistic insight into how viral miRNAs aid in lytic and latent infection by targeting common cellular processes. We also highlight how viral miRNAs can mimic host cell miRNAs as well as how viral miRNAs have evolved to regulate host miRNA expression. These studies dispel the myth that viral miRNAs are subtle regulators of gene expression, and highlight the critical importance of viral miRNAs to the virus lifecycle.

Cytomegalovirus microRNAs level determination in kidney recipients post transplantation

BACKGROUND

Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) can establish a latent infection with periodic or sporadic reactivation after the first infection happens. Primary and recurrent infection, results in different problems in patients with impaired or immature immune systems, such as kidney transplant recipients (KTRs). MicroRNAs (miRNAs, miRs) are important regulatory molecules in the outcome of CMV-infected KTRs. Therefore, in this study the expression level of CMV miRNAs were evaluated in active vs. latent CMV infected KTRs.

METHODS

Expression of viral miRNAs were studied in 61 KTRs which were divided into 30 active CMV and 31 latent CMV infected individuals. In order to study the expression level of selected miRNAs, SYBR Green Real-time PCR technique was exploited. Also, mature miRNAs expression level that were produced from one precursor, studied both in active and latent situations.

RESULTS

Among studied miRNAs' expression level, CMV miR-UL112-3p/5p, -UL22A-3p/5p, -US25-1-5p, -US25-2-3p/5p, -UL36-3p/5p and -UL70-3p showed significant increase in active CMV infected KTRs in comparison to latent ones. The ROC curve analysis results for miR-UL112-3p, -UL22A-3p, -US25-2-3p, -UL36-3p and -UL70-3p showed significant difference between two studied patient groups.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed an extremely high expression level in CMV miR-UL112-3p/5p, -UL22A-3p/5p, -US25-1-5p, -US25-2-3p/5p, -UL36-3p/5p and -UL70-3p in active CMV infected KTRs in comparison to latent ones. Further studies might help in finding the capability of miRNAs to differentiate active from latent stage of CMV infection in KTRs.

Human Cytomegalovirus Induced Aberrant Expression of Non-coding RNAs

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a β-herpesvirus whose genome consists of double stranded linear DNA. HCMV genome can generate non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) through transcription in its host cells. Besides that, HCMV infection also changes the ncRNAs expression profile of the host cells. ncRNAs play a key role in maintaining the normal physiological activity of cells, and the disorder of ncRNAs expression has numerous adverse effects on cells. However, until now, the relationship between ncRNAs and HCMV-induced adverse effects are not summarized in detail. This review aims to give a systematic summary of the role of HCMV infection in ncRNAs expression while providing insights into the molecular mechanism of unnormal cellular events caused by ncRNAs disorder. ncRNAs disorder induced by HCMV infection is highly associated with cell proliferation, apoptosis, tumorigenesis, and immune regulation, as well as the development of cardiovascular diseases, and the potential role of biomarker. We summarize the studies on HCMV associated ncRNAs disorder and suggest innovative strategies for eliminating the adverse effects caused by HCMV infection.

MicroRNA Regulation of Human Herpesvirus Latency

Herpesviruses are ubiquitous human pathogens. After productive (lytic) infection, all human herpesviruses are able to establish life-long latent infection and reactivate from it. Latent infection entails suppression of viral replication, maintenance of the viral genome in infected cells, and the ability to reactivate. Most human herpesviruses encode microRNAs (miRNAs) that regulate these processes during latency. Meanwhile, cellular miRNAs are hijacked by herpesviruses to participate in these processes. The viral or cellular miRNAs either directly target viral transcripts or indirectly affect viral infection through host pathways. These findings shed light on the molecular determinants that control the lytic-latent switch and may lead to novel therapeutics targeting latent infection. We discuss the multiple mechanisms by which miRNAs regulate herpesvirus latency, focusing on the patterns in these mechanisms.

The complex biology of human cytomegalovirus latency

While many viral infections are limited and eventually resolved by the host immune response or by death of the host, other viruses establish long-term relationships with the host by way of a persistent infection, that range from chronic viruses that may be eventually cleared to those that establish life-long persistent or latent infection. Viruses infecting hosts from bacteria to humans establish quiescent infections that must be reactivated to produce progeny. For mammalian viruses, most notably herpesviruses, this quiescent maintenance of viral genomes in the absence of virus replication is referred to as latency. The latent strategy allows the virus to persist quiescently within a single host until conditions indicate a need to reactivate to reach a new host or, to re-seed a reservoir within the host. Here, I review common themes in viral strategies to regulate the latent cycle and reactivate from it ranging from bacteriophage to herpesviruses with a focus on human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Themes central to herpesvirus latency include, epigenetic repression of viral gene expression and mechanisms to regulate host signaling and survival. Critical to the success of a latent program are mechanisms by which the virus can "sense" fluctuations in host biology (within the host) or environment (outside the host) and make appropriate "decisions" to maintain latency or re-initiate the replicative program. The signals or environments that indicate the establishment of a latent state, the very nature of the latent state, as well as the signals driving reactivation have been topics of intense study from bacteriophage to human viruses, as these questions encompass the height of complexity in virus-host interactions-where the host and the virus coexist.

Advances in Model Systems for Human Cytomegalovirus Latency and Reactivation

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a highly prevalent beta-herpesvirus and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality following hematopoietic and solid organ transplant, as well as the leading viral cause of congenital abnormalities. A key feature of the pathogenesis of HCMV is the ability of the virus to establish a latent infection in hematopoietic progenitor and myeloid lineage cells. The study of HCMV latency has been hampered by difficulties in obtaining and culturing primary cells, as well as an inability to quantitatively measure reactivating virus, but recent advances in both in vitro and in vivo models of HCMV latency and reactivation have led to a greater understanding of the interplay between host and virus. Key differences in established model systems have also led to controversy surrounding the role of viral gene products in latency establishment, maintenance, and reactivation. This review will discuss the details and challenges of various models including hematopoietic progenitor cells, monocytes, cell lines, and humanized mice. We highlight the utility and functional differences between these models and the necessary experimental design required to define latency and reactivation, which will help to generate a more complete picture of HCMV infection of myeloid-lineage cells.

microRNA, a Subtle Indicator of Human Cytomegalovirus against Host Immune Cells

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a double-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the β-herpesvirus family and infects 40–90% of the adult population worldwide. HCMV infection is usually asymptomatic in healthy individuals but causes serious problems in immunocompromised people. We restricted this narrative review (PubMed, January 2022) to demonstrate the interaction and molecular mechanisms between the virus and host immune cells with a focus on HCMV-encoded miRNAs. We found a series of HCMV-encoded miRNAs (e.g., miR-UL112 and miR-UL148D) are explicitly involved in the regulation of viral DNA replication, immune evasion, as well as host cell fate. MiRNA-targeted therapies have been explored for the treatment of atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and hepatitis C virus infection. It is feasible to develop an alternative vaccine to restart peripheral immunity or to inhibit HCMV activity, which may contribute to the antiviral intervention for serious HCMV-related diseases.

Modulation of host cell signaling during cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation

Background

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) resides latently in cells of the myeloid compartment, including CD34+hematopoietic progenitor cells and circulating monocytes. Healthy hosts maintain the virus latently, and this infection is, for the most part, asymptomatic. However, given the proper external cues, HCMV reactivates from latency, at which point the virus disseminates, causing disease. The viral and cellular factors dictating the balance between these phases of infection are incompletely understood, though a large body of literature support a role for viral-mediated manipulation of host cell signaling.

Main body

To establish and maintain latency, HCMV has evolved various means by which it usurps host cell factors to alter the cellular environment to its own advantage, including altering host cell signaling cascades. As early as virus entry into myeloid cells, HCMV usurps cellular signaling to change the cellular milieu, and this regulation includes upregulation, as well as downregulation, of different signaling cascades. Indeed, given proper reactivation cues, this signaling is again altered to allow for transactivation of viral lytic genes.

Conclusions

HCMV modulation of host cell signaling is not binary, and many of the cellular pathways altered are finely regulated, wherein the slightest modification imparts profound changes to the cellular milieu. It is also evident that viral-mediated cell signaling differs not only between these phases of infection, but also is myeloid cell type specific. Nonetheless, understanding the exact pathways and the means by which HCMV mediates them will undoubtedly provide novel targets for therapeutic intervention.

iTRAQ-based proteomics analysis of HCMV latency and reactivation in T98G cells

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) establishes a persistent/latent infection after primary infection, and host factor(s) plays a key role in regulating HCMV infection status. The spread of reactivated HCMV via the hematogenous or neural route usually results in severe diseases in newborns and immunocompromised individuals. As the primary reservoirs in vivo, cells of myeloid lineage have been utilized extensively to study HCMV infection. However, the molecular mechanism of HCMV latency/reactivation in neural cells is still poorly understood. We previously showed that HCMV infected T98G cells maintain a large number of viral genomes and support HCMV reactivation from latency upon cAMP/IBMX treatment. Here we employed iTRAQ-based proteomics to characterize cellular protein changes during HCMV latency and reactivation in T98G cells. A total of 168 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified, including 89 proteins in latency and 85 proteins in reactivation. Bioinformatics analysis showed that a few biological pathways were associated with HCMV latency or reactivation. Moreover, we validated 16 DEPs by both mRNA and protein expression profiles and further evaluated the effects of ApoE and PI3K pathway on HCMV infection. ApoE knockdown reduced HCMV loads and virus release, whereas overexpressing ApoE hampered HCMV latent infection, indicating a role in HCMV latency establishment/maintenance. Blocking the PI3K pathway by LY294002, a PI3K inhibitor, induced HCMV reactivation from latency in T98G cells. Overall, this comparative proteomic analysis delineates the cellular protein changes during HCMV latency and reactivation and provides a road map to advance our understanding of the mechanism(s) in the context of neural cells. IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a highly transmissible beta-herpesvirus that has a prevalence of 60%-90% worldwide. This opportunist pathogen poses a significant threat to newborns and immunosuppressed individuals. One major obstacle for developing effective therapeutics is a poor understanding of HCMV latency/reactivation mechanisms. This study presents, for the first time, a systemic analysis of host cell protein expression changes during HCMV latency establishment and reactivation processes in neural cells. We showed that ApoE was downregulated by HCMV to facilitate latent infection. Also, the proteomic analysis has associated a few PI3K pathway-related proteins with HCMV reactivation. Altogether, this study highlights multiple host proteins and signaling pathways that can be further investigated as potential druggable targets for HCMV-related diseases, especially brain disorders.

Modulation of host cell signaling during cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation

Background

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) resides latently in cells of the myeloid compartment, including CD34⁺ hematopoietic progenitor cells and circulating monocytes. Healthy hosts maintain the virus latently, and this infection is, for the most part, asymptomatic. However, given the proper external cues, HCMV reactivates from latency, at which point the virus disseminates, causing disease. The viral and cellular factors dictating the balance between these phases of infection are incompletely understood, though a large body of literature support a role for viral-mediated manipulation of host cell signaling.

Main body

To establish and maintain latency, HCMV has evolved various means by which it usurps host cell factors to alter the cellular environment to its own advantage, including altering host cell signaling cascades. As early as virus entry into myeloid cells, HCMV usurps cellular signaling to change the cellular milieu, and this regulation includes upregulation, as well as downregulation, of different signaling cascades. Indeed, given proper reactivation cues, this signaling is again altered to allow for transactivation of viral lytic genes.

Conclusions

HCMV modulation of host cell signaling is not binary, and many of the cellular pathways altered are finely regulated, wherein the slightest modification imparts profound changes to the cellular milieu. It is also evident that viral-mediated cell signaling differs not only between these phases of infection, but also is myeloid cell type specific. Nonetheless, understanding the exact pathways and the means by which HCMV mediates them will undoubtedly provide novel targets for therapeutic intervention.

Cdc25B is transcriptionally inhibited by IER5 through the NF-YB transcription factor in irradiation-treated HeLa cells

Cervical cancer (CC) is a type of pelvic malignant tumor that severely threatens women's health. Current evidence suggests that IER5, as a potential radiosensitizer, promotes irradiation-induced apoptosis in CC tissues in patients undergoing chemoradiotherapy. IER5 has been shown to be involved in the G₂/M-phase transition. In the present study, we used Cdc25B as the breakthrough point to explore the underlying mechanism of IER5 in the cell cycle regulation of radiation-damaged HeLa cells. IER5 was evidently upregulated after irradiation, but Cdc25B was significantly downregulated. In monoclonal IER5-silenced HeLa cells, irradiation-induced downregulation of Cdc25B was attenuated. The effect of irradiation on Cdc25B promoter activity was determined by dual-luciferase reporter assays. The response elements on the Cdc25B promoter related to irradiation were predicted by JASPAR. These conserved sequences were mutated individually or in combination by splicing-by-overlap extension PCR, and their function was confirmed by dual-luciferase reporter assays. The enrichment efficiency of transcription factors after irradiation was determined by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Both Sp1/Sp3 and NF-YB binding sites were involved in irradiation-mediated regulation of Cdc25B. IER5 was involved in irradiation-mediated regulation of Cdc25B through the NF-YB binding site. Furthermore, ChIP assays showed that IER5 bound to the Cdc25B promoter, and the binding of IER5 to the Cdc25B promoter region in irradiation-induced HeLa cells induced the release of the coactivator p300 through interaction with NF-YB. Taken together, these findings indicate that IER5 is the transcriptional repressor that accelerates the downregulation of Cdc25B expression after irradiation.

Human Cytomegalovirus miR-US25-1 Targets the GTPase RhoA To Inhibit CD34+ Hematopoietic Progenitor Cell Proliferation To Maintain the Latent Viral Genome

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) microRNAs play essential roles in latency and reactivation in CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) via regulation of viral and cellular gene expression. In the present study, we show that HCMV miR-US25-1 targets RhoA, a small GTPase required for CD34+ HPC self-renewal, proliferation, and hematopoiesis. Expression of miR-US25-1 impairs signaling through the nonmuscle myosin II light chain, which leads to a block in cytokinesis and an inhibition of proliferation. Moreover, infection with an HCMV mutant lacking miR-US25-1 resulted in increased proliferation of CD34+ HPCs and a decrease in the proportion of genome-containing cells at the end of latency culture. These observations provide a mechanism by which HCMV limits proliferation to maintain latent viral genomes in CD34+ HPCs.IMPORTANCE Each herpesvirus family establishes latency in a unique cell type. Since herpesvirus genomes are maintained as episomes, the virus needs to devise mechanisms to retain the latent genome during cell division. Alphaherpesviruses overcome this obstacle by infecting nondividing neurons, while gammaherpesviruses tether their genome to the host chromosome in dividing B cells. The betaherpesvirus human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) establishes latency in CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs), but the mechanism used to maintain the viral genome is unknown. In this report, we demonstrate that HCMV miR-US25-1 downregulates expression of RhoA, a key cell cycle regulator, which results in inhibition of CD34+ HPC proliferation by blocking mitosis. Mutation of miR-US25-1 during viral infection results in enhanced cellular proliferation and a decreased frequency of genome-containing CD34+ HPCs. These results reveal a novel mechanism through which HCMV is able to regulate cell division to prevent viral genome loss during proliferation.

Assessment of HCMV-encoded microRNAs in plasma as potential biomarkers in pregnant women with adverse pregnancy outcomes

Background

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is the most frequent cause of congenital infections and can lead to adverse pregnancy outcomes (APOs). HCMV encodes multiple microRNAs (miRNAs) that have been reported to be partially related to host immune responses, cell cycle regulation, viral replication, and viral latency, and can be detected in human plasma. However, the relevance for HCMV-encoded miRNAs in maternal plasma as an indicator for APOs has never been evaluated.

Methods

Expression profiles of 22 HCMV-encoded miRNAs were first measured in plasma samples from 20 pregnant women with APOs and 28 normal controls using quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Next, markedly changed miRNAs were validated in another independent validation set consisting of 20 pregnant women with APOs and 27 control subjects. Markedly changed miRNAs were further assessed in the placenta tissues. HCMV DNA in peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs) and anti-HCMV immunoglobulin M (IgM) and anti-HCMV immunoglobulin G (IgG) in plasma were also examined in both training and validation sets. Diagnostic value and risk factors were compared between APO cohorts and normal controls.

Results

Analysis of the training and validation data sets revealed that plasma concentrations of hcmv-miR-UL148D, hcmv-miR-US25-1-5p and hcmv-miR-US5-1 were significantly increased in pregnant women with APOs compared with normal controls. Hcmv-miR-US25-1-5p presented the largest area under the receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC) (0.735; 95% CI, 0.635–0.836), with a sensitivity of 68% and specificity of 71%. Furthermore, plasma levels of hcmv-miR-US25-1-5p and hcmv-miR-US5-1 correlated positively with APOs (P=0.029 and 0.035, respectively). Hcmv-miR-US25-1-5p in the placenta tissues were dramatically increased in APOs, and correlated with plasma hcmv-miR-US25-1-5p. Nevertheless, neither the concentration of HCMV DNA in PBLs nor the positivity rates of anti-HCMV IgM and anti-HCMV IgG in plasma showed a statistically significant correlation with APOs.

Conclusions

We identified a unique signature of HCMV-encoded miRNAs in pregnant women with APOs that may be useful as a potential noninvasive biomarker for predicting and monitoring APOs during HCMV infection.

Human Cytomegalovirus miR-US33as-5p Targets IFNAR1 to Achieve Immune Evasion During Both Lytic and Latent Infection

As the first line of antiviral defense, type I interferon (IFN) binds IFN receptor 1 (IFNAR1) and IFNAR2 to activate the Jak-STAT signal transduction pathway, producing IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) to control viral infection. The mechanisms by which human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) counteracts the IFN pathway are only partially defined. We show that miR-US33as-5p encoded by HCMV is expressed in both lytic and latent infection. By analysis with RNA hybrid and screening with luciferase reporter assays, we identified IFNAR1 as a target of hcmv-miR-US33as-5p, which was further verified by examining the expression of two IFNAR1 mutants and the binding of IFNAR1 to miR-US33as-5p/miR-US33as-5p-M1/miR-US33as-5p-M2. We found that after the transfection of miR-US33as-5p mimics into different cell lines, the phosphorylation of downstream proteins and ISG expression were downregulated. Immunofluorescence showed that the miR-US33as-5p mimics also inhibited STAT1 translocation into the nucleus. Furthermore, we constructed HCMV with mutant miR-US33as-5p and determined that the mutation did not affect HCMV replication. We found that MRC-5/human foreskin fibroblast (HFF) cells infected with ΔmiRNA HCMV exhibited higher IFNAR1 and ISG expression and a reduced viral load in the presence of exogenous IFN than cells infected with WT HCMV did, confirming that the knockout of miR-US33as-5p impaired viral resistance to IFN. Finally, we tested the effect of ΔmiRNA HCMV on THP-1 and d-THP-1 cells, common in vitro models of latent infection and reactivation, respectively. Again, we found that cells infected with ΔmiRNA HCMV showed a reduced viral load in the presence of IFN than the control cells did, confirming that miR-US33as-5p also affects IFN resistance during both latency and reactivation. These results indicate a new microRNA (miRNA)-based immune evasion mechanism employed by HCMV to achieve lifelong infection.

Regulation of Latency and Reactivation by Human Cytomegalovirus miRNAs

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) encodes 22 mature microRNAs (miRNAs), which regulate a myriad of cellular processes, including vesicular trafficking, cell cycle progression, apoptosis, and immune evasion, as well as viral gene expression. Recent evidence points to a critical role for HCMV miRNAs in mediating latency in CD34⁺ hematopoietic progenitor cells through modulation of cellular signaling pathways, including attenuation of TGFβ and EGFR signaling. Moreover, HCMV miRNAs can act in concert with, or in opposition to, viral proteins in regulating host cell functions. Here, we comprehensively review the studies of HCMV miRNAs in the context of latency and highlight the novel processes that are manipulated by the virus using these small non-coding RNAs.

Different expression pattern of human cytomegalovirus-encoded microRNAs in circulation from virus latency to reactivation

Background

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a beta-hersvirinae that has a high latent infection rate worldwide and can cause serious consequences in immunocompromised patients when reactivation; however, the mechanism of how HCMV convert from latent to reactivation has rarely been investigated. In the present study, we aimed to perform a comprehensive analysis of the HCMV-encoded microRNA (miRNA) profile in serum of patients upon HCMV reactivation from latency and to further evaluate its clinical significance for the disease monitoring and preventing usefulness.

Methods

Serum samples from 59 viremia patients and 60 age-gender matched controls were enrolled in this study for screening and validation of different expression of HCMV miRNAs. Serum concentrations of 22 known HCMV miRNAs were determined by a hydrolysis probe-based stem-loop quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) assay. HCMV DNA was measured by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) with the whole blood sample. Serum HCMV IgG and IgM were assessed using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Another 47 samples from 5 patients at different time points were collected to evaluate the monitoring effectiveness and disease prediction ability of differential expression HCMV-miRNAs during the antiviral treatment.

Results

The RT-qPCR analysis revealed that the serum levels of 16 of the 22 examined HCMV miRNAs were elevated in HCMV viremia patients compared with controls, and a profile of 8 HCMV miRNAs including hcmv-miR-US25-2-3p, hcmv-miR-US4-5p, hcmv-miR-US25-2-5p, hcmv-miR-US25-1-3p, hcmv-miR-US25-1, hcmv-miR-UL36, hcmv-miR-UL148D, hcmv-miR-US29-3p were markedly elevated (fold change > 2, P < 0.01). Receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) analysis were performed on the selected HCMV-miRNAs in all of the patients and controls that enrolled in this study, and which ranged from 0.72 to 0.80 in the autoimmune patients. In addition, hcmv-miR-US25-1-3p levels were significantly correlated with HCMV DNA load (r = 0.349, P = 0.007), and were obviously higher in the reactivation set than the latency set in the autoimmune patients, which could be a predictor for the monitoring of the antiviral treatment.

Conclusions

HCMV miRNAs profile showed markedly shift-switch from latency to reactivation in circulation from HCMV infected patients and hcmv-miR-US25-1-3p may be served as a predictor for the switch upon reactivation from latency in patients suffered with autoimmune diseases.

Control of Immediate Early Gene Expression for Human Cytomegalovirus Reactivation

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a beta herpesvirus that persists for life in the majority of the world's population. The persistence of HCMV in the human population is due to the exquisite ability of herpesviruses to establish a latent infection that evades elimination by the host immune response. How the virus moves into and out of the latent state has been an intense area of research focus and debate. The prevailing paradigm is that the major immediate early promoter (MIEP), which drives robust expression of the major immediate early (MIE) transactivators, is epigenetically silenced during the establishment of latency, and must be reactivated for the virus to exit latency and re-enter productive replication. While it is clear that the MIEP is silenced by the association of repressive chromatin remodeling factors and histone marks, the mechanisms by which HCMV de-represses MIE gene expression for reactivation are less well understood. We have identified alternative promoter elements within the MIE locus that drive a second or delayed phase of MIE gene expression during productive infection. In the context of reactivation in THP-1 macrophages and primary CD34+ human progenitor cells, MIE transcripts are predominantly derived from initiation at these alternative promoters. Here we review the mechanisms by which alternative viral promoters might tailor the control of viral gene expression and the corresponding pattern of infection to specific cell types. Alternative promoter control of the HCMV MIE locus increases versatility in the system and allows the virus to tightly repress viral gene expression for latency but retain the ability to sense and respond to cell type-specific host cues for reactivation of replication.

Human Cytomegalovirus miR-US5-2 Downregulation of GAB1 Regulates Cellular Proliferation and UL138 Expression through Modulation of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Signaling Pathways

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) causes significant disease in immunocompromised individuals, including transplant patients. HCMV establishes latency in hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. The mechanisms governing latency and reactivation of viral replication are complex and not fully understood. HCMV-encoded miRNAs are small regulatory RNAs that reduce protein expression. In this study, we found that the HCMV miRNA miR-US5-2 targets the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) adaptor protein GAB1 which directly affects downstream cellular signaling pathways activated by EGF. Consequently, miR-US5-2 blocks the EGF-mediated proliferation of human fibroblasts. Early growth response gene 1 (EGR1) is a transcription factor activated by EGFR signaling that regulates expression of HCMV UL138. We show that miR-US5-2 regulates UL138 expression through GAB1-mediated downregulation of the signaling pathways that lead to EGR1 expression. These data suggest that miR-US5-2, through downregulation of GAB1, could play a critical role during reactivation from latency by reducing proliferation and UL138 expression.

Regulation of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR) signaling is critical for the replication of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) as well as latency and reactivation in CD34⁺ hematopoietic progenitor cells. HCMV microRNAs (miRNAs) provide a means to modulate the signaling activated by EGF through targeting components of the EGFR signaling pathways. Here, we demonstrate that HCMV miR-US5-2 directly downregulates the critical EGFR adaptor protein GAB1 that mediates activation and sustained signaling through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and MEK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways and cellular proliferation in response to EGF. Expression of HCMV UL138 is regulated by the transcription factor early growth response gene 1 (EGR1) downstream of EGFR-induced MEK/ERK signaling. We show that by targeting GAB1 and attenuating MEK/ERK signaling, miR-US5-2 indirectly regulates EGR1 and UL138 expression, which implicates the miRNA in critical regulation of HCMV latency.

IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) causes significant disease in immunocompromised individuals, including transplant patients. HCMV establishes latency in hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. The mechanisms governing latency and reactivation of viral replication are complex and not fully understood. HCMV-encoded miRNAs are small regulatory RNAs that reduce protein expression. In this study, we found that the HCMV miRNA miR-US5-2 targets the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) adaptor protein GAB1 which directly affects downstream cellular signaling pathways activated by EGF. Consequently, miR-US5-2 blocks the EGF-mediated proliferation of human fibroblasts. Early growth response gene 1 (EGR1) is a transcription factor activated by EGFR signaling that regulates expression of HCMV UL138. We show that miR-US5-2 regulates UL138 expression through GAB1-mediated downregulation of the signaling pathways that lead to EGR1 expression. These data suggest that miR-US5-2, through downregulation of GAB1, could play a critical role during reactivation from latency by reducing proliferation and UL138 expression.

Where do we Stand after Decades of Studying Human Cytomegalovirus?

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), a linear double-stranded DNA betaherpesvirus belonging to the family of Herpesviridae, is characterized by widespread seroprevalence, ranging between 56% and 94%, strictly dependent on the socioeconomic background of the country being considered. Typically, HCMV causes asymptomatic infection in the immunocompetent population, while in immunocompromised individuals or when transmitted vertically from the mother to the fetus it leads to systemic disease with severe complications and high mortality rate. Following primary infection, HCMV establishes a state of latency primarily in myeloid cells, from which it can be reactivated by various inflammatory stimuli. Several studies have shown that HCMV, despite being a DNA virus, is highly prone to genetic variability that strongly influences its replication and dissemination rates as well as cellular tropism. In this scenario, the few currently available drugs for the treatment of HCMV infections are characterized by high toxicity, poor oral bioavailability, and emerging resistance. Here, we review past and current literature that has greatly advanced our understanding of the biology and genetics of HCMV, stressing the urgent need for innovative and safe anti-HCMV therapies and effective vaccines to treat and prevent HCMV infections, particularly in vulnerable populations.

Cellular microRNA, miR-1343-5p, modulates IFN-I responses to facilitate feline panleukopenia virus replication by directly targeting IRAK1 gene

Feline panleukopenia is an acute, highly contagious, and fatal infectious disease caused by feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) and has led to severe consequences on pets, economically important animals, and the wildlife industry. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play significant roles in the host-pathogen interaction by modulating cellular factors expression which are essential for viral replication or host innate immune response to infection. However, the role of host miRNA response in FPV infection remains to be discovered. In this study, we screened nine host miRNAs associated with FPV infection that were previously implicated in innate immunity or antiviral functions. We found that miR-1343-5p overexpression strongly promoted FPV-BJ04 genomic DNA. Subsequently, the expression of host miR-1343-5p was upregulated by FPV-BJ04 infection in vitro and in vivo. In addition, we demonstrated that miR-1343-5p was a negative regulator of the IFN-I signaling pathway, thereby promoting FPV infection. Bioinformatic analysis combined with molecular biological assay indicated that interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 (IRAK1) is a putative target of miR-1343-5p. Collectively, our findings emphasize the importance of miR-1343-5p in host defense against FPV, thus, enhancing our understanding of its pathogenic mechanism.

Cytomegalovirus Latency and Reactivation: An Intricate Interplay With the Host Immune Response

CMV is an ancient herpesvirus that has co-evolved with its host over millions of years. The 236 kbp genome encodes at least 165 genes, four non-coding RNAs and 14 miRNAs. Of the protein-coding genes, 43-44 are core replication genes common to all herpesviruses, while ~30 are unique to betaherpesviruses. Many CMV genes are involved in evading detection by the host immune response, and others have roles in cell tropism. CMV replicates systemically, and thus, has adapted to various biological niches within the host. Different biological niches may place competing demands on the virus, such that genes that are favorable in some contexts are unfavorable in others. The outcome of infection is dependent on the cell type. In fibroblasts, the virus replicates lytically to produce infectious virus. In other cell types, such as myeloid progenitor cells, there is an initial burst of lytic gene expression, which is subsequently silenced through epigenetic repression, leading to establishment of latency. Latently infected monocytes disseminate the virus to various organs. Latency is established through cell type specific mechanisms of transcriptional silencing. In contrast, reactivation is triggered through pathways activated by inflammation, infection, and injury that are common to many cell types, as well as differentiation of myeloid cells to dendritic cells. Thus, CMV has evolved a complex relationship with the host immune response, in which it exploits cell type specific mechanisms of gene regulation to establish latency and to disseminate infection systemically, and also uses the inflammatory response to infection as an early warning system which allows the virus to escape from situations in which its survival is threatened, either by cellular damage or infection of the host with another pathogen. Spontaneous reactivation induced by cellular aging/damage may explain why extensive expression of lytic genes has been observed in recent studies using highly sensitive transcriptome analyses of cells from latently infected individuals. Recent studies with animal models highlight the potential for harnessing the host immune response to blunt cellular injury induced by organ transplantation, and thus, prevent reactivation of CMV and its sequelae.

Generation and Application of Mouse Monoclonal Antibody Against Human Cytomegalovirus UL23

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a paradigm for pathogen-mediated immune evasion. The immune response to HCMV has been intensively studied for many years and still remains the focus of attention for numerous research groups. UL23 is an early gene of HCMV, belonging to the US22 gene family, encoding protein UL23. However, no monoclonal antibodies against to HCMV UL23 protein have been reported to prepare for the research. In this study, we prepared a highly specific monoclonal antibody against UL23 protein by alternately immunizing BALB/C mice with both UL23 recombinant protein and HCMV Towne. Recombinant protein UL23 was used as a detection antigen to screen 305 strains of hybridoma cells. One of them was identified to secrete IgG1 mAb named as 26C5. Western blotting results showed that not only the overexpressed UL23 protein in 293T cells but also the viral UL23 protein in HCMV-infected human foreskin fibroblast cells specifically were recognized by 26C5 mAb. Notably, we found that UL23 protein were enriched by 26C5 mAb in coimmunoprecipitation experiment with high potency and the native form of UL23 protein localizing primarily in the cytoplasm were recognized by 26C5 mAb in immunofluorescence assay with high specificity. The monoclonal antibody obtained in this study lays the foundation for further study of HCMV UL23 protein.

MicroRNAs expressed by human cytomegalovirus

Background

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs about 22 nucleotides in length, which play an important role in gene regulation of both eukaryotes and viruses. They can promote RNA cleavage and repress translation via base-pairing with complementary sequences within mRNA molecules.

Main body

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) encodes a large number of miRNAs that regulate transcriptions of both host cells and themselves to favor viral infection and inhibit the host’s immune response. To date, ~ 26 mature HCMV miRNAs have been identified. Nevertheless, their roles in viral infection are ambiguous, and the mechanisms have not been fully revealed. Therefore, we discuss the methods used in HCMV miRNA research and summarize the important roles of HCMV miRNAs and their potential mechanisms in infection.

Conclusions

To study the miRNAs encoded by viruses and their roles in viral replication, expression, and infection will not only contribute to the planning of effective antiviral therapies, but also provide new molecular targets for the development of antiviral drugs.

The Interplay Between Viral-Derived miRNAs and Host Immunity During Infection

MicroRNAs are short non-coding RNAs that play a crucial role in the regulation of gene expression during cellular processes. The host-encoded miRNAs are known to modulate the antiviral defense during viral infection. In the last decade, multiple DNA and RNA viruses have been shown to produce miRNAs known as viral miRNAs (v-miRNAs) so as to evade the host immune response. In this review, we highlight the origin and biogenesis of viral miRNAs during the viral lifecycle. We also explore the role of viral miRNAs in immune evasion and hence in maintaining chronic infection and disease. Finally, we offer insights into the underexplored role of viral miRNAs as potential targets for developing therapeutics for treating complex viral diseases.

Functional Profile of Human Cytomegalovirus Genes and Their Associated Diseases: A Review

The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), whose genome is 235 ± 1.9 kbp long, is a common herpesvirus. However, the functions of many of its genes are still unknown. HCMV is closely associated with various human diseases and infects 60-90% of the global population. It can infect various human cells, including fibroblasts, epithelial cells, endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and monocytes. Although HCMV infection is generally asymptomatic and causes subtle clinical symptoms, it can generate a robust immune response and establish a latent infection in immunocompromised individuals, including those with AIDS, transplant recipients, and developing fetuses. Currently available antivirals approved for the treatment of HCMV-associated diseases are limited by dose-limiting toxicity and the emergence of resistance; however, vaccines and immunoglobulins are unavailable. In this review, we have summarized the recent literature on 43 newly identified HCMV genes. We have described their novel functions on the viral replication cycle, latency, and host immune evasion. Further, we have discussed HCMV-associated diseases and current therapeutic targets. Our review may provide a foundational basis for studies aiming to prevent and develop targeted therapies for HCMV-associated diseases.

HCMV miR-US22 down-regulation of EGR-1 regulates CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cell proliferation and viral reactivation

Reactivation of latent Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) is closely linked to hematopoiesis. Viral latency requires maintenance of the progenitor cell quiescence, while reactivation initiates following mobilization of HPCs to the periphery and differentiation into CD14+ macrophages. Early growth response gene 1 (EGR-1) is a transcription factor activated by Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling that is essential for the maintenance of CD34+ HPC self-renewal in the bone marrow niche. Down-regulation of EGR-1 results in mobilization and differentiation of CD34+ HPC from the bone marrow to the periphery. In the current study we demonstrate that the transcription factor EGR-1 is directly targeted for down-regulation by HCMV miR-US22 that results in decreased proliferation of CD34+ HPCs and a decrease in total hematopoietic colony formation. We also show that an HCMV miR-US22 mutant fails to reactivate in CD34+ HPCs, indicating that expression of EGR-1 inhibits viral reactivation. Since EGR-1 promotes CD34+ HPC self-renewal in the bone marrow niche, HCMV miR-US22 down-regulation of EGR-1 is a necessary step to block HPC self-renewal and proliferation to induce a cellular differentiation pathway necessary to promote reactivation of virus.

Cell Line Models for Human Cytomegalovirus Latency Faithfully Mimic Viral Entry by Macropinocytosis and Endocytosis

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) enters primary CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cells by macropinocytosis, where it establishes latency in part because its tegument-transactivating protein, pp71, remains associated with endosomes and is therefore unable to initiate productive, lytic replication. Here we show that multiple HCMV strains also enter cell line models used to study latency by macropinocytosis and endocytosis. In all latency models tested, tegument-delivered pp71 was found to be colocalized with endosomal markers and was not associated with the seven other cytoplasmic localization markers tested. Like the capsid-associated pp150 tegument protein, we initially detected capsid proteins in association with endosomes but later detected them in the nucleus. Inhibitors of macropinocytosis and endocytosis reduced latent viral gene expression and precluded reactivation. Importantly, we utilized electron microscopy to observe entry by macropinocytosis and endocytosis, providing additional visual corroboration of the findings of our functional studies. Our demonstration that HCMV enters cell line models for latency in a manner indistinguishable from that of its entry into primary cells illustrates the utility of these cell lines for probing the mechanisms, host genetics, and small-molecule-mediated inhibition of HCMV entry into the cell types where it establishes latency.IMPORTANCE Primary cells cultured in vitro currently provide the highest available relevance for examining molecular and genetic requirements for the establishment, maintenance, and reactivation of HCMV latency. However, their expense, heterogeneity, and intransigence to both long-term culture and molecular or genetic modification create rigor and reproducibility challenges for HCMV latency studies. There are several cell line models for latency not obstructed by deficiencies inherent in primary cells. However, many researchers view cell line studies of latency to be physiologically irrelevant because of the perception that these models display numerous and significant differences from primary cells. Here, we show that the very first step in a latent HCMV infection, entry of the virus into cells, occurs in cell line models in a manner indistinguishable from that in which it occurs in primary CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cells. Our data argue that experimental HCMV latency is much more similar than it is different in cell lines and primary cells.

IER family proteins are regulators of protein phosphatase PP2A and modulate the phosphorylation status of CDC25A

Proteins encoded by immediate-early response (IER) family genes, IER2, IER5, and IER5L, share homology at their N-terminal regions. IER5 binds to protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) and enhances dephosphorylation of PP2A target proteins such as heat shock factor HSF1. Here, we show the expression of IER family genes and the target protein-specific function of IER proteins. The IER homology regions of IER2 and IER5L are required for the interaction with PP2A. Expression of IER2 and IER5L in cells leads to reduced phosphorylation of HSF1 and derepression of its transcriptional activity. Although IER5 and IER5L enhance dephosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6 kinase, IER2 fails to do so. IER2, IER5, and IER5L all bind to the cell cycle regulator CDC25A and convert it to the hypophosphorylated form, which causes dissociation from 14-3-3 regulatory protein. IER5 differentially regulates CDC25A levels in cells under normal and thermal stress conditions. These results suggest that IER proteins are target protein-specific regulators of PP2A activity and modulate cell proliferation through CDC25A activity.

Regulation of the stability and activity of CDC25A and CDC25B by protein phosphatase PP2A and 14-3-3 binding

Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)-activating phosphatases, CDC25A and CDC25B, are labile proteins, and their levels vary in a cell cycle-dependent manner. Immediate-early response IER5 protein negatively regulates the cellular CDC25B levels, and stress-induced IER5 expression potentiates G2/M arrest. IER5 binds to protein phosphatase PP2A and regulates the PP2A substrate specificity. We show that IER5 binds to CDC25B and assists PP2A to convert CDC25B to hypophosphorylated forms. Hypophosphorylation at Ser323 results in the dissociation of CDC25B from 14-3-3 phospho-binding proteins. In IER5 expressing cells, CDC25B dissociated from 14-3-3 is unstable but slightly activated, because 14-3-3 inhibits CDC25B polyubiquitination and CDC25B binding to CDK1. The 14-3-3 binding to CDC25A also impedes CDC25A degradation and CDC25A-CDK2 interaction. We propose that 14-3-3 is an important regulator of CDC25A and CDC25B and that PP2A/IER5 controls the stability and activity of CDC25B through regulating the interaction of CDC25B and 14-3-3.

HCMV miRNA Targets Reveal Important Cellular Pathways for Viral Replication, Latency, and Reactivation

It is now well appreciated that microRNAs (miRNAs) play a critical role in the lifecycles of many herpes viruses. The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) replication cycle varies significantly depending on the cell type infected, with lytic replication occurring in fully-differentiated cells such as fibroblasts, endothelial cells, or macrophages, and latent infection occurring in less-differentiated CD14+ monocytes and CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cells where viral gene expression is severely diminished and progeny virus is not produced. Given their non-immunogenic nature and their capacity to target numerous cellular and viral transcripts, miRNAs represent a particularly advantageous means for HCMV to manipulate viral gene expression and cellular signaling pathways during lytic and latent infection. This review will focus on our current knowledge of HCMV miRNA viral and cellular targets, and discuss their importance in lytic and latent infection, highlight the challenges of studying HCMV miRNAs, and describe how viral miRNAs can help us to better understand the cellular processes involved in HCMV latency.

Selective 4-Thiouracil Labeling of RNA Transcripts within Latently Infected Cells after Infection with Human Cytomegalovirus Expressing Functional Uracil Phosphoribosyltransferase

Infections with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) are highly prevalent in the general population as the virus has evolved the capacity to undergo distinct replication strategies resulting in lytic, persistent, and latent infections. During the latent life cycle, HCMV resides in subsets of cells within the hematopoietic cell compartment, including hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) and peripheral blood monocytes. Since only a small fraction of these cell types harbor viral genomes during natural latency, identification and analysis of distinct changes mediated by viral infection are difficult to assess. In order to characterize latent infections of HPCs, we used an approach that involves complementation of deficiencies within the human pyrimidine salvage pathway, thus allowing for conversion of labeled uracil into rUTP. Here, we report the development of a recombinant HCMV that complements the defective human pyrimidine salvage pathway, allowing incorporation of thiol containing UTP into all RNA species that are synthesized within an infected cell. This virus grows to wild-type kinetics and can establish a latent infection within two distinct culture models of HCMV latency. Using this recombinant HCMV, we report the specific labeling of transcripts only within infected cells. These transcripts reveal a transcriptional landscape during HCMV latency that is distinct from uninfected cells. The utility of this labeling system allows for the identification of distinct changes within host transcripts and will shed light on characterizing how HCMV establishes and maintains latency.IMPORTANCE HCMV is a significant pathogen that accounts for a substantial amount of complications within the immunosuppressed and immunocompromised. Of particular significance is the capacity of HCMV to reactivate within solid tissue and bone marrow transplant recipients. While it is known that HCMV latency resides within a fraction of HPCs and monocytes, the exact subset of cells that harbor latent viral genomes during natural infections remain uncharacterized. The capacity to identify changes within the host transcriptome during latent infections is critical for developing approaches that therapeutically or physically eliminate latent viral genome containing cells and will represent a major breakthrough for reducing complications due to HCMV reactivation posttransplant. In this report, we describe the generation and use of a recombinant HCMV that allows specific and distinct labeling of RNA species that are produced within virally infected cells. This is a critical first step in identifying how HCMV affects the host cell during latency and more importantly, allows one to characterize cells that harbor latent HCMV.

Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Induces Reactivation of Human Cytomegalovirus Independently of Myeloid Cell Differentiation following Posttranscriptional Establishment of Latency

HCMV is an important human pathogen that establishes lifelong latent infection in myeloid progenitor cells and reactivates frequently to cause significant disease in immunocompromised people. Our observation that viral gene expression is first turned on and then turned off to establish latency suggests that there is a host defense, which may be myeloid cell specific, responsible for transcriptional silencing of viral gene expression. Our observation that TNF-α induces reactivation independently of differentiation provides insight into molecular mechanisms that control reactivation.

We used the Kasumi-3 model to study human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) latency and reactivation in myeloid progenitor cells. Kasumi-3 cells were infected with HCMV strain TB40/Ewt-GFP, flow sorted for green fluorescent protein-positive (GFP⁺) cells, and cultured for various times to monitor establishment of latency, as judged by repression of viral gene expression (RNA/DNA ratio) and loss of virus production. We found that, in the vast majority of cells, latency was established posttranscriptionally in the GFP⁺ infected cells: transcription was initially turned on and then turned off. We also found that some of the GFP⁻ cells were infected, suggesting that latency might be established in these cells at the outset of infection. We were not able to test this hypothesis because some GFP⁻ cells expressed lytic genes and thus it was not possible to separate them from GFP⁻ quiescent cells. In addition, we found that the pattern of expression of lytic genes that have been associated with latency, including UL138, US28, and RNA2.7, was the same as that of other lytic genes, indicating that there was no preferential expression of these genes once latency was established. We confirmed previous studies showing that tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) induced reactivation of infectious virus, and by analyzing expression of the progenitor cell marker CD34 as well as myeloid cell differentiation markers in IE⁺ cells after treatment with TNF-α, we showed that TNF-α induced transcriptional reactivation of IE gene expression independently of differentiation. TNF-α-mediated reactivation in Kasumi-3 cells was correlated with activation of NF-κB, KAP-1, and ATM.

HHV-6 encoded small non-coding RNAs define an intermediate and early stage in viral reactivation

Human herpesvirus 6A and 6B frequently acquires latency. HHV-6 activation has been associated with various human diseases. Germ line inheritance of chromosomally integrated HHV-6 makes viral DNA-based analysis difficult for determination of early stages of viral activation. We characterized early stages of HHV-6 activation using high throughput transcriptomics studies and applied the results to understand virus activation under clinical conditions. Using a latent HHV-6A cell culture model in U2OS cells, we identified an early stage of viral reactivation, which we define as transactivation that is marked by transcription of several viral small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) in the absence of detectable increase in viral replication and proteome. Using deep sequencing approaches, we detected previously known as well as a new viral sncRNAs that characterized viral transactivation and differentiated it from latency. Here we show changes in human transcriptome upon viral transactivation that reflect multiple alterations in mitochondria-associated pathways, which was supported by observation of increased mitochondrial fragmentation in virus reactivated cells. Furthermore, we present here a unique clinical case of DIHS/DRESS associated death where HHV-6 sncRNA-U14 was abundantly detected throughout the body of the patient in the presence of low viral DNA. In this study, we have identified a unique and early stage of viral activation that is characterized by abundant transcription of viral sncRNAs, which can serve as an ideal biomarker under clinical conditions.

Herpesvirus-encoded microRNAs detected in human gingiva alter host cell transcriptome and regulate viral infection

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNAs of ~18-25 nucleotides that have gained extensive attention as critical regulators in complex gene networks including immune cell lineage commitment, differentiation, maturation, and maintenance of immune homeostasis and function. Many viruses encode miRNAs that directly downregulate the expression of factors of the innate immune system, which includes proteins involved in promoting apoptosis and recruitment. In this study, we examined the expression profiles of three previously identified viral miRNAs (v-miRs) from the human herpesvirus (HHV) family, HSV-1 (miR-H1), KSHV (miR-K12-3-3p), and HCMV (miR-US4) in healthy and diseased periodontal tissues and observed increased levels of v-miRs in diseased tissues. To understand the significance of this increase, we overexpressed v-miRs in human oral keratinocytes (HOK), a common target for various HHV, and analyzed the impact of miR-H1 and miR-K12-3-3p on the host transcriptome. More than 1300 genes were altered in HOK overexpressing miR-H1 and miR-K12-3-3p. Global pathway analysis of deregulated genes identified several key cellular pathways that may favor viral persistence. Using bioinformatic analysis, we predicted hundreds of potential v-miR binding sites on genes downregulated by miR-H1 and miR-K12-3-3p and validated three novel target v-miR sites suggesting widespread direct and indirect modulation of numerous host genes/pathways by a single v-miR. Finally, in vitro HSV-1 infection assays showed that miR-H1 can regulate viral entry and infection in human oral keratinocytes (HOK). Overall, our results demonstrate clinical and functional relevance of pathogenic viral molecules viz., v-miRs that regulate both host and viral functions and may contribute to the pathogenesis of inflammatory oral diseases.

Human cytomegalovirus reprogrammes haematopoietic progenitor cells into immunosuppressive monocytes to achieve latency

The precise cell type hosting latent human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) remains elusive. Here, we report that HCMV reprogrammes human haematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) into a unique monocyte subset to achieve latency. Unlike conventional monocytes, this monocyte subset possesses higher levels of B7-H4, IL-10 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), a longer lifespan and strong immunosuppressive capacity. Cell sorting of peripheral blood from latently infected human donors confirms that only this monocyte subset, representing less than 0.1% of peripheral mononuclear cells, is HCMV genome-positive but immediate-early-negative. Mechanistic studies demonstrate that HCMV promotes the differentiation of HPCs into this monocyte subset by activating cellular signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). In turn, this monocyte subset generates a high level of nitric oxide (NO) to silence HCMV immediate-early transcription and promote viral latency. By contrast, the US28-knockout HCMV mutant, which is incapable of activating STAT3, fails to reprogramme the HPCs and achieve latency. Our findings reveal that via activating the STAT3-iNOS-NO axis, HCMV differentiates human HPCs into a longevous, immunosuppressive monocyte subset for viral latency.

Viral miRNAs Alter Host Cell miRNA Profiles and Modulate Innate Immune Responses

Prevalence of the members of herpesvirus family in oral inflammatory diseases is increasingly acknowledged suggesting their likely role as an etiological factor. However, the underlying mechanisms remain obscure. In our recent miRNA profiling of healthy and diseased human tooth pulps, elevated expression of human herpesvirus encoded viral microRNAs (v-miRs) were identified. Based on the fold induction and significance values, we selected three v-miRs namely miR-K12-3-3p [Kaposi sarcoma-associated virus (KSHV)], miR-H1 [herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV1)], and miR-UL-70-3p [human cytomegalovirus (HCMV)] to further examine their impact on host cellular functions. We examined their impact on cellular miRNA profiles of primary human oral keratinocytes (HOK). Our results show differential expression of several host miRNAs in v-miR-transfected HOK. High levels of v-miRs were detected in exosomes derived from v-miR transfected HOK as well as the KSHV-infected cell lines. We show that HOK-derived exosomes release their contents into macrophages (Mφ) and alter expression of endogenous miRNAs. Concurrent expression analysis of precursor (pre)-miRNA and mature miRNA suggest transcriptional or posttranscriptional impact of v-miRs on the cellular miRNAs. Employing bioinformatics, we predicted several pathways targeted by deregulated cellular miRNAs that include cytoskeletal organization, endocytosis, and cellular signaling. We validated three novel targets of miR-K12-3-3p and miR-H1 that are involved in endocytic and intracellular trafficking pathways. To evaluate the functional consequence of this regulation, we performed phagocytic uptake of labeled bacteria and noticed significant attenuation in miR-H1 and miR-K12-3-3p but not miR-UL70-3p transfected primary human Mφ. Multiple cytokine analysis of E. coli challenged Mφ revealed marked reduction of secreted cytokine levels with important roles in innate and adaptive immune responses suggesting a role of v-miRs in immune subversion. Our findings reveal that oral disease associated v-miRs can dysregulate functions of key host cells that shape oral mucosal immunity thus exacerbating disease severity and progression.

Human Cytomegalovirus Encoded miR-US25-1-5p Attenuates CD147/EMMPRIN-Mediated Early Antiviral Response

Cellular receptor-mediated signaling pathways play critical roles during the initial immune response to Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection. However, the involvement of type-I transmembrane glycoprotein CD147/EMMPRIN (extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer) in the antiviral response to HCMV infection is still unknown. Here, we demonstrated the specific knockdown of CD147 significantly decreased HCMV-induced activation of NF-κB and Interferon-beta (IFN-β), which contribute to the cellular antiviral responses. Next, we confirmed that HCMV-encoded miR-US25-1-5p could target the 3′ UTR (Untranslated Region) of CD147 mRNA, and thus facilitate HCMV lytic propagation at a low multiplicity of infection (MOI). The expression and secretion of Cyclophilin A (sCyPA), as a ligand for CD147 and a proinflammatory cytokine, were up-regulated in response to HCMV stimuli. Finally, we confirmed that CD147 mediated HCMV-triggered antiviral signaling via the sCyPA-CD147-ERK (extracellular regulated protein kinases)/NF-κB axis signaling pathway. These findings reveal an important HCMV mechanism for evading antiviral innate immunity through its encoded microRNA by targeting transmembrane glycoprotein CD147, and a potential cause of HCMV inflammatory disorders due to the secretion of proinflammatory cytokine CyPA.

Infected T98G glioblastoma cells support human cytomegalovirus reactivation from latency

T98G cells have been shown to support long-term human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) genome maintenance without infectious virus release. However, it remains unclear whether these viral genomes could be reactivated. To address this question, a recombinant HCMV (rHCMV) containing a GFP gene was used to infect T98G cells, and the infected cells absent of infectious virus production were designated T98G-LrV. Upon dibutyryl cAMP plus IBMX (cAMP/IBMX) treatment, a serial of phenomena were observed, including GFP signal increase, viral genome replication, lytic genes expression and infectious viruses release, indicating the reactivation of HCMV in T98G-LrV cells from a latent status. Mechanistically, HCMV reactivation in the T98G-LrV cells induced by cAMP/IBMX was associated with the PKA-CREB signaling pathway. These results demonstrate that HCMV was latent in T98G-LrV cells and could be reactivated. The T98G-LrV cells represent an effective model for investigating the mechanisms of HCMV reactivation from latency in the context of neural cells.

The Role of HCMV and HIV-1 MicroRNAs: Processing, and Mechanisms of Action during Viral Infection

Viruses infect host cells releasing their genome (DNA or RNA) containing all information needed to replicate themselves. The viral genome takes control of the cells and helps the virus to evade the host immune system. Some viruses alter the functions of infected cells without killing them. In some cases infected cells lose control over normal cell proliferation and becomes cancerous. Viruses, such as HCMV and HIV-1, may leave their viral genome in the host cells for a certain period (latency) and begin to replicate when the cells are stressed causing diseases. HCMV and HIV-1 have developed multiple strategies to avoid recognition and elimination by the host’s immune system. These strategies rely on viral products that mimic specific components of the host cells to prevent immune recognition of virally infected cells. In addition to viral proteins, viruses encode short non-coding RNAs (vmiRNAs) that regulate both viral and host cellular transcripts to favor viral infection and actively curtail the host’s antiviral immune response. In this review, we will give an overview of the general functions of microRNAs generated by HCMV and HIV-1, their processing and interaction with the host’s immune system.