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Speckhart K, Choi J, DiMaio D, Tsai B. The BICD2 dynein cargo adaptor binds to the HPV16 L2 capsid protein and promotes HPV infection. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012289. [PMID: 38829892 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
During entry, human papillomavirus (HPV) traffics from the endosome to the trans Golgi network (TGN) and Golgi and then the nucleus to cause infection. Although dynein is thought to play a role in HPV infection, how this host motor recruits the virus to support infection and which entry step(s) requires dynein are unclear. Here we show that the dynein cargo adaptor BICD2 binds to the HPV L2 capsid protein during entry, recruiting HPV to dynein for transport of the virus along the endosome-TGN/Golgi axis to promote infection. In the absence of BICD2 function, HPV accumulates in the endosome and TGN and infection is inhibited. Cell-based and in vitro binding studies identified a short segment near the C-terminus of L2 that can directly interact with BICD2. Our results reveal the molecular basis by which the dynein motor captures HPV to promote infection and identify this virus as a novel cargo of the BICD2 dynein adaptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn Speckhart
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Jeongjoon Choi
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Daniel DiMaio
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Billy Tsai
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
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2
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Ye J, Zheng L, He Y, Qi X. Human papillomavirus associated cervical lesion: pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions. MedComm (Beijing) 2023; 4:e368. [PMID: 37719443 PMCID: PMC10501338 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 08/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most prevalent sexually transmitted virus globally. Persistent high-risk HPV infection can result in cervical precancerous lesions and cervical cancer, with 70% of cervical cancer cases associated with high-risk types HPV16 and 18. HPV infection imposes a significant financial and psychological burden. Therefore, studying methods to eradicate HPV infection and halt the progression of precancerous lesions remains crucial. This review comprehensively explores the mechanisms underlying HPV-related cervical lesions, including the viral life cycle, immune factors, epithelial cell malignant transformation, and host and environmental contributing factors. Additionally, we provide a comprehensive overview of treatment methods for HPV-related cervical precancerous lesions and cervical cancer. Our focus is on immunotherapy, encompassing HPV therapeutic vaccines, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and advanced adoptive T cell therapy. Furthermore, we summarize the commonly employed drugs and other nonsurgical treatments currently utilized in clinical practice for managing HPV infection and associated cervical lesions. Gene editing technology is currently undergoing clinical research and, although not yet employed officially in clinical treatment of cervical lesions, numerous preclinical studies have substantiated its efficacy. Therefore, it holds promise as a precise treatment strategy for HPV-related cervical lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiatian Ye
- Department of Gynecology and ObstetricsKey Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan UniversityChengduChina
| | - Lan Zheng
- Department of Pathology and Lab MedicineUniversity of Texas MD Anderson Cancer CenterHoustonTexasUSA
| | - Yuedong He
- Department of Gynecology and ObstetricsKey Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan UniversityChengduChina
| | - Xiaorong Qi
- Department of Gynecology and ObstetricsKey Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan UniversityChengduChina
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3
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Ishii Y, Yamaji T, Sekizuka T, Homma Y, Mori S, Takeuchi T, Kukimoto I. Folliculin Prevents Lysosomal Degradation of Human Papillomavirus To Support Infectious Cell Entry. J Virol 2023; 97:e0005623. [PMID: 37167561 PMCID: PMC10231244 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00056-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) infects epithelial basal cells in the mucosa and either proliferates with the differentiation of the basal cells or persists in them. Multiple host factors are required to support the HPV life cycle; however, the molecular mechanisms involved in cell entry are not yet fully understood. In this study, we performed a genome-wide clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) knockout (KO) screen in HeLa cells and identified folliculin (FLCN), a GTPase-activating protein for Rag GTPases, as an important host factor for HPV infection. The introduction of single guide RNAs for the FLCN gene into HeLa, HaCaT, and ectocervical Ect1 cells reduced infection by HPV18 pseudovirions (18PsVs) and 16PsVs. FLCN KO HeLa cells also exhibited strong resistance to infection with 18PsVs and 16PsVs; nevertheless, they remained highly susceptible to infections with vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein-pseudotyped lentivirus and adeno-associated virus. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that the numbers of virions binding to the cell surface were slightly increased in FLCN KO cells. However, virion internalization analysis showed that the internalized virions were rapidly degraded in FLCN KO cells. This degradation was blocked by treatment with the lysosome inhibitor bafilomycin A1. Furthermore, the virion degradation phenotype was also observed in Ras-related GTP-binding protein C (RagC) KO cells. These results suggest that FLCN prevents the lysosomal degradation of incoming HPV virions by enhancing lysosomal RagC activity. IMPORTANCE Cell entry by human papillomavirus (HPV) involves a cellular retrograde transport pathway from the endosome to the trans-Golgi network/Golgi apparatus. However, the mechanism by which this viral trafficking is safeguarded is poorly understood. This is the first study showing that the GTPase-activating protein folliculin (FLCN) protects incoming HPV virions from lysosomal degradation and supports infectious cell entry by activating the Rag GTPases, presumably through the suppression of excessive lysosomal biosynthesis. These findings provide new insights into the effects of small GTPase activity regulation on HPV cell entry and enhance our understanding of the HPV degradation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiyuki Ishii
- Pathogen Genomics Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Yamaji
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Sekizuka
- Pathogen Genomics Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuta Homma
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Seiichiro Mori
- Pathogen Genomics Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takamasa Takeuchi
- Pathogen Genomics Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Iwao Kukimoto
- Pathogen Genomics Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
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4
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Rizzato M, Mao F, Chardon F, Lai KY, Villalonga-Planells R, Drexler HCA, Pesenti ME, Fiskin M, Roos N, King KM, Li S, Gamez ER, Greune L, Dersch P, Simon C, Masson M, Van Doorslaer K, Campos SK, Schelhaas M. Master mitotic kinases regulate viral genome delivery during papillomavirus cell entry. Nat Commun 2023; 14:355. [PMID: 36683055 PMCID: PMC9868124 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-35874-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitosis induces cellular rearrangements like spindle formation, Golgi fragmentation, and nuclear envelope breakdown. Similar to certain retroviruses, nuclear delivery during entry of human papillomavirus (HPV) genomes is facilitated by mitosis, during which minor capsid protein L2 tethers viral DNA to mitotic chromosomes. However, the mechanism of viral genome delivery and tethering to condensed chromosomes is barely understood. It is unclear, which cellular proteins facilitate this process or how this process is regulated. This work identifies crucial phosphorylations on HPV minor capsid protein L2 occurring at mitosis onset. L2's chromosome binding region (CBR) is sequentially phosphorylated by the master mitotic kinases CDK1 and PLK1. L2 phosphorylation, thus, regulates timely delivery of HPV vDNA to mitotic chromatin during mitosis. In summary, our work demonstrates a crucial role of mitotic kinases for nuclear delivery of viral DNA and provides important insights into the molecular mechanism of pathogen import into the nucleus during mitosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Rizzato
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Fuxiang Mao
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Florian Chardon
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Kun-Yi Lai
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Interfaculty Centre 'Cells in Motion' (CiM), Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Mert Fiskin
- UMR 7242 Biotechnologie et signalisation cellulaire, CNRS, UdS, ESBS, Illkirch, France
| | - Nora Roos
- Institute of Medical Virology and Epidemiology of Viral Diseases, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kelly M King
- School of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Shuaizhi Li
- Department of Immunobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Eduardo R Gamez
- Department of Immunobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology and Pharmacology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96813-5525, USA
| | - Lilo Greune
- Institute of Infectiology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Petra Dersch
- Institute of Infectiology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Claudia Simon
- Institute of Medical Virology and Epidemiology of Viral Diseases, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Murielle Masson
- UMR 7242 Biotechnologie et signalisation cellulaire, CNRS, UdS, ESBS, Illkirch, France
| | - Koenraad Van Doorslaer
- School of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
- Cancer Biology Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, Genetics Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, UA Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Samuel K Campos
- Department of Immunobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Mario Schelhaas
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
- Interfaculty Centre 'Cells in Motion' (CiM), Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
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5
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Harwood MC, Woo TT, Takeo Y, DiMaio D, Tsai B. HPV is a cargo for the COPI sorting complex during virus entry. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadc9830. [PMID: 36662862 PMCID: PMC9858521 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adc9830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
During entry, human papillomavirus (HPV) traffics from the cell surface to the endosome and then to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and Golgi apparatus. HPV must transit across the TGN/Golgi and exit these compartments to reach the nucleus to cause infection, although how these steps are accomplished is unclear. Combining cellular fractionation, unbiased proteomics, and gene knockdown strategies, we identified the coat protein complex I (COPI), a highly conserved protein complex that facilitates retrograde trafficking of cellular cargos, as a host factor required for HPV infection. Upon TGN/Golgi arrival, the cytoplasmic segment of HPV L2 binds directly to COPI. COPI depletion causes the accumulation of HPV in the TGN/Golgi, resembling the fate of a COPI binding-defective L2 mutant. We propose that the L2-COPI interaction drives HPV trafficking through the TGN and Golgi stacks during virus entry. This shows that an incoming virus is a cargo of the COPI complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara C. Harwood
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Tai-Ting Woo
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Yuka Takeo
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Daniel DiMaio
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Billy Tsai
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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Morante AV, Baboolal DD, Simon X, Pan ECY, Meneses PI. Human Papillomavirus Minor Capsid Protein L2 Mediates Intracellular Trafficking into and Passage beyond the Endoplasmic Reticulum. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0150522. [PMID: 35608352 PMCID: PMC9241893 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01505-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) consist of two capsid proteins: major capsid protein L1 and minor capsid protein L2. The L2 protein has been shown to be involved in intracellular trafficking events that lead to the deposition of the viral DNA into the nucleus. In this study, we investigate the role of HPV16 L2 residues 43-DQILQ-47 during intracellular trafficking in human keratinocytes. We demonstrate that the highly conserved amino acids aspartic acid, isoleucine, and leucine are involved with the intracellular trafficking of the virus. Amino acid substitution of the isoleucine and leucine residues with alanine residues results in a significant decrease in infectivity of the pseudovirions without any changes to the binding or internalization of the virus. The pseudovirions containing these substitutions exhibit an altered trafficking pattern and do not deposit the viral pseudogenome into the nucleus. Instead, these mutated pseudovirions display a lack of interaction with syntaxin 18, an ER SNARE protein, are unable to progress past the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and are redirected to the lysosomes. The results of this study help to elucidate the role and potential involvement of the 43-DQILQ-47 sequence during intracellular trafficking, specifically during trafficking beyond the ER. IMPORTANCE High-risk types of human papillomaviruses (HPVs), such as HPV16, are highly associated with cervical, anogenital, and oropharyngeal cancers. The minor capsid protein L2 is essential for the intracellular trafficking of the viral DNA to the nucleus. This study investigates the role of amino acid residues 43-DQILQ-47 of the HPV16 L2 protein in the intracellular trafficking of the virus. Understanding how the virus traffics through the cell is a key factor in the development of additional preventative antiviral therapies. This study illustrates, through modification of the 43-DQILQ-47 sequence in pseudovirions, the importance of the 43-DQILQ-47 sequence in the trafficking of the virus beyond the endoplasmic reticulum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony V. Morante
- Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, New York, USA
| | | | - Xavier Simon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, New York, USA
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Mikuličić S, Strunk J, Florin L. HPV16 Entry into Epithelial Cells: Running a Gauntlet. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122460. [PMID: 34960729 PMCID: PMC8706107 DOI: 10.3390/v13122460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
During initial infection, human papillomaviruses (HPV) take an unusual trafficking pathway through their host cell. It begins with a long period on the cell surface, during which the capsid is primed and a virus entry platform is formed. A specific type of clathrin-independent endocytosis and subsequent retrograde trafficking to the trans-Golgi network follow this. Cellular reorganization processes, which take place during mitosis, enable further virus transport and the establishment of infection while evading intrinsic cellular immune defenses. First, the fragmentation of the Golgi allows the release of membrane-encased virions, which are partially protected from cytoplasmic restriction factors. Second, the nuclear envelope breakdown opens the gate for these virus–vesicles to the cell nucleus. Third, the dis- and re-assembly of the PML nuclear bodies leads to the formation of modified virus-associated PML subnuclear structures, enabling viral transcription and replication. While remnants of the major capsid protein L1 and the viral DNA remain in a transport vesicle, the viral capsid protein L2 plays a crucial role during virus entry, as it adopts a membrane-spanning conformation for interaction with various cellular proteins to establish a successful infection. In this review, we follow the oncogenic HPV type 16 during its long journey into the nucleus, and contrast pro- and antiviral processes.
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Hou J, Liu Y, Huang P, Wang Y, Pei D, Tan R, Zhang Y, Cui H. RANBP10 promotes glioblastoma progression by regulating the FBXW7/c-Myc pathway. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:967. [PMID: 34671019 PMCID: PMC8528885 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-04207-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 08/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
RAN binding protein 10 (RANBP10), a ubiquitously expressed and evolutionarily conserved protein, as a RAN-GTP exchange factor (GEF) to regulate several factors involved in cellular progression. Previous studies showed that RANBP10 was overexpressed in prostate cancer cells and was responsible for androgen receptor (AR) activation. However, the biological function of RANBP10 in glioblastoma (GBM) has not been studied. Here, we found that RANBP10 was overexpressed in GBM, and high RANBP10 expression was closely linked to poor survival of patients with GBM. Downregulation of RANBP10 significantly inhibited cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and tumor growth of GBM cells. In addition, we revealed that RANBP10 could suppress the promoter activity of FBXW7, and thereby increase the protein stability of c-Myc in GBM cells. Silencing of FBXW7 in RANBP10-knockdown GBM cells could partly negate the effects induced by RANBP10 downregulation. Taken together, our findings established that RANBP10 significantly promoted GBM progression by control of the FBXW7-c-Myc axis, and suggest that RANBP10 may be a potential target in GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianbing Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China
- Cancer Center, Reproductive Medicine Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China
| | - Yudong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China
- Cancer Center, Reproductive Medicine Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China
| | - Pan Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China
- Cancer Center, Reproductive Medicine Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China
| | - Yutao Wang
- Department of Neurology, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Dakun Pei
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China
- Cancer Center, Reproductive Medicine Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China
| | - Ruoyue Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China
- Cancer Center, Reproductive Medicine Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China
| | - Yundong Zhang
- Department of Neurology, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.
| | - Hongjuan Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China.
- Cancer Center, Reproductive Medicine Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, 400716, Chongqing, China.
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Recent Advances in Our Understanding of the Infectious Entry Pathway of Human Papillomavirus Type 16. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9102076. [PMID: 34683397 PMCID: PMC8540256 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9102076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Papillomaviruses are a diverse viral species, but several types such as HPV16 are given special attention due to their contribution towards the pathogenesis of several major cancers. In this review, we will summarize how the knowledge of HPV16 entry has expanded since the last comprehensive HPV16 entry review our lab published in 2017.
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10
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Ozbun MA, Campos SK. The long and winding road: human papillomavirus entry and subcellular trafficking. Curr Opin Virol 2021; 50:76-86. [PMID: 34416595 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2021.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect and replicate in differentiating mucosal and cutaneous epithelium. Most HPV infections are asymptomatic or cause transient benign neoplasia. However, persistent infections by oncogenic HPV types can progress to cancer. During infectious entry into host keratinocytes, HPV particles interact with many host proteins, beginning with major capsid protein L1 binding to cellular heparan sulfate and a series of enzymatic capsid modifications that promote infectious cellular entry. After utilizing the endosomal pathway to uncoat the viral genome (vDNA), the minor capsid protein L2/vDNA complex is retrograde trafficked to the Golgi, and thereafter, to the nucleus where viral transcription initiates. Post-Golgi trafficking is dependent on mitosis, with L2-dependent tethering of vDNA to mitotic chromosomes before accumulation at nuclear substructures in G1. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the HPV entry pathway, the role of cellular proteins in this process, and notes many gaps in our understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A Ozbun
- Departments of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology, Obstetrics & Gynecology, The University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; The University of New Mexico Comprehensive Cancer Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
| | - Samuel K Campos
- Departments of Immunobiology, Molecular & Cellular Biology, and the Cancer Biology Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; The BIO5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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