Expression of Wnts in the developing murine secondary palate

Prioritization of non-coding elements involved in non-syndromic cleft lip with/without cleft palate through genome-wide analysis of de novo mutations

Non-syndromic cleft lip with/without cleft palate (nsCL/P) is a highly heritable facial disorder. To date, systematic investigations of the contribution of rare variants in non-coding regions to nsCL/P etiology are sparse. Here, we re-analyzed available whole-genome sequence (WGS) data from 211 European case-parent trios with nsCL/P and identified 13,522 de novo mutations (DNMs) in nsCL/P cases, 13,055 of which mapped to non-coding regions. We integrated these data with DNMs from a reference cohort, with results of previous genome-wide association studies (GWASs), and functional and epigenetic datasets of relevance to embryonic facial development. A significant enrichment of nsCL/P DNMs was observed at two GWAS risk loci (4q28.1 (p = 8 × 10-4) and 2p21 (p = 0.02)), suggesting a convergence of both common and rare variants at these loci. We also mapped the DNMs to 810 position weight matrices indicative of transcription factor (TF) binding, and quantified the effect of the allelic changes in silico. This revealed a nominally significant overrepresentation of DNMs (p = 0.037), and a stronger effect on binding strength, for DNMs located in the sequence of the core binding region of the TF Musculin (MSC). Notably, MSC is involved in facial muscle development, together with a set of nsCL/P genes located at GWAS loci. Supported by additional results from single-cell transcriptomic data and molecular binding assays, this suggests that variation in MSC binding sites contributes to nsCL/P etiology. Our study describes a set of approaches that can be applied to increase the added value of WGS data.

Spatiotemporal Expression and Functional Analysis of miRNA-22 in the Developing Secondary Palate

OBJECTIVE

Normal development of the embryonic orofacial region requires precise spatiotemporal coordination between numerous genes. MicroRNAs represent small, single-stranded, non-coding molecules that regulate gene expression. This study examines the role of microRNA-22 (miR-22) in murine orofacial ontogeny.

METHODS

Spatiotemporal and differential expression of miR-22 (mmu-miR-22-3p) within the developing secondary palate was determined by in situ hybridization and quantitative real-time PCR, respectively. Bioinformatic approaches were used to predict potential mRNA targets of miR-22 and analyze their association with cellular functions indispensable for normal orofacial ontogeny. An in vitro palate organ culture system was used to assess the role of miR-22 in secondary palate development.

RESULTS

There was a progressive increase in miR-22 expression from GD12.5 to GD14.5 in palatal processes. On GD12.5 and GD13.5, miR-22 was expressed in the future oral, nasal, and medial edge epithelia. On GD14.5, miR-22 expression was observed in the residual midline epithelial seam (MES), the nasal epithelium and the mesenchyme, but not in the oral epithelium. Inhibition of miR-22 activity in palate organ cultures resulted in failure of MES removal. Bioinformatic analyses revealed potential mRNA targets of miR-22 that may play significant roles in regulating apoptosis, migration, and/or convergence/extrusion, developmental processes that modulate MES removal during palatogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Results from the current study suggest a key role for miR-22 in the removal of the MES during palatogenesis and that miR-22 may represent a potential contributor to the etiology of cleft palate.

Runx2-Twist1 interaction coordinates cranial neural crest guidance of soft palate myogenesis

Cranial neural crest (CNC) cells give rise to bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the vertebrate craniofacial musculoskeletal complex, as well as regulate mesoderm-derived craniofacial muscle development through cell-cell interactions. Using the mouse soft palate as a model, we performed an unbiased single-cell RNA-seq analysis to investigate the heterogeneity and lineage commitment of CNC derivatives during craniofacial muscle development. We show that Runx2, a known osteogenic regulator, is expressed in the CNC-derived perimysial and progenitor populations. Loss of Runx2 in CNC-derivatives results in reduced expression of perimysial markers (Aldh1a2 and Hic1) as well as soft palate muscle defects in Osr2-Cre;Runx2fl/fl mice. We further reveal that Runx2 maintains perimysial marker expression through suppressing Twist1, and that myogenesis is restored in Osr2-Cre;Runx2fl/fl;Twist1fl/+ mice. Collectively, our findings highlight the roles of Runx2, Twist1, and their interaction in regulating the fate of CNC-derived cells as they guide craniofacial muscle development through cell-cell interactions.

Dynamic activation of Wnt, Fgf, and Hh signaling during soft palate development

The soft palate is a key component of the oropharyngeal complex that is critical for swallowing, breathing, hearing and speech. However, complete functional restoration in patients with cleft soft palate remains a challenging task. New insights into the molecular signaling network governing the development of soft palate will help to overcome these clinical challenges. In this study, we investigated whether key signaling pathways required for hard palate development are also involved in soft palate development in mice. We described the dynamic expression patterns of signaling molecules from well-known pathways, such as Wnt, Hh, and Fgf, during the development of the soft palate. We found that Wnt signaling is active throughout the development of soft palate myogenic sites, predominantly in cells of cranial neural crest (CNC) origin neighboring the myogenic cells, suggesting that Wnt signaling may play a significant role in CNC-myogenic cell-cell communication during myogenic differentiation in the soft palate. Hh signaling is abundantly active in early palatal epithelium, some myogenic cells, and the CNC-derived cells adjacent to the myogenic cells. Hh signaling gradually diminishes during the later stages of soft palate development, indicating its involvement mainly in early embryonic soft palate development. Fgf signaling is expressed most prominently in CNC-derived cells in the myogenic sites and persists until later stages of embryonic soft palate development. Collectively, our results highlight a network of Wnt, Hh, and Fgf signaling that may be involved in the development of the soft palate, particularly soft palate myogenesis. These findings provide a foundation for future studies on the functional significance of these signaling pathways individually and collectively in regulating soft palate development.

Wnt signaling in orofacial clefts: crosstalk, pathogenesis and models

Diverse signaling cues and attendant proteins work together during organogenesis, including craniofacial development. Lip and palate formation starts as early as the fourth week of gestation in humans or embryonic day 9.5 in mice. Disruptions in these early events may cause serious consequences, such as orofacial clefts, mainly cleft lip and/or cleft palate. Morphogenetic Wnt signaling, along with other signaling pathways and transcription regulation mechanisms, plays crucial roles during embryonic development, yet the signaling mechanisms and interactions in lip and palate formation and fusion remain poorly understood. Various Wnt signaling and related genes have been associated with orofacial clefts. This Review discusses the role of Wnt signaling and its crosstalk with cell adhesion molecules, transcription factors, epigenetic regulators and other morphogenetic signaling pathways, including the Bmp, Fgf, Tgfβ, Shh and retinoic acid pathways, in orofacial clefts in humans and animal models, which may provide a better understanding of these disorders and could be applied towards prevention and treatments.

Spatio-Temporal Expression and Functional Analysis of miR-206 in Developing Orofacial Tissue

BACKGROUND

Development of the mammalian palate is dependent on precise, spatiotemporal expression of a panoply of genes. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), the largest family of noncoding RNAs, function as crucial modulators of cell and tissue differentiation, regulating expression of key downstream genes.

OBSERVATIONS

Our laboratory has previously identified several developmentally regulated miRNAs, including miR-206, during critical stages of palatal morphogenesis. The current study reports spatiotemporal distribution of miR-206 during development of the murine secondary palate (gestational days 12.5-14.5).

RESULT AND CONCLUSION

Potential cellular functions and downstream gene targets of miR-206 were investigated using functional assays and expression profiling, respectively. Functional analyses highlighted potential roles of miR-206 in governing TGFß- and Wnt signaling in mesenchymal cells of the developing secondary palate. In addition, altered expression of miR-206 within developing palatal tissue of TGFß3-/- fetuses reinforced the premise that crosstalk between this miRNA and TGFß3 is crucial for secondary palate development.

Development of Normal and Cleft Palate: A Central Role for Connective Tissue Growth Factor (CTGF)/CCN2

Development of the palate is the result of an organized series of events that require exquisite spatial and temporal regulation at the cellular level. There are a myriad of growth factors, receptors and signaling pathways that have been shown to play an important role in growth, elevation and/or fusion of the palatal shelves. Altered expression or activation of a number of these factors, receptors and signaling pathways have been shown to cause cleft palate in humans or mice with varying degrees of penetrance. This review will focus on connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) or CCN2, which was recently shown to play an essential role in formation of the secondary palate. Specifically, the absence of CCN2 in KO mice results in defective cellular processes that contribute to failure of palatal shelf growth, elevation and/or fusion. CCN2 is unique in that it has been shown to interact with a number of other factors important for palate development, including bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), epidermal growth factor (EGF), Wnt proteins and transforming growth factor-βs (TGF-βs), thereby influencing their ability to bind to their receptors and mediate intracellular signaling. The role that these factors play in palate development and their specific interactions with CCN2 will also be reviewed. Future studies to elucidate the precise mechanisms of action for CCN2 and its interactions with other regulatory proteins during palatogenesis are expected to provide novel information with the potential for development of new pharmacologic or genetic treatment strategies for clinical intervention of cleft palate during development.

Wnt6 influences the viability of mouse embryonic palatal mesenchymal cells via the β-catenin pathway

The embryological stages of palatal shelf elongation and elevation, mainly induced by the proliferation and extracellular matrix secretion of embryonic palatal mesenchymal (MEPM) cells, are essential for normal palatal development. Wingless-related MMTV integration site gene family (Wnt) signaling pathways serve key roles in craniofacial development and palate formation. Recent studies have indicated that Wnt6 participates in embryonic development of the palate, though its exact role in palate development remains unclear. In the present study, to investigate the role of Wnt6 during the stages of palatal shelves elongation and elevation, mouse MEPM cells were cultured from dissected palatal shelves at embryonic day 13.5. Results of an MTT assay and flow cytometric analysis demonstrated that treatment with recombinant Wnt6 increased the viability of MEPM cells (P<0.01) and the proportion of cells in the S and G2/M phases (P<0.01). Meanwhile, Wnt6 activated the β-catenin signaling pathway as indicated by the dual luciferase assay result, and blockade of the WNT/β-catenin pathway reduced the cytoactivity of Wnt6 in MEPM cells (P<0.01). Collectively, these findings indicate that Wnt6 promotes the vitality of MEPM cells by increasing the S + G2/M-phase cell population, potentially through activation of the β-catenin pathway during palatal shelf elongation and elevation.

Intersection of AHR and Wnt signaling in development, health, and disease

The AHR (aryl hydrocarbon receptor) and Wnt (wingless-related MMTV integration site) signaling pathways have been conserved throughout evolution. Appropriately regulated signaling through each pathway is necessary for normal development and health, while dysregulation can lead to developmental defects and disease. Though both pathways have been vigorously studied, there is relatively little research exploring the possibility of crosstalk between these pathways. In this review, we provide a brief background on (1) the roles of both AHR and Wnt signaling in development and disease, and (2) the molecular mechanisms that characterize activation of each pathway. We also discuss the need for careful and complete experimental evaluation of each pathway and describe existing research that explores the intersection of AHR and Wnt signaling. Lastly, to illustrate in detail the intersection of AHR and Wnt signaling, we summarize our recent findings which show that 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)-induced disruption of Wnt signaling impairs fetal prostate development.

Epigenetic regulation of Sox4 during palate development

AIM

Identification of genes that contribute to secondary palate development provide a better understanding of the etiology of palatal clefts. Gene-expression profiling of the murine palate from gestational days 12-14 (GD12-14), a critical period in palate development, identified Sox4 as a differentially expressed gene. In this study, we have examined if the differential expression of Sox4 in the palate is due to changes in DNA methylation.

MATERIALS & METHODS

In situ hybridization analysis was used to localize the expression of Sox4 in the developing murine secondary palate. CpG methylation profiling of a 1.8-kb upstream region of Sox4 in the secondary palate from GD12-14 and transfection analysis in murine embryonic maxillary mesenchymal cells using Sox4 deletion, mutant and in vitro methylated plasmid constructs were used to identify critical CpG residues regulating Sox4 expression in the palate.

RESULTS

Spatiotemporal analysis revealed that Sox4 is expressed in the medial edge epithelium and presumptive rugae-forming regions of the palate from GD12 to GD13. Following palatal shelf fusion on GD14, Sox4 was expressed exclusively in the epithelia of the palatal rugae, structures that serve as signaling centers for the anteroposterior extension of the palate, and that are thought to serve as neural stem cell niches. Methylation of a 1.8-kb region upstream of Sox4, containing the putative promoter, completely eliminated promoter activity. CpG methylation profiling of the 1.8-kb region identified a CpG-poor region (DMR4) that exhibited significant differential methylation during palate development, consistent with changes in Sox4 mRNA expression. Changes in the methylation of DMR4 were attributed primarily to CpGs 83 and 85.

CONCLUSION

Our studies indicate that Sox4 is an epigenetically regulated gene that likely integrates multiple signaling systems for mediating palatal fusion, palatal extension and/or the maintenance of the neural stem cell niche in the rugae.

Targeted mutations of genes reveal important roles in palatal development in mice

The process of palatal development is regulated by growth factors, extracellular matrix (ECM) protein, and cell adhesion molecules, of which disturbance may result in cleft palate. Knockout mice are important animal models for studying the role of genes during palatal development. Therefore, in this review, we will describe genes knockout in mice to reveal the biological mechanisms of these genes in the formation of the cleft palate.

Down-regulation of Wnt10a by RNA interference inhibits proliferation and promotes apoptosis in mouse embryonic palatal mesenchymal cells through Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Cleft palate is one of the most common birth defects. Both environmental and genetic factors are involved in this disorder. Here, we investigated the function of Wnt10a in proliferation and apoptosis of mouse embryonic palatal mesenchymal (MEPM) cells. Expression of Wnt10a was down-regulated at both the mRNA and protein levels in transfected MEPM cells containing Wnt10a-specific small hairpin RNA (shRNA) plasmid. Down-regulation of Wnt10a inhibited cell proliferation and induced cell cycle arrest in the S phase in MEPM cells. Moreover, apoptosis was significantly increased in MEPM cells of Wnt10a gene silencing. Finally, the expression of β-catenin was markedly reduced in MEPM cells transfected with shRNA plasmid, indicating that the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway was involved in the alterations of cell proliferation and apoptosis induced by Wnt10a knockdown. Thus, our findings reveal that Wnt10a regulates proliferation and apoptosis of MEPM cells at least partially through the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.

The role of WNT10B in physiology and disease

Wnt10b is a member of the Wnt ligand gene family that encodes for secreted proteins, which activate the ancient and highly conserved Wnt signalling cascade. The Wnt pathway has been shown to be essential for embryonic development, tissue integrity, and stem cell activity, but if deregulated, also causes disease such as cancer. Although the 19 different Wnt ligands found in both human and mouse can activate several branches of the Wnt pathway, WNT10B specifically activates canonical Wnt/β-catenin signalling and thus triggers β-catenin/LEF/TCF-mediated transcriptional programs. In this review, we highlight the unique functions of WNT10B and mechanisms of how WNT10B acts in the immune system, mammary gland, adipose tissue, bone and skin. In these organs, WNT10B has been well established to be involved in signalling networks controlling stemness, pluripotency and cell fate decisions. Deregulation of these processes causes diseases such as breast cancer, obesity and osteoporosis. Compelling evidence suggests that WNT10B is a valuable candidate for the development of therapeutic regimens for human diseases.

Chemokine-mediated migration of mesencephalic neural crest cells

Clefts of the lip and/or palate are among the most prevalent birth defects affecting approximately 7000 newborns in the United States annually. Disruption of the developmentally programmed migration of neural crest cells (NCCs) into the orofacial region is thought to be one of the major causes of orofacial clefting. Signaling of the chemokine SDF-1 (Stromal Derived Factor-1) through its specific receptor, CXCR4, is required for the migration of many stem cell and progenitor cell populations from their respective sites of emergence to the regions where they differentiate into complex cell types, tissues and organs. In the present study, "transwell" assays of chick embryo mesencephalic (cranial) NCC migration and ex ovo whole embryo "bead implantation" assays were utilized to determine whether SDF-1/CXCR4 signaling mediates mesencephalic NCC migration. Results from this study demonstrate that attenuation of SDF-1 signaling, through the use of specific CXCR4 antagonists (AMD3100 and TN14003), disrupts the migration of mesencephalic NCCs into the orofacial region, suggesting a novel role for SDF-1/CXCR4 signaling in the directed migration of mesencephalic NCCs in the early stage embryo.

A genome-wide linkage scan for quantitative trait loci influencing the craniofacial complex in humans (Homo sapiens sapiens)

The genetic architecture of the craniofacial complex has been the subject of intense scrutiny because of the high frequency of congenital malformations. Numerous animal models have been used to document the early development of the craniofacial complex, but few studies have focused directly on the genetic underpinnings of normal variation in the human craniofacial complex. This study examines 80 quantitative traits derived from lateral cephalographs of 981 participants in the Fels Longitudinal Study, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio. Quantitative genetic analyses were conducted using the Sequential Oligogenic Linkage Analysis Routines analytic platform, a maximum-likelihood variance components method that incorporates all familial information for parameter estimation. Heritability estimates were significant and of moderate to high magnitude for all craniofacial traits. Additionally, significant quantitative trait loci (QTL) were identified for 10 traits from the three developmental components (basicranium, splanchnocranium, and neurocranium) of the craniofacial complex. These QTL were found on chromosomes 3, 6, 11, 12, and 14. This study of the genetic architecture of the craniofacial complex elucidates fundamental information of the genetic architecture of the craniofacial complex in humans.

Epithelial Wnt/β-catenin signaling regulates palatal shelf fusion through regulation of Tgfβ3 expression

The canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling plays essential role in development and diseases. Previous studies have implicated the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the regulation of normal palate development, but functional Wnt/β-catenin signaling and its tissue-specific activities remain to be accurately elucidated. In this study, we show that functional Wnt/β-catenin signaling operates primarily in the palate epithelium, particularly in the medial edge epithelium (MEE) of the developing mouse palatal shelves, consistent with the expression patterns of β-catenin and several Wnt ligands and receptors. Epithelial specific inactivation of β-catenin by the K14-Cre transgenic allele abolishes the canonical Wnt signaling activity in the palatal epithelium and leads to an abnormal persistence of the medial edge seam (MES), ultimately causing a cleft palate formation, a phenotype resembling that in Tgfβ3 mutant mice. Consistent with this phenotype is the down-regulation of Tgfβ3 and suppression of apoptosis in the MEE of the β-catenin mutant palatal shelves. Application of exogenous Tgfβ3 to the mutant palatal shelves in organ culture rescues the midline seam phenotype. On the other hand, expression of stabilized β-catenin in the palatal epithelium also disrupts normal palatogenesis by activating ectopic Tgfβ3 expression in the palatal epithelium and causing an aberrant fusion between the palate shelf and mandible in addition to severely deformed palatal shelves. Collectively, our results demonstrate an essential role for Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the epithelial component at the step of palate fusion during palate development by controlling the expression of Tgfβ3 in the MEE.

Frizzled 1 and frizzled 2 genes function in palate, ventricular septum and neural tube closure: general implications for tissue fusion processes

The closure of an open anatomical structure by the directed growth and fusion of two tissue masses is a recurrent theme in mammalian embryology, and this process plays an integral role in the development of the palate, ventricular septum, neural tube, urethra, diaphragm and eye. In mice, targeted mutations of the genes encoding frizzled 1 (Fz1) and frizzled 2 (Fz2) show that these highly homologous integral membrane receptors play an essential and partially redundant role in closure of the palate and ventricular septum, and in the correct positioning of the cardiac outflow tract. When combined with a mutant allele of the planar cell polarity gene Vangl2 (Vangl2(Lp)), Fz1 and/or Fz2 mutations also cause defects in neural tube closure and misorientation of inner ear sensory hair cells. These observations indicate that frizzled signaling is involved in diverse tissue closure processes, defects in which account for some of the most common congenital anomalies in humans.

TGFβ-1 and Wnt-3a interact to induce unique gene expression profiles in murine embryonic palate mesenchymal cells

Development of the secondary palate in mammals is a complex process under the control of numerous growth and differentiation factors that regulate key processes such as cell proliferation, synthesis of extracellular matrix molecules, and epithelial-mesenchymal transdifferentiation. Alterations in any one of these processes either through genetic mutation or environmental insult have the potential to lead to clefts of the secondary palate. Members of the TGFβ family of cytokines are crucial mediators of these processes and emerging evidence supports a pivotal role for members of the Wnt family of secreted growth and differentiation factors. Previous work in this laboratory demonstrated cross-talk between the Wnt and TGFβ signaling pathways in cultured mouse embryonic palate mesenchymal cells. In the current study we tested the hypothesis that unique gene expression profiles are induced in murine embryonic palate mesenchymal cells as a result of this cross-talk between the TGFβ and Wnt signal transduction pathways.

Palate morphogenesis: current understanding and future directions

In the past, most scientists conducted their inquiries of nature via inductivism, the patient accumulation of "pieces of information" in the pious hope that the sum of the parts would clarify the whole. Increasingly, modern biology employs the tools of bioinformatics and systems biology in attempts to reveal the "big picture." Most successful laboratories engaged in the pursuit of the secrets of embryonic development, particularly those whose research focus is craniofacial development, pursue a middle road where research efforts embrace, rather than abandon, what some have called the "pedestrian" qualities of inductivism, while increasingly employing modern data mining technologies. The secondary palate has provided an excellent paradigm that has enabled examination of a wide variety of developmental processes. Examination of cellular signal transduction, as it directs embryogenesis, has proven exceptionally revealing with regard to clarification of the "facts" of palatal ontogeny-at least the facts as we currently understand them. Herein, we review the most basic fundamentals of orofacial embryology and discuss how functioning of TGFbeta, BMP, Shh, and Wnt signal transduction pathways contributes to palatal morphogenesis. Our current understanding of palate medial edge epithelial differentiation is also examined. We conclude with a discussion of how the rapidly expanding field of epigenetics, particularly regulation of gene expression by miRNAs and DNA methylation, is critical to control of cell and tissue differentiation, and how examination of these epigenetic processes has already begun to provide a better understanding of, and greater appreciation for, the complexities of palatal morphogenesis.