Reliability and Validity of a New Test of Agility and Skill for Female Amateur Soccer Players

Effect of maturation level on normative specific-agility performance metrics and their fitness predictors in soccer players aged 11-18 years

BACKGROUND

In sports sciences, normative data serve as standards for specific physical performance attributes, enhancing talent identification within a specific population. The aim of this study was to provide standard data for Agility-15 m, Ball-15 m tests, and skill index, considering maturation level, specifically age at peak height velocity (PHV). The study also investigated the relationship between relative performances in these tests and anthropometrics, jumping (squat jump [SJ], countermovement jump [CMJ]), and sprinting abilities (S-5 m, S-10 m, S-20 m, S-30 m) in young soccer players.

METHODS

The study involved 647 soccer players aged 11-18 years, categorized into three groups: pre-PHV, circum-PHV, and post-PHV. Statistical analysis was conducted using analysis of variance and Bonferroni post hoc testing to detect variations among maturation groups, and Pearson's correlation test to examine the relationship between factors.

RESULTS

Agility-15 m and ball-15 m performances among maturity groups showed significant differences (p < 0.01). Significant correlations were identified in pre-PHV group, between lower limb length and Agility-15 m (r=-0.23, p < 0.05) and between height and Ball-15 m (r=-0.23, p < 0.05). In post-PHV group, there was a correlation between body fat percentage (BF %) and Agility-15 m (r = 0.17, p < 0.05) and Ball-15 m (r = 0.21, p < 0.05). In all maturity groups, there were significant correlations between agility and sprint tests (S-5 m, S-10 m, S-20 m, and S-30 m) and muscle power (SJ and CMJ).

CONCLUSION

The study revealed that both speed and lower limb power significantly influence agility in young soccer players, providing valuable insights for coaches and practitioners to create tailored training plans and interventions for different age groups and maturity levels.

Effect of menstrual cycle and contraceptive pill phase on aspects of exercise physiology and athletic performance in female athletes: protocol for the Feminae international multisite innovative project

The idiom 'more high-quality research is needed' has become the slogan for sport and exercise physiology-based research in female athletes. However, in most instances, it is challenging to address this gap of high-quality research in elite female athletes at a single study site due to challenges in recruiting enough participants with numerous menstrual cycle and contraceptive pill permutations. Accordingly, we have assembled an international multisite team to undertake an innovative project for female athletes, which investigates the effects of changes in endogenous and exogenous oestrogen and progesterone/progestins across the menstrual cycle and in response to second-generation combined monophasic contraceptive pill use, on aspects of exercise physiology and athletic performance. This project will employ the current gold-standard methodologies in this area, resulting in an adequately powered dataset. This protocol paper describes the consortium-based approach we will undertake during this study.

Bilateral Training Improves Agility and Accuracy for Both Preferred and Non-Preferred Legs in Young Soccer Players

As laterality of the lower limbs is regarded as a relevant influence on soccer performance, we assessed whether a bilateral training program for both the preferred leg (PL) and non-preferred leg (NPL) would improve soccer players' lateral asymmetry, agility, and accuracy. Sixty right-foot-dominant young soccer players were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (EXP) that underwent bilateral training or a control group (CONT) that performed their usual training schedule without bilateral exercise. We assessed the players' lateral asymmetries before and after training on four soccer skill tasks: a zigzag test with and without a ball, a receiving and direct volley-shooting accuracy test, and a passing accuracy test. Results showed post-test versus pre-test performance improvements for the EXP group on the index of technical skills and agility (p < .001). A post-hoc analysis further revealed a pre-test to post-test performance improvement on shooting and passing accuracy with both legs only for the EXP group (p < .001). These results support the role of bilateral practice in improving lateral asymmetries, agility, and accuracy.

Reliability levels of motor competence in youth athletes

This study aimed to analyze the reliability of the tests included in the motor competence assessment (MCA) battery and compare the effects of the number of trials per test. Thirty female volleyball players (14.6 ± 1.3 years of age) were tested. The participants performed two or three trials of each test. Intra-class correlation (ICC) was calculated, and a paired sample t-test analyzed the variations between trials (1st vs. 2nd vs. 3rd). Results revealed a significant difference between the first and the second trials for jumping sideways [t(29) = -4.108, p < 0.01], standing long jump [t(29) = -3.643, p < 0.01], and shuttle run [t(29) = -3.139, p < 0.01]. No significant result was registered in the shifting platforms, ball throwing and kicking between the first and second trials. Hence, any difference was recorded between the second and third trial. High ICC values were registered in lateral jumps, among the three repetitions of ball kicking and ball throwing, and between the last two repetitions of shuttle run. Almost perfect values were recorded for the shifting platforms and standing long jump. Nevertheless, there seems to be a learning effect between the first and the second repetition-no differences were registered only considering the two manipulative tests. In conclusion, except for jumping sideways, the MCA tests are reliable and only need to be performed two times instead of three.

Change-of-Direction Ability of Para-Footballers With Cerebral Palsy Under a New Evidence-Based and Sport-Specific Classification System

PURPOSE

This study aimed (1) to explore the validity and reliability of a new and specific change-of-direction (COD) test that requires dribbling skills to classify international footballers with cerebral palsy (CP) and compare it with another valid and reliable COD test without ball dribbling and (2) to probe whether both tests can discriminate between the new CP football classes (ie, FT1, FT2, and FT3) established worldwide in 2018.

METHODS

This study involved 180 international para-footballers with CP from 23 national teams at the 3 regional competitions held in 2018. They performed 2 COD tests, the modified agility test (no dribbling skills) and the dribbling speed test (DST).

RESULTS

Reliability was excellent for both the modified agility test (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC]2,1 = .91, SEM = 5.75%) and the DST (ICC2,1 = .92, SEM = 4.66%). The modified agility test and DST results were highly to very highly correlated to one another for the whole group and considering the sport classes (r = .60-.80; P < .001). A 1-way analysis of variance showed significant differences between sport classes in both tests (P < .001). However, among classes, there were significant differences between FT1 and FT2 and FT3 (P < .01, effect size = large) and low to moderate effect sizes between FT2 and FT3 for either test.

CONCLUSION

The DST appears to be valid and reliable to classify CP football players within the new classification system. Regression analysis revealed that 18.2% of the variance in the new sport classes could be explained by the 2 examined tests.

Contextual factors influencing the characteristics of female football players

Women's football participation rates are projected to increase to 60 million worldwide by 2026, doubling the current participation. Growing investment and the increase in research in women's football has had a positive effect on the level of performance over the last 10 years. The present review aimed to examine the literature on the physical and physiological characteristics of female football players from 2010 to 2019 to reflect the recent changes in professionalism. Characteristics investigated include anthropometry, strength, speed, endurance, power, change of direction and repeated sprint ability. These characteristics are presented in relation to playing position, age and competition-level. Results revealed that goalkeepers (171 cm, 66 kg) and defenders (168 cm, 61 kg) were the tallest and had the greatest body mass, while attackers were the fastest players over 20 m (3.05 s) and 30 m (4.38 s) and midfielders had the highest endurance (55.4 mL∙kg^-1∙min^-1) (P<0.05). Characteristics tended to improve with age until full biological maturity around 17 to 18 years of age. Competition comparisons demonstrated international players have significantly greater speed, repeated sprint ability, power and endurance characteristics (P<0.05). By identifying influential factors, coaches may be able to optimize their training and physical assessment practices, to better expose players to the required stimulus to develop these characteristics considered crucial to improved performance.

The Relationship Between Physical Fitness Qualities and Sport-Specific Technical Skills in Female, Team-Based Ball Players: A Systematic Review

Background

Understanding the relationships between physical fitness attributes and sport-specific technical skills may assist with the establishment of beneficial training interventions. The aim of this systematic review was to determine if physical fitness qualities were associated with performance of sport-specific technical skills in female, team-based ball players.

Methods

Five databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, ProQuest, and Scopus) were searched for relevant studies up to April 15, 2019. Full-text articles investigating relationships between physical fitness and sport-specific technical skills in female, team-based ball players were included. Methodological quality of included studies was appraised using a modified Downs and Black checklist. Data synthesis was conducted to determine the summary of evidence based on the number of significantly associated relationships divided by the total relationships assessed. An individual relationship was defined as a reported result examining the association between a single physical fitness variable and a single sport-specific technical skill.

Results

Data synthesis of grouped female ball players from 41 included studies revealed three clear associations: (i) body composition and defensive technical skills (19/29; 66%), (ii) agility and movement with a ball (4/6; 67%), and (iii) coordination and movement with a ball (3/5; 60%). An uncertain association exists between cardiorespiratory fitness and defensive technical skills (2/5; 40%). No association or an unknown conclusion (< 5 relationships reported) exists between all remaining physical fitness attributes and sport-specific technical skills. Sub-analyses revealed clear associations between body composition and throwing/shooting (using hands) in junior ball players (15/15; 100%) and with movement with a ball in elite (6/9; 67%) and senior (6/6; 100%) ball players. Three uncertain associations were found between offensive technical skills and agility in elite ball players (3/8; 38%), and with speed in elite (6/14; 43%) and junior (7/18; 39%) female ball players.

Conclusion

There is limited evidence available to demonstrate relationships between physical fitness qualities and sport-specific technical skills in female, team-based ball players. This lack of association is possibly due to reductionist methods in available literature and a lack of research in female ball players globally.

Registration

CRD42017065339 (PROSPERO on 12 May 2017).

Test-retest reliability of physical fitness tests among young athletes: The FITescola® battery

Monitoring physical fitness in young athletes is essential to improve physical performance, identify talents and develop injury prevention programs. The aim of this investigation was to analyse the reliability of the physical fitness tests from the FITescola^® battery in young athletes with different sports backgrounds and competition levels. Participants comprised of 138 young athletes (boys n = 92) aged 9 and 18 years old. Eight physical fitness tests assessing six components of physical fitness were performed: cardiorespiratory fitness (PACER); upper body muscular fitness (push-up); flexibility (sit and reach); lower-body muscular fitness (horizontal and vertical jump); agility (4 × 10 shuttle run); and speed (sprint at 20 m and 40 m). Each test was performed twice, with a one-week interval (7 days) between duplicate tests. No differences between duplicate tests were found (p > .05), except for the speed at 20 m in boys (p < .001) and speed at 40 m in girls (p = .006). The battery of tests had good or excellent reliability and concordance of the ICC between the two trials (ICC ≥ 0.75) with exception for the 20 m speed run in girls that presented moderate reliability (ICC = 0.57). The Bland-Altman plots showed high reliability for all the fitness tests for both sexes. Hence, The FITescola^® battery may be a novel tool to assess the physical fitness of large groups of young athletes from different sports backgrounds.

Effect of deep transverse friction massage vs stretching on football players’ performance

BACKGROUND

Flexibility, agility and muscle strength are key factors to either win or lose a game. Recently the effect of a new technique, deep transverse friction massage (DTFM) on muscle extensibility as compared to traditional stretching techniques has been examined.

AIM

To compare the effect of DTFM vs static and dynamic stretching techniques on the hamstring’s extensibility, agility, and strength amongst Lebanese and Syrian football players. Recording the incidence of non-contact hamstring muscle injury was a secondary objective.

METHODS

This study is a single-blinded prospective longitudinal randomized controlled trial. The experiment took place over a period of four weeks. Football players were randomized into three intervention groups (static stretching; dynamic stretching; DTFM). Participants of each group were followed-up carefully by assessors during their intervention sessions three times per week, for a total of 12 sessions and during the data collection. Extensibility, agility, and strength were compared between intervention groups at (baseline; acute; and chronic) phases. Straight leg raise and 1 repetition maximum tests were used to measure the dominant leg hamstring muscle extensibility and maximal strength respectively. T-drill test was used to assess the lower extremities agility.

RESULTS

Of 103 Lebanese and Syrian male football players aged between 18 and 35 were sampled from Damascus-Syria and South of Lebanon to participate in this study. Between-groups measures of acute strength (P = 0.011) and chronic extensibility (P = 0.000) solely showed a significant difference, and the static group showed to be superior as compared to the other groups. No loss to follow-up or protocol violation was recorded.

CONCLUSION

Static stretching is showing to be superior to the other techniques used, regarding gaining long-term extensibility and short-term maximal muscle strength. In addition, DTFM showed improvements but did not outweigh the effects on footballers’ performance when comparing it to static and dynamic techniques. Finally, no difference between the interventions is recorded regarding the rate of muscle injuries incidence.

Field-Based Tests for the Assessment of Physical Fitness in Children and Adolescents Practicing Sport: A Systematic Review within the ESA Program

High levels of physical fitness (PF) can positively affect both health and cognitive function, thus monitoring its levels in youth can help increase health and quality of life in adult populations later on. This systematic review aims to identify PF field-based tests used in young European populations practicing sport to find tools that are adequate for the considered target involving a new battery within the Enriched Sport Activities (ESA) project. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement was followed. In the 83 identified articles, the main tests used were: vertical/horizontal jumps (for muscular strength/power); push-ups, running at maximum effort, sit-ups (for muscular strength/endurance); multistage non-intermittent and intermittent tests (for aerobic endurance); sit and reach (for flexibility); sprinting and agility T-tests (for speed and agility, respectively); 10 × 5 m shuttle run (SR) (for both speed and agility). Few studies assessed coordination, reaction time, power, and balance. Although the selected tests are widely used and validated, they do not determine all PF aspects and do not reflect sport-specific features. A final decision was made for the inclusion of the following tests: standing broad jump, seated medicine ball throw, 20 m SR test, 30 m sprint, Illinois test, and a new test, i.e., the crunning test, to assess different skill-related components at once. The use of this combination of tests allows for the assessment of all PF components and can help planning effective training programs and cultivate sporting talent.

Validity and reliability of speed tests used in soccer: A systematic review

Introduction

Speed is an important prerequisite in soccer. Therefore, a large number of tests have been developed aiming to investigate several speed skills relevant to soccer. This systematic review aimed to examine the validity and reliability of speed tests used in adult soccer players.

Methods

A systematic search was performed according to the PRISMA guidelines. Studies were included if they investigated speed tests in adult soccer players and reported validity (construct and criterion) or reliability (intraday and interday) data. The tests were categorized into linear-sprint, repeated-sprint, change-of-direction sprint, agility, and tests incorporating combinations of these skills.

Results

In total, 90 studies covering 167 tests were included. Linear-sprint (n = 67) and change-of-direction sprint (n = 60) were studied most often, followed by combinations of the aforementioned (n = 21) and repeated-sprint tests (n = 15). Agility tests were examined fewest (n = 4). Mainly based on construct validity studies, acceptable validity was reported for the majority of the tests in all categories, except for agility tests, where no validity study was identified. Regarding intraday and interday reliability, ICCs>0.75 and CVs<3.0% were evident for most of the tests in all categories. These results applied for total and average times. In contrast, measures representing fatigue such as percent decrement scores indicated inconsistent validity findings. Regarding reliability, ICCs were 0.11–0.49 and CVs were 16.8–51.0%.

Conclusion

Except for agility tests, several tests for all categories with acceptable levels of validity and high levels of reliability for adult soccer players are available. Caution should be given when interpreting fatigue measures, e.g., percent decrement scores. Given the lack of accepted gold-standard tests for each category, researchers and practitioners may base their test selection on the broad database provided in this systematic review. Future research should pay attention to the criterion validity examining the relationship between test results and match parameters as well as to the development and evaluation of soccer-specific agility tests.

A NOVEL TEST TO ASSESS CHANGE OF DIRECTION: DEVELOPMENT, RELIABILITY, AND REHABILITATION CONSIDERATIONS

BACKGROUND

Several researchers have investigated functional testing with regard to return to sport decision making. Change of direction activities play a role in the advancement of rehabilitation as an athlete progresses towards return to sport. Few studies have assessed tests that measure change of direction tasks.

PURPOSE

The primary purpose of this study was to establish test-retest and intra- and inter-rater reliability of performing the Change of Lateral Direction (COLD) test. The second purpose was to provide normative data for healthy college aged subjects performing the COLD test. The final purpose of this study was to assess the role of fatigue while performing lateral change of direction tasks.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional, descriptive reliability study.

METHODS

Thirty-three female and 18 male healthy college students (mean age = 25.5) were tested on two occasions, one week apart. Subjects started out standing on a standard 4" step and rapidly altered stepping to tape markers on either side of the step as many times as possible for 30 seconds. The total number of steps achieved in 30 seconds was video recorded and watched later to count steps in order to determine reliability. The effect of fatigue was assessed by subdividing the 30 second trial into three increments: 0-10 seconds (T_0-10), 11-20 seconds (T_11-20), and 21-30 seconds (T_21-30).

RESULTS

Normative data for session 1 and session 2 were 76.0 (±10.9) and 80.1 (±11.2) steps respectively. Inter-rater (ICC: 0.994-0.996) and intra-rater (ICC: 0.930-0.984) reliability was excellent. Test-retest reliability demonstrated a strong correlation (r = 0.88) between session 1 and session 2. A significant decline (p<0.001) in total number of steps was demonstrated between T_0-10 and T_21-30, as well as T_11-20 and T_21-30 during both session 1 and session 2.

CONCLUSIONS

The COLD test demonstrated excellent inter-rater and intra-rater reliability. A possible fatigue effect occurred at T_21-30. Because of the ease of administration, minimal equipment required, and excellent intra and inter-rater reliability, the COLD test provides an excellent functional change of direction test. This test could be used for serial reassessment during pre-season screening, rehabilitation, or return to sport.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

2c.

Specific Physical Training in Elite Male Team Handball

Wagner, H, Gierlinger, M, Adzamija, N, Ajayi, S, Bacharach, DW, and von Duvillard, SP. Specific physical training in elite male team handball. J Strength Cond Res 31(11): 3083-3093, 2017-Specific physical training in elite team handball is essential for optimal player's performance; however, scientific knowledge is generally based on temporary training studies with subelite athletes. Therefore, the aim of the study was to analyze the effects of specific physical training in an elite male handball team over the entire season. Twelve players of a male handball team from the First Austrian Handball League conducted a 1-year specific physical training program in addition to their normal (team handball techniques and tactics) weekly training. Performance was measured with 5 general and 4 specific tests as well as game statistics during competition. Repeated measures analysis of variances and paired sample t-test were used to analyze differences in performance during training. We found a significant increase in oxygen uptake, offense time, defense time, fast break time, and jump height in the specific tests. Game performance statistics revealed a lower throwing percentage in the hosting team (59%) compared with the rival teams (63%). Our results indicated that specific endurance and agility are an acceptable modality in elite male team handball. However, performance in competition is strongly influenced by specific techniques and tactics. We recommend to strength and conditioning professionals that they tailor strength and power training, coordination and endurance as specific as possible, using free weights, agility exercises that include change in direction and jumps as well as short (10-15 seconds) high-intensity intervals.