1
|
Mansfield KL, Schilling M, Sanders C, Holding M, Johnson N. Arthropod-Borne Viruses of Human and Animal Importance: Overwintering in Temperate Regions of Europe during an Era of Climate Change. Microorganisms 2024; 12:1307. [PMID: 39065076 PMCID: PMC11278640 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12071307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The past three decades have seen an increasing number of emerging arthropod-borne viruses in temperate regions This process is ongoing, driven by human activities such as inter-continental travel, combined with the parallel emergence of invasive arthropods and an underlying change in climate that can increase the risk of virus transmission and persistence. In addition, natural events such as bird migration can introduce viruses to new regions. Despite the apparent regularity of virus emergence, arthropod-borne viruses circulating in temperate regions face the challenge of the late autumn and winter months where the arthropod vector is inactive. Viruses therefore need mechanisms to overwinter or they will fail to establish in temperate zones. Prolonged survival of arthropod-borne viruses within the environment, outside of both vertebrate host and arthropod vector, is not thought to occur and therefore is unlikely to contribute to overwintering in temperate zones. One potential mechanism is continued infection of a vertebrate host. However, infection is generally acute, with the host either dying or producing an effective immune response that rapidly clears the virus. There are few exceptions to this, although prolonged infection associated with orbiviruses such as bluetongue virus occurs in certain mammals, and viraemic vertebrate hosts therefore can, in certain circumstances, provide a route for long-term viral persistence in the absence of active vectors. Alternatively, a virus can persist in the arthropod vector as a mechanism for overwintering. However, this is entirely dependent on the ecology of the vector itself and can be influenced by changes in the climate during the winter months. This review considers the mechanisms for virus overwintering in several key arthropod vectors in temperate areas. We also consider how this will be influenced in a warming climate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karen L. Mansfield
- Vector Borne Diseases, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (K.L.M.); (M.S.)
| | - Mirjam Schilling
- Vector Borne Diseases, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (K.L.M.); (M.S.)
| | | | - Maya Holding
- Virology and Pathogenesis Group, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Salisbury SP4 0JG, UK;
| | - Nicholas Johnson
- Vector Borne Diseases, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (K.L.M.); (M.S.)
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Caixeta EA, Pinheiro MA, Lucchesi VS, Oliveira AGG, Galinari GCF, Tinoco HP, Coelho CM, Lobato ZIP. The Study of Bluetongue Virus (BTV) and Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus (EHDV) Circulation and Vectors at the Municipal Parks and Zoobotanical Foundation of Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil (FPMZB-BH). Viruses 2024; 16:293. [PMID: 38400068 PMCID: PMC10892844 DOI: 10.3390/v16020293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Bluetongue Virus (BTV) and Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus (EHDV) are Orbiviruses primarily transmitted by their biological vector, Culicoides spp. Latreille, 1809 (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). These viruses can infect a diverse range of vertebrate hosts, leading to disease outbreaks in domestic and wild ruminants worldwide. This study, conducted at the Belo Horizonte Municipal Parks and Zoobotany Foundation (FPMZB-BH), Minas Gerais, Brazil, focused on Orbivirus and its vectors. Collections of Culicoides spp. were carried out at the FPMZB-BH from 9 December 2021 to 18 November 2022. A higher prevalence of these insects was observed during the summer months, especially in February. Factors such as elevated temperatures, high humidity, fecal accumulation, and proximity to large animals, like camels and elephants, were associated with increased Culicoides capture. Among the identified Culicoides spp. species, Culicoides insignis Lutz, 1913, constituted 75%, and Culicoides pusillus Lutz, 1913, 6% of the collected midges, both described as competent vectors for Orbivirus transmission. Additionally, a previously unreported species in Minas Gerais, Culicoides debilipalpis Lutz, 1913, was identified, also suspected of being a transmitter of these Orbiviruses. The feeding preferences of some Culicoides species were analyzed, revealing that C. insignis feeds on deer, Red deer (Cervus elaphus) and European fallow deer (Dama dama). Different Culicoides spp. were also identified feeding on humans, raising concerns about the potential transmission of arboviruses at the site. In parallel, 72 serum samples from 14 susceptible species, including various Cervids, collected between 2012 and 2022 from the FPMZB-BH serum bank, underwent Agar Gel Immunodiffusion (AGID) testing for BTV and EHDV. The results showed 75% seropositivity for BTV and 19% for EHDV. Post-testing analysis revealed variations in antibody presence against BTV in a tapir and a fallow deer and against EHDV in a gemsbok across different years. These studies confirm the presence of BTV and EHDV vectors, along with potential virus circulation in the zoo. Consequently, implementing control measures is essential to prevent susceptible species from becoming infected and developing clinical diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Alves Caixeta
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine (DMVP), Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil; (E.A.C.); (M.A.P.); (V.S.L.); (A.G.G.O.); (G.C.F.G.)
| | - Mariana Andrioli Pinheiro
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine (DMVP), Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil; (E.A.C.); (M.A.P.); (V.S.L.); (A.G.G.O.); (G.C.F.G.)
| | - Victoria Souza Lucchesi
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine (DMVP), Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil; (E.A.C.); (M.A.P.); (V.S.L.); (A.G.G.O.); (G.C.F.G.)
| | - Anna Gabriella Guimarães Oliveira
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine (DMVP), Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil; (E.A.C.); (M.A.P.); (V.S.L.); (A.G.G.O.); (G.C.F.G.)
| | - Grazielle Cossenzo Florentino Galinari
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine (DMVP), Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil; (E.A.C.); (M.A.P.); (V.S.L.); (A.G.G.O.); (G.C.F.G.)
| | - Herlandes Penha Tinoco
- Belo Horizonte Municipal Parks and Zoobotany Foundation (FPMZB-BH), Belo Horizonte 31365-450, Minas Gerais, Brazil; (H.P.T.); (C.M.C.)
| | - Carlyle Mendes Coelho
- Belo Horizonte Municipal Parks and Zoobotany Foundation (FPMZB-BH), Belo Horizonte 31365-450, Minas Gerais, Brazil; (H.P.T.); (C.M.C.)
| | - Zélia Inês Portela Lobato
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine (DMVP), Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil; (E.A.C.); (M.A.P.); (V.S.L.); (A.G.G.O.); (G.C.F.G.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Tryland M, Cunha CW, Fuchs B, Breines EM, Li H, Jokelainen P, Laaksonen S. A serological screening for potential viral pathogens among semi-domesticated Eurasian tundra reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Finland. Acta Vet Scand 2023; 65:8. [PMID: 36814283 PMCID: PMC9948369 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-023-00671-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reindeer herding and husbandry is a traditional and important livelihood in Fennoscandia, and about 200,000 semi-domesticated reindeer are herded in Finland. Climatic changes, leading to ice-locked winter pastures, and encroachment of pasture-land have led to changes in reindeer husbandry, increasing the extent of supplementary or full ration feeding, which has become very common in Finland. Keeping reindeer in corrals or gathering them at permanent feeding sites will increase nose-to-nose contact between animals and they may be exposed to poor hygienic conditions. This may impact the epidemiology of infectious diseases, such as viral infections. The aim of this study was to investigate Finnish semi-domesticated reindeer for exposure to viral pathogens. Blood samples were collected from 596 reindeer (358 calves, 238 adults) in 2015, from nine reindeer slaughterhouses, representing most of the reindeer herding regions in Finland. Plasma samples were investigated for antibodies against a selection of known and potential reindeer viral pathogens by using enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). RESULTS The screening suggested that alphaherpesvirus and gammaherpesvirus (malignant catarrhal fever virus group; MCFV) were enzootic in the reindeer population, with a seroprevalence of 46.5% (range at slaughterhouse level 28.6-64.3%) and 29.0% (range 3.5-62.2%), respectively. Whereas the seroprevalence was significantly higher for alphaherpesvirus among adult reindeer (91.2%) as compared to calves (16.8%), no age difference was revealed for antibodies against gammaherpesvirus. For alphaherpesvirus, the seroprevalence in the northernmost region, having the highest animal density (animals/km2), was significantly higher (55.6%) as compared to the southernmost region (36.2%), whereas the seroprevalence pattern for gammaherpesvirus indicated the opposite, with 8.1% in the north and 50.0% in the south. Four reindeer (0.7%) had antibodies against Pestivirus, whereas no antibodies were detected against Bluetongue virus or Schmallenbergvirus. CONCLUSIONS Alphaherpesvirus and gammaherpesvirus (MCFV) seems to be enzootic in the Finnish reindeer population, similar to other reindeer herds in Fennoscandia, whereas the exposure to Pestivirus was low compared to findings in Norway and Sweden. The ongoing changes in the reindeer herding industry necessitate knowledge on reindeer health and diseases that may impact animal welfare and health of reindeer as well as the economy of the reindeer herding industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Morten Tryland
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, 2480, Koppang, Norway. .,Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Framstredet 39, Breivika, 9019, Tromsö, Norway.
| | - Cristina Wetzel Cunha
- grid.30064.310000 0001 2157 6568Animal Disease Research Unit, US Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Washington State University, Pullman, WA USA
| | - Boris Fuchs
- grid.10919.300000000122595234Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Framstredet 39, Breivika, 9019 Tromsö, Norway
| | - Eva Marie Breines
- grid.477237.2Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, 2480 Koppang, Norway
| | - Hong Li
- grid.30064.310000 0001 2157 6568Animal Disease Research Unit, US Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Washington State University, Pullman, WA USA
| | - Pikka Jokelainen
- grid.6203.70000 0004 0417 4147Infectious Disease Preparedness, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark ,grid.7737.40000 0004 0410 2071Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Sauli Laaksonen
- grid.7737.40000 0004 0410 2071Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Riga F, Mandas L, Putzu N, Murgia A. Reintroductions of the Corsican Red Deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus): Conservation Projects and Sanitary Risk. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12080980. [PMID: 35454227 PMCID: PMC9025293 DOI: 10.3390/ani12080980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The Corsican red deer is an endangered subspecies that needs artificial translocation projects to gain its complete recovery with the formation of viable, interconnected populations. Between 2007 and 2017, we performed two reintroduction projects in four sites in central–eastern Sardinia via tracking 32 deer by means of GPS/GSM radiotelemetry. On the basis of the obtained results, we built a species distribution model (SDM) using MaxEnt software, selecting 200 random points from the merged deer core areas as presence data. Furthermore, to evaluate the sanitary risk linked to artificial translocations, we analyzed deer positivity to Bluetongue virus (BTV) in the founder populations. The SDM showed a high deer capability to colonize central–eastern Sardinia, but it also showed the possibility of spreading BTV to domestic sheep because sanitary analyses confirmed the virus’ presence in the founder populations. Our main conclusion was that reintroductions are effective tools for the long-term conservation of the Corsican red deer, as long as sanitary risks are minimized by means of sanitary monitoring of translocated deer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Riga
- Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA), 00144 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | | | - Nicola Putzu
- Agenzia Forestas, Actual Address Strada Fortino, 53, 14100 Asti, Italy;
| | - Andrea Murgia
- Agenzia Forestas, 09100 Cagliari, Italy; (L.M.); (A.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Saminathan M, Singh KP, Khorajiya JH, Dinesh M, Vineetha S, Maity M, Rahman AF, Misri J, Malik YS, Gupta VK, Singh RK, Dhama K. An updated review on bluetongue virus: epidemiology, pathobiology, and advances in diagnosis and control with special reference to India. Vet Q 2021; 40:258-321. [PMID: 33003985 PMCID: PMC7655031 DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2020.1831708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Bluetongue (BT) is an economically important, non-contagious viral disease of domestic and wild ruminants. BT is caused by BT virus (BTV) and it belongs to the genus Orbivirus and family Reoviridae. BTV is transmitted by Culicoides midges and causes clinical disease in sheep, white-tailed deer, pronghorn antelope, bighorn sheep, and subclinical manifestation in cattle, goats and camelids. BT is a World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) listed multispecies disease and causes great socio-economic losses. To date, 28 serotypes of BTV have been reported worldwide and 23 serotypes have been reported from India. Transplacental transmission (TPT) and fetal abnormalities in ruminants had been reported with cell culture adopted live-attenuated vaccine strains of BTV. However, emergence of BTV-8 in Europe during 2006, confirmed TPT of wild-type/field strains of BTV. Diagnosis of BT is more important for control of disease and to ensure BTV-free trade of animals and their products. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, agar gel immunodiffusion assay and competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay are found to be sensitive and OIE recommended tests for diagnosis of BTV for international trade. Control measures include mass vaccination (most effective method), serological and entomological surveillance, forming restriction zones and sentinel programs. Major hindrances with control of BT in India are the presence of multiple BTV serotypes, high density of ruminant and vector populations. A pentavalent inactivated, adjuvanted vaccine is administered currently in India to control BT. Recombinant vaccines with DIVA strategies are urgently needed to combat this disease. This review is the first to summarise the seroprevalence of BTV in India for 40 years, economic impact and pathobiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mani Saminathan
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Karam Pal Singh
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | | | - Murali Dinesh
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Sobharani Vineetha
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Madhulina Maity
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - At Faslu Rahman
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Jyoti Misri
- Animal Science Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Yashpal Singh Malik
- Division of Biological Standardization, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Vivek Kumar Gupta
- Centre for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Raj Kumar Singh
- Director, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Kuldeep Dhama
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Malesios C, Chatzipanagiotou M, Demiris N, Kantartzis A, Chatzilazarou G, Chatzinikolaou S, Kostoulas P. A quantitative analysis of the spatial and temporal evolution patterns of the bluetongue virus outbreak in the island of Lesvos, Greece, in 2014. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 67:2073-2085. [PMID: 32216044 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Bluetongue virus (BTV) causes an infectious disease called bluetongue, a vector-borne viral disease of ruminants, which has major implications and causes severe economic damage due to its effect on livestock. These economic costs are mostly ascribed to the trade restrictions imposed during the epidemic period. In August 2014, an epidemic of bluetongue occurred in the island of Lesvos, Greece. The epidemic was severe and evolved over time, lasting until December 2014. The total cases of infected farms were 490, including a total number of 136,368 small ruminants. In this paper, we describe a bluetongue virus serotype 4 (BTV-4) epidemic and utilize Bayesian epidemic models to capture the spatio-temporal spread of the disease. Our study provides important insights into the drivers of BTV transmission and has implications for designing control strategies. The results showed strong spatial autocorrelations, with BTV being more likely to spread between farms located nearby. The spatial modelling results proposed a certain spatial radius (~12 km) around the onset of a similar epidemic for imposing restrictions on animal movement, which can be sufficient for the control of the disease and limit economic damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chrisovalantis Malesios
- Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, Athens Agricultural University, Athens, Greece
- Aston Business School, Aston University, Birmingham, UK
| | | | - Nikolaos Demiris
- Department of Statistics, Athens University of Economics and Business, Athens, Greece
- Cambridge Clinical Trials Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Apostolos Kantartzis
- Department of Forestry and Management of the Environment and Natural Resources, Democritus University of Thrace, Orestiada, Greece
| | - Georgios Chatzilazarou
- Department of Forestry and Management of the Environment and Natural Resources, Democritus University of Thrace, Orestiada, Greece
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Evaluating the most appropriate pooling ratio for EDTA blood samples to detect Bluetongue virus using real-time RT-PCR. Vet Microbiol 2018; 217:58-63. [PMID: 29615257 PMCID: PMC5904549 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2018.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The control of Bluetongue virus (BTV) presents a significant challenge to European Union (EU) member states as trade restrictions are placed on animals imported from BTV-affected countries. BTV surveillance programs are costly to maintain, thus, pooling of EDTA blood samples is used to reduce costs and increase throughput. We investigated different pooling ratios (1:2, 1:5, 1:10 and 1:20) for EDTA blood samples to detect a single BTV positive animal. A published real-time RT-PCR assay (Hofmann et al., 2008) and a commercial assay (ThermoFisher VetMax™ BTV NS3 kit) were used to analyse BTV RNA extracted from pooled EDTA blood samples. The detection rate was low for the onset of infection sample (0-2 days post infection (dpi); CT 36) irrespective of the pooling ratio. Both assays could reliably detect a single BTV-positive animal at early viraemia (3-6 dpi; CT 33) when pooled, however, detection rate diminished with increasing pooling ratio. A statistical model indicated that pooling samples up to 1:20, is suitable to detect a single BTV positive animal at peak viraemia (7-12 dpi) or late infection (13-30 dpi) with a probability of detection of >80% and >94% using the Hofmann et al. (2008) and VetMAX assays, respectively. Using the assays highlighted in our study, pooling at ratios of 1:20 would be technically suitable in BTV-endemic countries for surveillance purposes. As peak viraemia occurs between 7-12 days post infection, a 1:10 pooling ratio is appropriate for post-import testing when animals are sampled within a similar time frame post-import.
Collapse
|
8
|
Mehrpad S, Cleveland CA, DeNicola A, Dubey J, Yabsley MJ. Survey for selected pathogens in Philippine deer ( Rusa marianna ) from Guam, Marianna Islands, USA. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2018; 11:36-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2017.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Revised: 11/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
|
9
|
More S, Bicout D, Bøtner A, Butterworth A, Depner K, Edwards S, Garin-Bastuji B, Good M, Gortázar Schmidt C, Michel V, Miranda MA, Nielsen SS, Raj M, Sihvonen L, Spoolder H, Stegeman JA, Thulke HH, Velarde A, Willeberg P, Winckler C, Mertens P, Savini G, Zientara S, Broglia A, Baldinelli F, Gogin A, Kohnle L, Calistri P. Assessment of listing and categorisation of animal diseases within the framework of the Animal Health Law (Regulation (EU) No 2016/429): bluetongue. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04957. [PMID: 32625623 PMCID: PMC7010010 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A specific concept of strain was developed in order to classify the BTV serotypes ever reported in Europe based on their properties of animal health impact: the genotype, morbidity, mortality, speed of spread, period and geographical area of occurrence were considered as classification parameters. According to this methodology the strain groups identified were (i) the BTV strains belonging to serotypes BTV-1-24, (ii) some strains of serotypes BTV-16 and (iii) small ruminant-adapted strains belonging to serotypes BTV-25, -27, -30. Those strain groups were assessed according to the criteria of the Animal Health Law (AHL), in particular criteria of Article 7, Article 5 on the eligibility of bluetongue to be listed, Article 9 for the categorisation according to disease prevention and control rules as in Annex IV and Article 8 on the list of animal species related to bluetongue. The assessment has been performed following a methodology composed of information collection, expert judgement at individual and collective level. The output is composed of the categorical answer, and for the questions where no consensus was reached, the different supporting views are reported. The strain group BTV (1-24) can be considered eligible to be listed for Union intervention as laid down in Article 5(3) of the AHL, while the strain group BTV-25-30 and BTV-16 cannot. The strain group BTV-1-24 meets the criteria as in Sections 2 and 5 of Annex IV of the AHL, for the application of the disease prevention and control rules referred to in points (b) and (e) of Article 9(1) of the AHL. The animal species that can be considered to be listed for BTV-1-24 according to Article 8(3) are several species of Bovidae, Cervidae and Camelidae as susceptible species; domestic cattle, sheep and red deer as reservoir hosts, midges insect of genus Culicoides spp. as vector species.
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
The performance of different bluetongue control measures related to both vaccination and protection from bluetongue virus (BTV) vectors was assessed. By means of a mathematical model, it was concluded that when vaccination is applied on 95% of animals even for 3 years, bluetongue cannot be eradicated and is able to re‐emerge. Only after 5 years of vaccination, the infection may be close to the eradication levels. In the absence of vaccination, the disease can persist for several years, reaching an endemic condition with low level of prevalence of infection. Among the mechanisms for bluetongue persistence, the persistence in the wildlife, the transplacental transmission in the host, the duration of viraemia and the possible vertical transmission in vectors were assessed. The criteria of the current surveillance scheme in place in the EU for demonstration of the virus absence need revision, because it was highlighted that under the current surveillance policy bluetongue circulation might occur undetected. For the safe movement of animals, newborn ruminants from vaccinated mothers with neutralising antibodies can be considered protected against infection, although a protective titre threshold cannot be identified. The presence of colostral antibodies interferes with the vaccine immunisation in the newborn for more than 3 months after birth, whereas the minimum time after vaccination of animal to be considered immune can be up to 48 days. The knowledge about vectors ecology, mechanisms of over‐wintering and criteria for the seasonally vector‐free period was updated. Some Culicoides species are active throughout the year and an absolute vector‐free period may not exist at least in some areas in Europe. To date, there is no evidence that the use of insecticides and repellents reduce the transmission of BTV in the field, although this may reduce host/vector contact. By only using pour‐on insecticides, protection of animals is lower than the one provided by vector‐proof establishments. This publication is linked to the following EFSA Supporting Publications article: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.EN-1182/full, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.EN-1171/full
Collapse
|
11
|
Vasileiou NGC, Fthenakis GC, Amiridis GS, Athanasiou LV, Birtsas P, Chatzopoulos DC, Chouzouris TM, Giannakopoulos A, Ioannidi KS, Kalonaki SN, Katsafadou AI, Kyriakis CS, Mavrogianni VS, Papadopoulos E, Spyrou V, Valiakos G, Venianaki AP, Billinis C. Experiences from the 2014 outbreak of bluetongue in Greece. Small Rumin Res 2016; 142:61-68. [PMID: 32288210 PMCID: PMC7126986 DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2016.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 02/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2016] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Objective of this paper was to review relevant work and to present a general account of the bluetongue outbreak, which occurred in Greece in 2014. In total, 2895 outbreaks of the disease have been reported by the veterinary authorities of Greece; sheep, goats and cattle were affected with officially reported morbidity rates of 11.0%, 2.0% and 3.5%, respectively. No vaccinations were allowed and conservative measures were implemented to attempt to limit the disease, which at the end had expanded throughout the country. In field investigations, a significantly higher bluetongue morbidity rate (27.5%) in sheep has been reported. During that work, clinical anaemia was encountered, which was characterised as macrocytic, hypochromic, regenerative and non-haemolytic. Other investigations, which are reviewed in this paper, have described an outbreak of Citrobacter freundii-associated enteritis in newborn kids, offspring of goats subclinically infected with Bluetongue virus, increased rate of early embryonic deaths, reduced conception rates, increased incidence risk of mastitis and reduced milk yield in herds of subclinically-infected cattle and detection of the virus from hunter-harvested tissue samples of roe-deer. In 2015, vaccines against the disease have been licenced; vaccinations started in May 2015. Then, in 2015, only one outbreak of the disease was confirmed, which could have been the result of a combination of reasons acting concurrently to prevent further cases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N G C Vasileiou
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - G C Fthenakis
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - G S Amiridis
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - L V Athanasiou
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - P Birtsas
- Technological Education Institute of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | | | - T M Chouzouris
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | | | - K S Ioannidi
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - S N Kalonaki
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - A I Katsafadou
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - C S Kyriakis
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - V S Mavrogianni
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - E Papadopoulos
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - V Spyrou
- Technological Education Institute of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - G Valiakos
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - A P Venianaki
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - C Billinis
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kyriakis CS, Billinis C, Papadopoulos E, Vasileiou NGC, Athanasiou LV, Fthenakis GC. Bluetongue in small ruminants: An opinionated review, with a brief appraisal of the 2014 outbreak of the disease in Greece and the south-east Europe. Vet Microbiol 2015; 181:66-74. [PMID: 26304745 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Bluetongue is an arthropod-borne viral disease of ruminants, especially of sheep, caused by Bluetongue virus, which belongs to the genus Orbivirus of the family Reoviridae and is classified into 26 antigenically distinct serotypes. Once thought to be restricted in Africa and parts of the Middle East, bluetongue has now become a concern in sheep-rearing countries around the world. In the past 10 years, severe outbreaks have occurred in Europe with important economic consequences; of these, the 2006-20008 outbreak in Europe was caused by a serotype 8 strain and the 2014 outbreak in Greece and the other countries of south-east Europe was caused by a serotype 4 strain, suggested to be a reassortant strain with genome segments from lineages of serotype 1, 2 and 4. Immunisation campaigns can be implemented for successful control and limiting of the disease. Nevertheless, in both of the above outbreaks, late application of vaccinations led to a wide spread of the disease, which subsequently resulted in significant losses in livestock in the affected regions. In view of that, standardisation of control measures in the future will be beneficial for efficiently limiting outbreaks of the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C S Kyriakis
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - C Billinis
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece
| | - E Papadopoulos
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - N G C Vasileiou
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece
| | - L V Athanasiou
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece
| | - G C Fthenakis
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece
| |
Collapse
|