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Zhao Y, Yang F, Jiang H, Gao G. Piezoceramic membrane with built-in ultrasound for reactive oxygen species generation and synergistic vibration anti-fouling. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4845. [PMID: 38844530 PMCID: PMC11156986 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49266-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Piezoceramic membranes have emerged as a prominent solution for membrane fouling control. However, the prevalent use of toxic lead and limitations of vibration-based anti-fouling mechanism impede their wider adoption in water treatment. This study introduces a Mn/BaTiO3 piezoceramic membrane, demonstrating a promising in-situ anti-fouling efficacy and mechanism insights. When applied to an Alternating Current at a resonant frequency of 20 V, 265 kHz, the membrane achieves optimal vibration, effectively mitigating various foulants such as high-concentration oil (2500 ppm, including real industrial oil wastewater), bacteria and different charged inorganic colloidal particles, showing advantages over other reported piezoceramic membranes. Importantly, our findings suggest that the built-in ultrasonic vibration of piezoceramic membranes can generate reactive oxygen species. This offers profound insights into the distinct anti-fouling processes for organic and inorganic wastewater, supplementing and unifying the traditional singular vibrational anti-fouling mechanism of piezoceramic membranes, and potentially propelling the development of piezoelectric catalytic membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhao
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China.
| | - Feng Yang
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Han Jiang
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Guandao Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
- Research Center for Environmental Nanotechnology (ReCENT), Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
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2
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Tuneable ion transport by electrically responsive membranes under electrical assistance. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2022.121046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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3
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Wu L, Li Q, Ma C, Li M, Yu Y. A novel conductive carbon-based forward osmosis membrane for dye wastewater treatment. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 308:136367. [PMID: 36088972 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Forward osmosis (FO) membrane fouling is one of the main reasons that hinder the further application of FO technology in the treatment of dye wastewater. To alleviate membrane fouling, a conductive coal carbon-based substrate and polydopamine nanoparticles (PDA NPs) interlayer composite FO membrane (CPFO) was prepared by interfacial polymerization (IP). CPFO-10 membrane prepared by depositing 10 mL of PDA NPs solution exhibited an optimum performance with water flux of 7.56 L/(m2h) for FO mode and 10.75 L/(m2h) for pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) mode, respectively. For rhodamine B and chrome black T dye wastewater treatment, the water flux losses were reduced by 21.6%, and 14.5% under the voltages of +1.5 V, and -1.5 V, respectively, compared with no voltage applied after the device was operated for 8 h. The applied voltage had little effect on the fouling mitigation performance of the CPFO membrane for neutral charged cresol red. After the device was operated for 4 cycles, the rejection rates of dyes wastewater treated by the CPFO membranes with applied voltage were close to 100%. The flux decline rate and flux recovery rate of CPFO membrane for rhodamine B and chrome black T wastewater treatment under application of +1.5 V and -1.5 V voltage after 4 cycles were 11.6%, 99.2%, and 16.7%, 98.9%, respectively. Therefore, the voltage-applied CPFO membrane still maintained good rejection and antifouling performance in long-term operation. This study provides a new insight into the preparation of conductive FO membranes for dye wastewater treatment and membrane fouling control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Songliao Aquatic Environment, Ministry of Education, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun, 130000, China
| | - Qianqian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Cong Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin, 300387, China; Tianjin Haiyuanhui Technology Co., Ltd., Tianjin, 300457, China.
| | - Ming Li
- Key Laboratory of Songliao Aquatic Environment, Ministry of Education, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun, 130000, China
| | - Yujuan Yu
- Center of Environmental Emergency and Accident Investigation of Changchun, Changchun, 130000, China
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4
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Khosla A, Sonu, Awan HTA, Singh K, Gaurav, Walvekar R, Zhao Z, Kaushik A, Khalid M, Chaudhary V. Emergence of MXene and MXene-Polymer Hybrid Membranes as Future- Environmental Remediation Strategies. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2203527. [PMID: 36316226 PMCID: PMC9798995 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202203527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
The continuous deterioration of the environment due to extensive industrialization and urbanization has raised the requirement to devise high-performance environmental remediation technologies. Membrane technologies, primarily based on conventional polymers, are the most commercialized air, water, solid, and radiation-based environmental remediation strategies. Low stability at high temperatures, swelling in organic contaminants, and poor selectivity are the fundamental issues associated with polymeric membranes restricting their scalable viability. Polymer-metal-carbides and nitrides (MXenes) hybrid membranes possess remarkable physicochemical attributes, including strong mechanical endurance, high mechanical flexibility, superior adsorptive behavior, and selective permeability, due to multi-interactions between polymers and MXene's surface functionalities. This review articulates the state-of-the-art MXene-polymer hybrid membranes, emphasizing its fabrication routes, enhanced physicochemical properties, and improved adsorptive behavior. It comprehensively summarizes the utilization of MXene-polymer hybrid membranes for environmental remediation applications, including water purification, desalination, ion-separation, gas separation and detection, containment adsorption, and electromagnetic and nuclear radiation shielding. Furthermore, the review highlights the associated bottlenecks of MXene-Polymer hybrid-membranes and its possible alternate solutions to meet industrial requirements. Discussed are opportunities and prospects related to MXene-polymer membrane to devise intelligent and next-generation environmental remediation strategies with the integration of modern age technologies of internet-of-things, artificial intelligence, machine-learning, 5G-communication and cloud-computing are elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajit Khosla
- Department of Applied ChemistrySchool of Advanced Materials and NanotechnologyXidian UniversityXi'an710126P. R. China
| | - Sonu
- School Advanced of Chemical SciencesShoolini University of Biotechnology and Management SciencesBajholSolanHP173212India
| | - Hafiz Taimoor Ahmed Awan
- Graphene and Advanced 2D Materials Research Group (GAMRG)School of Engineering and TechnologySunway UniversityNo. 5Jalan UniversityBandar SunwayPetaling JayaSelangor47500Malaysia
| | - Karambir Singh
- School of Physics and Material scienceShoolini University of Biotechnology and Management SciencesBajholSolanHP173212India
| | - Gaurav
- Department of BotanyRamjas CollegeUniversity of DelhiDelhi110007India
- SUMAN Laboratory (SUstainable Materials and Advanced Nanotechnology Lab)University of DelhiNew Delhi110072India
| | - Rashmi Walvekar
- Department of Chemical EngineeringSchool of New Energy and Chemical EngineeringXiamen University MalaysiaJalan Sunsuria, Bandar SunsuriaSepangSelangor43900Malaysia
| | - Zhenhuan Zhao
- Department of Applied ChemistrySchool of Advanced Materials and NanotechnologyXidian UniversityXi'an710126P. R. China
| | - Ajeet Kaushik
- NanoBioTech LaboratoryHealth System EngineeringDepartment of Environmental EngineeringFlorida Polytechnic UniversityLakelandFL33805USA
- School of EngineeringUniversity of Petroleum and Energy Studies (UPES)DehradunUttarakhand248007India
| | - Mohammad Khalid
- Graphene and Advanced 2D Materials Research Group (GAMRG)School of Engineering and TechnologySunway UniversityNo. 5Jalan UniversityBandar SunwayPetaling JayaSelangor47500Malaysia
- Sunway Materials Smart Science and Engineering (SMS2E) Research ClusterSunway UniversityNo. 5Jalan UniversitiBandar SunwayPetaling JayaSelangor47500Malaysia
| | - Vishal Chaudhary
- Research Cell and Department of PhysicsBhagini Nivedita CollegeUniversity of DelhiNew DelhiIndia
- SUMAN Laboratory (SUstainable Materials and Advanced Nanotechnology Lab)University of DelhiNew Delhi110072India
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5
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Polyaniline-based acid resistant membranes for controllable ion rejection performance. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.122910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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6
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Zhang Y, Zhang H, Chen L, Wang J, Wang J, Li J, Zhao Y, Zhang M, Zhang H. Piezoelectric Polyvinylidene Fluoride Membranes with Self-Powered and Electrified Antifouling Performance in Pressure-Driven Ultrafiltration Processes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:16271-16280. [PMID: 36239692 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c05359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Electroactive membranes have the potential to address membrane fouling via electrokinetic phenomena. However, additional energy consumption and complex material design represent chief barriers to achieving sustainable and economically viable antifouling performance. Herein, we present a novel strategy for fabricating a piezoelectric antifouling polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane (Pi-UFM) by integrating the ion-dipole interactions (NaCl coagulation bath) and mild poling (in situ electric field) into a one-step phase separation process. This Pi-UFM with an intact porous structure could be self-powered in a typical ultrafiltration (UF) process via the responsivity to pressure stimuli, where the dominant β-PVDF phase and the out-of-plane aligned dipoles were demonstrated to be critical to obtain piezoelectricity. By challenging with different feed solutions, the Pi-UFM achieved enhanced antifouling capacity for organic foulants even with high ionic strength, suggesting that electrostatic repulsion and hydration repulsion were behind the antifouling mechanism. Furthermore, the TMP-dependent output performance of the Pi-UFM in both air and water confirmed its ability for converting ambient mechanical energy to in situ surface potential (ζ), demonstrating that this antifouling performance was a result of the membrane electromechanical transducer actions. Therefore, this study provides useful insight and strategy to enable piezoelectric materials for membrane filtration applications with energy efficiency and extend functionalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Haoquan Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Lingling Chen
- College of Health Science and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China
| | - Jie Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Jun Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Jian Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Yuan Zhao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Hongwei Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
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7
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Zhao Y, Gu Y, Liu B, Yan Y, Shan C, Guo J, Zhang S, Vecitis CD, Gao G. Pulsed hydraulic-pressure-responsive self-cleaning membrane. Nature 2022; 608:69-73. [PMID: 35922500 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04942-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Pressure-driven membranes is a widely used separation technology in a range of industries, such as water purification, bioprocessing, food processing and chemical production1,2. Despite their numerous advantages, such as modular design and minimal footprint, inevitable membrane fouling is the key challenge in most practical applications3. Fouling limits membrane performance by reducing permeate flux or increasing pressure requirements, which results in higher energetic operation and maintenance costs4-7. Here we report a hydraulic-pressure-responsive membrane (PiezoMem) to transform pressure pulses into electroactive responses for in situ self-cleaning. A transient hydraulic pressure fluctuation across the membrane results in generation of current pulses and rapid voltage oscillations (peak, +5.0/-3.2 V) capable of foulant degradation and repulsion without the need for supplementary chemical cleaning agents, secondary waste disposal or further external stimuli3,8-13. PiezoMem showed broad-spectrum antifouling action towards a range of membrane foulants, including organic molecules, oil droplets, proteins, bacteria and inorganic colloids, through reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and dielectrophoretic repulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yuna Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Bin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yujie Yan
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chao Shan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.,Research Center for Environmental Nanotechnology (ReCENT), Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jian Guo
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shantao Zhang
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chad D Vecitis
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Guandao Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China. .,Research Center for Environmental Nanotechnology (ReCENT), Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
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8
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Zhao Y, Gu Y, Gao G. Piezoelectricity induced by pulsed hydraulic pressure enables in situ membrane demulsification and oil/water separation. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 215:118245. [PMID: 35290871 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Recovering oil from oily wastewater is not only for economic gains but also for mitigating environmental pollution. However, demulsification of oil droplets stabilized with surfactants is challenging because of their low surface energy. Although the widely used oil/water separation membrane technologies based on size screening have attracted considerable attention in the past few decades, they are incapable of demulsification of stabilized oil emulsions and the membrane concentrates often require post-processing. Herein, the piezoelectric ceramic membrane (PCM), which can respond to the inherent transmembrane pressure in the pressure-driven membrane processes, was employed to transform hydraulic pressure pulses into electroactive responses to in situ demulsification. The pulsed transmembrane pressure on the PCM results in the generation of considerable rapid voltage oscillations over 3.2 V and a locally high electric field intensity of 7.2 × 107 V/m, which is capable of electrocoalescence with no additional stimuli or high voltage devices. Negative dielectrophoresis (DEP) force occurred in this membrane process and repelled the large size of oil after demulsification away from the PCM surface, ensuring continuous membrane demulsification and oil/water separation. Overall, PCM provides a further opportunity to develop an environmentally friendly and energy-saving electroresponsive membrane technology for practical applications in wastewater treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yuna Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Guandao Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China; Research Center for Environmental Nanotechnology (ReCENT), Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
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9
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Meta-analysis of electrically conductive membranes: A comparative review of their materials, applications, and performance. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.120482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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10
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Wang Y, Liang RZ, Jia TZ, Cao XL, Wang Q, Cao JR, Li S, Shi Q, Isaacs L, Sun SP. Voltage-Gated Membranes Incorporating Cucurbit[ n]uril Molecular Containers for Molecular Nanofiltration. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:6483-6492. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c01263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Rong-Zu Liang
- Institute of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Tian-Zhi Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Xue-Li Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Qian Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Jing-Rong Cao
- Institute of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Shuo Li
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Qixun Shi
- Institute of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Lyle Isaacs
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742 United States
| | - Shi-Peng Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
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11
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Xu LL, Wang KP, Li KL, Zhao SY, Wang J. Development and performance of stable PANI/MWNT conductive membrane for contaminants degradation and anti-fouling behavior. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2021.120112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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12
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Barbhuiya NH, Misra U, Singh SP. Biocatalytic membranes for combating the challenges of membrane fouling and micropollutants in water purification: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 286:131757. [PMID: 34371356 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Over the last few years, the list of water contaminants has grown tremendously due to many anthropogenic activities. Various conventional technologies are available for water and wastewater treatment. However, micropollutants of emerging concern (MEC) are posing a great threat due to their activity at trace concentration and poor removal efficiency by the conventional treatment processes. Advanced technology like membrane technology can remove MEC to some extent. However, issues like the different chemical properties of MEC, selectivity, and fouling of membranes can affect the removal efficiency. Moreover, the concentrate from the membrane filtration may need further treatment. Enzymatic degradation of pollutants and foulants is one of the green approaches for removing various contaminants from the water as well as mitigating membrane fouling. Biocatalytic membranes (BCMs), in which enzymes are immobilized on membranes, combines the advantages of membrane separation and enzymatic degradation. This review article discussed various commonly used enzymes in BCMs for removing MEC and fouling. The majorly used enzymes were oxidoreductases and hydrolases for removing MEC, antifouling, and self-cleaning ability. The various BCM synthesis processes based on entrapment, crosslinking, and binding have been summarized, along with the effects of the addition of the nanoparticles on the performances of the BCMs. The scale-up, commercial viability, challenges, and future direction for improving BCMs have been discussed and shown bright possibilities for these new generation membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Najmul Haque Barbhuiya
- Environmental Science and Engineering Department (ESED), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, 400076, India
| | - Utkarsh Misra
- Environmental Science and Engineering Department (ESED), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, 400076, India; Centre for Research in Nanotechnology & Science (CRNTS), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, 400076, India
| | - Swatantra P Singh
- Environmental Science and Engineering Department (ESED), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, 400076, India; Centre for Research in Nanotechnology & Science (CRNTS), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, 400076, India; Interdisciplinary Program in Climate Studies (IDPCS), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, 400076, India.
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13
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Halali MA, de Lannoy CF. Methods for stability assessment of electrically conductive membranes. MethodsX 2022; 9:101627. [PMID: 35198417 PMCID: PMC8844790 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2022.101627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad Amin Halali
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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14
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Halali MA, de Lannoy CF. Quantifying the Impact of Electrically Conductive Membrane-Generated Hydrogen Peroxide and Extreme pH on the Viability of Escherichia coli Biofilms. Ind Eng Chem Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.1c02914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad Amin Halali
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L8, Canada
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15
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Li B, Tang W, Sun D, Li B, Ge Y, Ye X, Fang W. Electrochemical manufacture of graphene oxide/polyaniline conductive membrane for antibacterial application and electrically enhanced water permeability. J Memb Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2021.119844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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16
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Ma S, Yang F, Chen X, Khor CM, Jung B, Iddya A, Sant G, Jassby D. Removal of As(III) by Electrically Conducting Ultrafiltration Membranes. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 204:117592. [PMID: 34469809 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
As(III) species are the predominant form of arsenic found in groundwater. However, nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes are often unable to effectively reject As(III). In this study, we fabricate highly conducting ultrafiltration (UF) membranes for effective As(III) rejection. These membranes consist of a hydrophilic nickel-carbon nanotubes layer deposited on a UF support, and used as cathodes. Applying cathodic potentials significantly increased As(III) rejection in synthetic/real tap water, a result of locally elevated pH that is brought upon through water electrolysis at the membrane/water interface. The elevated pH conditions convert H3ASO3 to H2AsO3-/HAsO32- that are rejected by the negatively charged membranes. In addition, it was found that Mg(OH)2 that precipitates on the membrane can further trap arsenic. Importantly, almost all As(III) passing through the membranes is oxidized to As(V) by hydrogen peroxide produced on the cathode, which significantly decreased its overall toxicity and mobility. Although the high pH along the membrane surface led to mineral scaling, this scale could be partially removed by backwashing the membrane. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of effective As(III) removal using low-pressure membranes, with As(III) rejection higher than that achieved by NF and RO, and high water permeance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengcun Ma
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Fan Yang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Xin Chen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Laboratory for the Chemistry of Construction Materials (LC2), University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Institute for Carbon Management (ICM), University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Chia Miang Khor
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Bongyeon Jung
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Arpita Iddya
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Gaurav Sant
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Laboratory for the Chemistry of Construction Materials (LC2), University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Institute for Carbon Management (ICM), University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States; California Nano systems Institute (CNSI), University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - David Jassby
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Institute for Carbon Management (ICM), University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States.
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17
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Rice D, Rajwade K, Zuo K, Bansal R, Li Q, Garcia-Segura S, Perreault F. Electrochemically-active carbon nanotube coatings for biofouling mitigation: Cleaning kinetics and energy consumption for cathodic and anodic regimes. J Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 603:391-397. [PMID: 34197987 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2021.06.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Biofouling is a major obstacle in engineered systems exposed to aqueous conditions. Many attempts have been made to engineer the surface properties of materials to render them resistant to biofouling. These modifications typically rely on passive antimicrobial or anti-adhesive surface coatings that prevent the deposition of bacteria or inactivate them once they reach the surface. However, no surface modification strategy completely prevents biofilm formation, and, over time, surfaces will be fouled and require cleaning. In this work, we demonstrate the capacity of electrochemical carbon nanotube coatings in dispersing biofilms formed on the surface. A systematic analysis of the biofilm removal kinetics in function of applied current density is made to identify the optimal current conditions needed for efficient surface cleaning. Operating the electrochemically active surface as a cathode produces superior results compared to when it is operated as an anode. Specifically, the 5.00 A m-2 and 2.50 A m-2 cathodic conditions produced rapid cleaning, with complete biofilm dispersal after 2 min of operation. Surface cleaning is attributed to the generation of microbubbles on the surface that scours the surface to remove the adhered biofilm. Energy consumption analyses indicate that the 2.50 A m-2 cathodic condition offers the best combination of cleaning kinetics and energy consumption achieving 99% biofilm removal at an energy cost of ~$ 0.0318 m-2. This approach can be competitive compared to the current chemical cleaning strategies, while offering an opportunity for a more sustainable and integrated approach for biofouling management in engineered systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas Rice
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, United States; Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, United States
| | - Kimya Rajwade
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, United States; Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, United States
| | - Kuichang Zuo
- Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, United States; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, United States
| | - Rishabh Bansal
- Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, United States; School for Engineering of Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, United States
| | - Qilin Li
- Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, United States; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, United States
| | - Sergi Garcia-Segura
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, United States; Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, United States
| | - François Perreault
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, United States; Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, United States.
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18
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Halali MA, Larocque M, de Lannoy CF. Investigating the stability of electrically conductive membranes. J Memb Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2021.119181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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19
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Ying XB, Huang JJ, Shen DS, Feng HJ, Jia YF, Guo QQ. Fouling behaviors are different at various negative potentials in electrochemical anaerobic membrane bioreactors with conductive ceramic membranes. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 761:143199. [PMID: 33234267 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 10/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Membrane fouling remains a critical challenge to the practical application of anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR). To address this challenge, a conductive ceramic membrane was prepared for fouling control in AnMBR. By using the conductive membranes, the anti-fouling performances were enhanced about 3 times at potentials below -1.0 V vs Ag/AgCl compared to the conventional AnMBR. The particle size distributions and the electric field calculations suggest that such an enhancement was mainly attributed to the increased particle sizes of foulants in the supernatant and the electric field forces. Moreover, the scanning electron microscope and confocal laser scanning microscope results show that the conductive membrane at -1.0 V could increase the porosity of the gel layer on the surface, whereas the conductive membrane at -2.0 V could inhibit the activity of adhering bacteria. Surprisingly, membrane fouling of electrically-assisted AnMBR (AnEMBR) at -0.5 V was increased, which was attributed to a dense biofilm-like structure formation. Such a result is contrary to the conventional cognition that negative potential could mitigate the membrane fouling. Overall, this work supplements the understanding of the anti-fouling effects of the electric field in AnEMBR, and provides supplementary information for the engineering application of AnEMBR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian-Bin Ying
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310012, PR China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Treatment and Recycling, Hangzhou 310012, PR China
| | - Jing-Jing Huang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310012, PR China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Treatment and Recycling, Hangzhou 310012, PR China
| | - Dong-Sheng Shen
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310012, PR China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Treatment and Recycling, Hangzhou 310012, PR China; Instrument Analysis Center, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310012, PR China
| | - Hua-Jun Feng
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310012, PR China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Treatment and Recycling, Hangzhou 310012, PR China; Instrument Analysis Center, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310012, PR China.
| | - Yu-Feng Jia
- Key Laboratory for Solid Waste Management and Environment Safety, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, PR China
| | - Qiao-Qi Guo
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310012, PR China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Treatment and Recycling, Hangzhou 310012, PR China
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20
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Electrically conducting duplex-coated gold-PES-UF membrane for capacitive organic fouling mitigation and rejection enhancement. J Memb Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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21
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Shapira B, Penki TR, Cohen I, Elias Y, Dalpke R, Beyer A, Gölzhäuser A, Avraham E, Aurbach D. Combined nanofiltration and advanced oxidation processes with bifunctional carbon nanomembranes. RSC Adv 2021; 11:14777-14786. [PMID: 35424019 PMCID: PMC8697847 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra01098k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A proof of concept of bi-functional membrane, for wastewater treatment, consisting of partially reduced graphene oxide and CNM is demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barak Shapira
- Chemistry Department
- Bar Ilan University
- Ramat Gan 592002
- Israel
- Institute of Nanotechnology & Advanced Materials
| | - Tirupathi Rao Penki
- Chemistry Department
- Bar Ilan University
- Ramat Gan 592002
- Israel
- Institute of Nanotechnology & Advanced Materials
| | - Izaak Cohen
- Chemistry Department
- Bar Ilan University
- Ramat Gan 592002
- Israel
- Institute of Nanotechnology & Advanced Materials
| | - Yuval Elias
- Chemistry Department
- Bar Ilan University
- Ramat Gan 592002
- Israel
- Institute of Nanotechnology & Advanced Materials
| | - Raphael Dalpke
- Fakultät für Physik
- Bielefeld University
- Bielefeld D-33615
- Germany
| | - André Beyer
- Fakultät für Physik
- Bielefeld University
- Bielefeld D-33615
- Germany
| | | | - Eran Avraham
- Chemistry Department
- Bar Ilan University
- Ramat Gan 592002
- Israel
- Institute of Nanotechnology & Advanced Materials
| | - Doron Aurbach
- Chemistry Department
- Bar Ilan University
- Ramat Gan 592002
- Israel
- Institute of Nanotechnology & Advanced Materials
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22
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Pang AL, Arsad A, Ahmadipour M. Synthesis and factor affecting on the conductivity of polypyrrole: a short review. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.5201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ai Ling Pang
- UTM‐MPRC Institute for Oil and Gas, School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Johor Bahru Johor Malaysia
| | - Agus Arsad
- UTM‐MPRC Institute for Oil and Gas, School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Johor Bahru Johor Malaysia
| | - Mohsen Ahmadipour
- School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus Nibong Tebal Pulau Penang Malaysia
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23
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Alayande AB, Goh K, Son M, Kim CM, Chae KJ, Kang Y, Jang J, Kim IS, Yang E. Recent Progress in One- and Two-Dimensional Nanomaterial-Based Electro-Responsive Membranes: Versatile and Smart Applications from Fouling Mitigation to Tuning Mass Transport. MEMBRANES 2020; 11:5. [PMID: 33375122 PMCID: PMC7822182 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11010005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Membrane technologies are playing an ever-important role in the field of water treatment since water reuse and desalination were put in place as alternative water resources to alleviate the global water crisis. Recently, membranes are becoming more versatile and powerful with upgraded electroconductive capabilities, owing to the development of novel materials (e.g., carbon nanotubes and graphene) with dual properties for assembling into membranes and exerting electrochemical activities. Novel nanomaterial-based electrically responsive membranes have been employed with promising results for mitigating membrane fouling, enhancing membrane separation performance and self-cleaning ability, controlling membrane wettability, etc. In this article, recent progress in novel-nanomaterial-based electrically responsive membranes for application in the field of water purification are provided. Thereafter, several critical drawbacks and future outlooks are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kunli Goh
- Singapore Membrane Technology Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637141, Singapore;
| | - Moon Son
- School of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, UNIST-gil 50, Ulsan 44919, Korea;
| | - Chang-Min Kim
- Graduate School of Water Resources, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Gyeonggi-do 2066, Korea;
| | - Kyu-Jung Chae
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Korea Maritime and Ocean University, Busan 49112, Korea;
- Interdisciplinary Major of Ocean Renewable Energy Engineering, Korea Maritime and Ocean University, Busan 49112, Korea
| | - Yesol Kang
- Global Desalination Research Center (GDRC), School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Korea; (Y.K.); (J.J.); (I.S.K.)
| | - Jaewon Jang
- Global Desalination Research Center (GDRC), School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Korea; (Y.K.); (J.J.); (I.S.K.)
| | - In S. Kim
- Global Desalination Research Center (GDRC), School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Korea; (Y.K.); (J.J.); (I.S.K.)
| | - Euntae Yang
- Department of Marine Environmental Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Gyeongsangnam-do 53064, Korea
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24
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Karahan HE, Goh K, Zhang CJ, Yang E, Yıldırım C, Chuah CY, Ahunbay MG, Lee J, Tantekin-Ersolmaz ŞB, Chen Y, Bae TH. MXene Materials for Designing Advanced Separation Membranes. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2020; 32:e1906697. [PMID: 32484267 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201906697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
MXenes are emerging rapidly as a new family of multifunctional nanomaterials with prospective applications rivaling that of graphenes. Herein, a timely account of the design and performance evaluation of MXene-based membranes is provided. First, the preparation and physicochemical characteristics of MXenes are outlined, with a focus on exfoliation, dispersion stability, and processability, which are crucial factors for membrane fabrication. Then, different formats of MXene-based membranes in the literature are introduced, comprising pristine or intercalated nanolaminates and polymer-based nanocomposites. Next, the major membrane processes so far pursued by MXenes are evaluated, covering gas separation, wastewater treatment, desalination, and organic solvent purification. The potential utility of MXenes in phase inversion and interfacial polymerization, as well as layer-by-layer assembly for the preparation of nanocomposite membranes, is also critically discussed. Looking forward, exploiting the high electrical conductivity and catalytic activity of certain MXenes is put into perspective for niche applications that are not easily achievable by other nanomaterials. Furthermore, the benefits of simulation/modeling approaches for designing MXene-based membranes are exemplified. Overall, critical insights are provided for materials science and membrane communities to navigate better while exploring the potential of MXenes for developing advanced separation membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hüseyin Enis Karahan
- Singapore Membrane Technology Center (SMTC), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, 2006, Australia
| | - Kunli Goh
- Singapore Membrane Technology Center (SMTC), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
| | - Chuanfang John Zhang
- ETH Domain, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Euntae Yang
- Singapore Membrane Technology Center (SMTC), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
- Department of Marine Environmental Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, 38 Cheondaegukchi-gil, Tongyeong-si, Gyeongnam, 53064, Republic of Korea
| | - Cansu Yıldırım
- Polymer Science and Technology Graduate Program, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, 34469, Turkey
| | - Chong Yang Chuah
- Singapore Membrane Technology Center (SMTC), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - M Göktuğ Ahunbay
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, 34469, Turkey
| | - Jaewoo Lee
- Singapore Membrane Technology Center (SMTC), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
| | | | - Yuan Chen
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, 2006, Australia
| | - Tae-Hyun Bae
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
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25
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Detection of fouling on electrically conductive membranes by electrical impedance spectroscopy. Sep Purif Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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26
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Bell D, Sengpiel R, Wessling M. Metallized hollow fiber membranes for electrochemical fouling control. J Memb Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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27
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Hutfles J, Lumley C, Chen X, Ren ZJ, Pellegrino J. Graphene-integrated polymeric membrane as a flexible, multifunctional electrode. Chem Eng Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2019.115221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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28
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Zhu X, Jassby D. Electroactive Membranes for Water Treatment: Enhanced Treatment Functionalities, Energy Considerations, and Future Challenges. Acc Chem Res 2019; 52:1177-1186. [PMID: 31032611 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.8b00558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
To meet the increasing demand for water, potable water providers are turning toward unconventional waters, such as seawater and wastewater. These highly saline and/or heavily contaminated water sources are difficult to treat, demanding the use of advanced technology not typically used to treat conventional water sources such as river water or fresh groundwater. Of these advanced technologies, membrane separation processes are fast becoming the most widely used methods to convert these marginal waters into useful resources. The main factors contributing to the widespread adoption of membrane separation processes for water treatment include their modular nature, small physical footprint, and relative energy efficiency compared to traditional distillation processes. In addition, membranes present a physical barrier to pathogens, which is an attractive feature in terms of disinfection credits. However, traditional membrane materials suffer from several distinct drawbacks, which include membrane fouling (the accumulation of material on the membrane surface that blocks the flow of water), the need for high-pressure membranes (such as reverse osmosis (RO) or nanofiltration (NF)) or membrane/thermal processes (e.g., membrane distillation (MD)) to remove small contaminant compounds (e.g., trace metals, salt, endocrine disrupting compounds), and a pressure-driven membrane's inability to effectively remove small, uncharged molecules (e.g., N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), phenol, acetone, and boron). Electrically driven physical and chemical phenomena, such as electrophoresis, electrostatic repulsion, dielectrophoresis, and electricity-driven redox reactions, have long been coupled to membrane-based separation processes, in a process known as electrofiltration. However, it is only in recent years that appropriate membrane materials (i.e., electrically conducting membranes (EMs)) have been developed that enable the efficient use of these electro-driven processes. Specifically, the development of EM materials (both polymeric and inorganic) have reduced the energy consumption of electrofiltration by using the membrane as an electrode in an electrochemical circuit. In essence, a membrane-electrode allows for the concentrated delivery of electrical energy directly to the membrane/water interface where the actual separation process takes place. In the past, metal electrodes were placed on either side of the membrane, which resulted in large potentials needed to drive electrochemical/electrokinetic phenomena. The use of a membrane-electrode dramatically reduces the required potentials, which reduces energy consumption and can also eliminate electrocorrosion and the formation of undesirable byproducts. In this Account, we review recent developments in the field of electrofiltration, with a focus on two water treatment applications: desalination and water reuse (wastewater or contaminated groundwater recycling). Specifically, we discuss how EMs can be used to minimize multiple forms of fouling (biofouling, mineral scaling, organic fouling); how electrochemical reactions at the membrane/water interface are used to destroy toxic contaminants, clean a membrane surface, and transform the local pH environment, which enhances the rejection of certain contaminants; how electric fields and electrostatic forces can be used to reorient molecules at the membrane/water interface; and how electrical energy can be transformed into thermal energy to drive separation processes. A special emphasis is placed on explicitly defining the additional energy consumption associated with the electrochemical phenomena, as well as the additional cost associated with fabricating EM materials. In addition, we will discuss current limitations of the electrofiltration process, with particular attention given to the current limitations of membrane materials and the future research needs in the area of membrane materials and module development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobo Zhu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - David Jassby
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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29
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Yoon H, Lee J, Kim S, Yoon J. Review of concepts and applications of electrochemical ion separation (EIONS) process. Sep Purif Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2018.12.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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30
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Flexible electro-responsive in-situ polymer acid doped polyaniline membranes for permeation enhancement and membrane fouling removal. J Memb Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2018.09.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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31
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Xu LL, Xu Y, Liu L, Wang KP, Patterson DA, Wang J. Electrically responsive ultrafiltration polyaniline membrane to solve fouling under applied potential. J Memb Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2018.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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32
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Halali MA, de Lannoy CF. The Effect of Cross-Linkers on the Permeability of Electrically Conductive Membranes. Ind Eng Chem Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.8b05691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad Amin Halali
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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33
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Wang K, Xu L, Li K, Liu L, Zhang Y, Wang J. Development of polyaniline conductive membrane for electrically enhanced membrane fouling mitigation. J Memb Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2018.10.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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34
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Fu W, Wang X, Zheng J, Liu M, Wang Z. Antifouling performance and mechanisms in an electrochemical ceramic membrane reactor for wastewater treatment. J Memb Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2018.10.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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35
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Dong Z, Shang W, Dong W, Zhao L, Li M, Wang R, Sun F. Suppression of membrane fouling in the ceramic membrane bioreactor (CMBR) by minute electric field. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 270:113-119. [PMID: 30216920 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.08.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2018] [Revised: 08/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Three ceramic MBRs (CMBR) installed with varied electrodes, i.e. Cu, Ti and Fe, were operated in parallel under the minute electric field to evaluate their suppression effect on membrane fouling, by comparison with control CMBR. Fe-CMBR released Fe2+ continuously to induce a higher organic removal efficiency and a smooth fouling rate. There was significant electric-flocculation effect in the Fe-CMBR, reflected by the increased sludge particle size and zeta potential, and to improve sludge filterability. Application of minute electric field could also affect the CMBR supernatant organic content and components, which was another reason for fouling mitigation. The formed membrane fouling layer was more easily to be detached by simple backwashing in all electric CMBRs, since that there were significant electric repulsive force to prevent foulants deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijun Dong
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen Polytechnic, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Wentao Shang
- Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Water Resource Utilization and Environmental Pollution Control, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Wenyi Dong
- Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Water Resource Utilization and Environmental Pollution Control, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Lingyan Zhao
- Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Water Resource Utilization and Environmental Pollution Control, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Mu Li
- Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Water Resource Utilization and Environmental Pollution Control, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Rui Wang
- Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Water Resource Utilization and Environmental Pollution Control, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Feiyun Sun
- Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Water Resource Utilization and Environmental Pollution Control, Shenzhen 518055, China.
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36
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Trellu C, Chaplin BP, Coetsier C, Esmilaire R, Cerneaux S, Causserand C, Cretin M. Electro-oxidation of organic pollutants by reactive electrochemical membranes. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 208:159-175. [PMID: 29864707 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 04/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Electro-oxidation processes are promising options for the removal of organic pollutants from water. The major appeal of these technologies is the possibility to avoid the addition of chemical reagents. However, a major limitation is associated with slow mass transfer that reduces the efficiency and hinders the potential for large-scale application of these technologies. Therefore, improving the reactor configuration is currently one of the most important areas for research and development. The recent development of a reactive electrochemical membrane (REM) as a flow-through electrode has proven to be a breakthrough innovation, leading to both high electrochemically active surface area and convection-enhanced mass transport of pollutants. This review summarizes the current state of the art on REMs for the electro-oxidation of organic compounds by anodic oxidation. Specific focuses on the electroactive surface area, mass transport, reactivity, fouling and stability of REMs are included. Recent advances in the development of sub-stoichiometric titanium oxide REMs as anodes have been made. These electrodes possess high electrical conductivity, reactivity (generation of •OH), chemical/electrochemical stability, and suitable pore structure that allows for efficient mass transport. Further development of REMs strongly relies on the development of materials with suitable physico-chemical characteristics that produce electrodes with efficient mass transport properties, high electroactive surface area, high reactivity and long-term stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clément Trellu
- Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM - UMR 5635, ENSCM, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France; Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France.
| | - Brian P Chaplin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, 810 S. Clinton Street, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
| | - Clémence Coetsier
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Roseline Esmilaire
- Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM - UMR 5635, ENSCM, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Sophie Cerneaux
- Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM - UMR 5635, ENSCM, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Christel Causserand
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Marc Cretin
- Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM - UMR 5635, ENSCM, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France
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37
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Dynamic cross-flow electro-Fenton process coupled to anodic oxidation for wastewater treatment: Application to the degradation of acetaminophen. Sep Purif Technol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2018.03.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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38
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Abstract
Abstract
Fouling mitigation in underground reservoirs enhances the permeability and the flow capacity of production or injection wells and is carried out by reservoir stimulation methods such as matrix acidizing. This process is known as the most significant method used to improve the production or injection indices of oil and gas wells as well as water and steam wells. Here, different aspects of this process, its chemical advances and novel high-technologies are compared and discussed in order to reveal their advantages and determine under what conditions they are applicable. Knowledge for adapting the proper acid treatment with the well characteristics is another issue that has been considered in this paper. The final goal is to present the state-of-the-art fouling mitigation methods based on novel experiments, simulations and investigations in order to emphasize the engineering aspects of fouling mitigation in oil and gas wells by matrix acidizing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kobra Pourabdollah
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Research Center of Iran , Tehran , Iran
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39
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Electro-Conductive Composite Gold-Polyethersulfone-Ultrafiltration-Membrane: Characterization of Membrane and Natural Organic Matter (NOM) Filtration Performance at Different In-Situ Applied Surface Potentials. MEMBRANES 2018; 8:membranes8030064. [PMID: 30115865 PMCID: PMC6160915 DOI: 10.3390/membranes8030064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 07/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Next to the pore size distribution, surface charge is considered to be one main factor in the separation performance of ultrafiltration (UF) membranes. By applying an external surface potential onto an electro-conductive UF membrane, electrostatic induced rejection was investigated. This study introduces in a first part a relatively simple but yet not reported technology of membrane modification with direct current sputter deposition of ultrathin (15 nm) highly conductive gold layers. In a second part, characterization of the gold-coated UF flat sheet membrane with a molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of 150 kDa is presented. Membrane parameters as contact angle (hydrophobicity), pure water permeability, MWCO, scanning electron microscopy imaging, zeta potential, surface conductivity and cyclic voltammetry of the virgin and the modified membrane are compared. Due to the coating, a high surface conductivity of 10⁷ S m-1 was realized. Permeability of the modified membrane decreased by 40% but MWCO and contact angle remained almost unchanged. In a third part, cross-flow filtration experiments with negative charged Suwannee River Natural Organic Matter (SRNOM) are conducted at different cathodic and anodic applied potentials, different pH values (pH 4, 7, 10) and ionic strengths (0, 1, 10 mmol L-1). SRNOM rejection of not externally charged membrane was 28% in cross-flow and 5% in dead-end mode. Externally negative charged membrane (-1.5 V vs. Ag/AgCl) reached rejection of 64% which was close to the performance of commercial UF membrane with MWCO of 5 kDa. High ionic strengths or low pH of feed reduced the effect of electrostatic rejection.
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40
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Jassby D, Cath TY, Buisson H. The role of nanotechnology in industrial water treatment. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 13:670-672. [PMID: 30082807 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0234-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
High-quality water is essential for most industrial processes, and many of these processes generate large volumes of contaminated wastewater. Nanotechnology has the potential to make industrial water treatment more efficient and less expensive, though promising technologies must be demonstrated at higher scales to make a real impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Jassby
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Tzahi Y Cath
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA
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41
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Xu L, Shahid S, Holda AK, Emanuelsson EAC, Patterson DA. Stimuli responsive conductive polyaniline membrane: In-filtration electrical tuneability of flux and MWCO. J Memb Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2018.01.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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42
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Trellu C, Coetsier C, Rouch JC, Esmilaire R, Rivallin M, Cretin M, Causserand C. Mineralization of organic pollutants by anodic oxidation using reactive electrochemical membrane synthesized from carbothermal reduction of TiO 2. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 131:310-319. [PMID: 29306202 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.12.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Revised: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 12/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Reactive Electrochemical Membrane (REM) prepared from carbothermal reduction of TiO2 is used for the mineralization of biorefractory pollutants during filtration operation. The mixture of Ti4O7 and Ti5O9 Magnéli phases ensures the high reactivity of the membrane for organic compound oxidation through •OH mediated oxidation and direct electron transfer. In cross-flow filtration mode, convection-enhanced mass transport of pollutants can be achieved from the high membrane permeability (3300 LMH bar-1). Mineralization efficiency of oxalic acid, paracetamol and phenol was assessed as regards to current density, transmembrane pressure and feed concentration. Unprecedented high removal rates of total organic carbon and mineralization current efficiency were achieved after a single passage through the REM, e.g. 47 g m-2 h-1 - 72% and 6.7 g m-2 h-1 - 47% for oxalic acid and paracetamol, respectively, at 15 mA cm-2. However, two mechanisms have to be considered for optimization of the process. When the TOC flux is too high with respect to the current density, aromatic compounds polymerize in the REM layer where only direct electron transfer occurs. This phenomenon decreases the oxidation efficiency and/or increases REM fouling. Besides, O2 bubbles sweeping at high permeate flux promotes O2 gas generation, with adverse effect on oxidation efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clément Trellu
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France.
| | - Clémence Coetsier
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Rouch
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Roseline Esmilaire
- Institut Européen des Membranes, UMR 5635 (CNRS-ENSCM-UM), Montpellier, France
| | - Matthieu Rivallin
- Institut Européen des Membranes, UMR 5635 (CNRS-ENSCM-UM), Montpellier, France
| | - Marc Cretin
- Institut Européen des Membranes, UMR 5635 (CNRS-ENSCM-UM), Montpellier, France
| | - Christel Causserand
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
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43
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Formoso P, Pantuso E, De Filpo G, Nicoletta FP. Electro-Conductive Membranes for Permeation Enhancement and Fouling Mitigation: A Short Review. MEMBRANES 2017; 7:E39. [PMID: 28788091 PMCID: PMC5618124 DOI: 10.3390/membranes7030039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The research on electro-conductive membranes has expanded in recent years. These membranes have strong prospective as key components in next generation water treatment plants because they are engineered in order to enhance their performance in terms of separation, flux, fouling potential, and permselectivity. The present review summarizes recent developments in the preparation of electro-conductive membranes and the mechanisms of their response to external electric voltages in order to obtain an improvement in permeation and mitigation in the fouling growth. In particular, this paper deals with the properties of electro-conductive polymers and the preparation of electro-conductive polymer membranes with a focus on responsive membranes based on polyaniline, polypyrrole and carbon nanotubes. Then, some examples of electro-conductive membranes for permeation enhancement and fouling mitigation by electrostatic repulsion, hydrogen peroxide generation and electrochemical oxidation will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Formoso
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, I-87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
| | - Elvira Pantuso
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, I-87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
| | - Giovanni De Filpo
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Technologies, University of Calabria, I-87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
| | - Fiore Pasquale Nicoletta
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, I-87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
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44
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Duan W, Ronen A, Walker S, Jassby D. Polyaniline-Coated Carbon Nanotube Ultrafiltration Membranes: Enhanced Anodic Stability for In Situ Cleaning and Electro-Oxidation Processes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:22574-22584. [PMID: 27525344 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b07196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Electrically conducting membranes (ECMs) have been reported to be efficient in fouling prevention and destruction of aqueous chemical compounds. In the current study, highly conductive and anodically stable composite polyaniline-carbon nanotube (PANI-CNT) ultrafiltration (UF) ECMs were fabricated through a process of electropolymerization of aniline on a CNT substrate under acidic conditions. The resulting PANI-CNT UF ECMs were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, a four-point conductivity probe, cyclic voltammetry, and contact angle goniometry. The utilization of the PANI-CNT material led to significant advantages, including: (1) increased electrical conductivity by nearly an order of magnitude; (2) increased surface hydrophilicity while not impacting membrane selectivity or permeability; and (3) greatly improved stability under anodic conditions. The membrane's anodic stability was evaluated in a pH-controlled aqueous environment under a wide range of anodic potentials using a three-electrode cell. Results indicate a significantly reduced degradation rate in comparison to a CNT-poly(vinyl alcohol) ECM under high anodic potentials. Fouling experiments conducted with bovine serum albumin demonstrated the capacity of the PANI-CNT ECMs for in situ oxidative cleaning, with membrane flux restored to its initial value under an applied potential of 3 V. Additionally, a model organic compound (methylene blue) was electrochemically transformed at high efficiency (90%) in a single pass through the anodically charged ECM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyan Duan
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California , Riverside 92521, California, United States
| | - Avner Ronen
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California , Riverside 92521, California, United States
| | - Sharon Walker
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California , Riverside 92521, California, United States
| | - David Jassby
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California , Riverside 92521, California, United States
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