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Chen S, Ni G, Wu X, Zhu B, Liao Z, Wang Y, Liu X. Blocking IL-10 signalling at the time of immunization renders the tumour more accessible to T cell infiltration in mice. Cell Immunol 2015; 300:9-17. [PMID: 26607604 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We recently reported that blockade of IL-10 signalling at the time of a human papillomavirus (HPV) long E7 peptide/LPS immunization leads to the regression of established HPV-16 immortalized tumours in mice similar to that induced by long E7 peptide/incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA)-based vaccination. In this paper, we demonstrated that blockade of IL-10 signalling at the time of long E7 peptide/LPS could elicit stronger T cells responses and render the tumour more accessible for immune cell infiltration than vaccination with long E7 peptide/IFA. Furthermore, priming with long E7 peptide/LPS and IL10 signalling blockade then boosting with long E7 peptide/IFA elicits stronger CD8+ T cell responses than long E7 peptide/IFA immunization. The results suggest that priming with long E7 peptide/LPS and IL10 signalling inhibitor, then boosting with long E7 peptide/IFA elicits may lead to better HPV infection related tumour regression in clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu Chen
- Cancer Research Institute, Foshan First People's Hospital, Foshan, Guangdong 528000, China
| | - Guoying Ni
- School of Medical Science, Griffith Health Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Xiaolian Wu
- Cancer Research Institute, Foshan First People's Hospital, Foshan, Guangdong 528000, China
| | - Bin Zhu
- Cancer Research Institute, Foshan First People's Hospital, Foshan, Guangdong 528000, China
| | - Zaowen Liao
- Cancer Research Institute, Foshan First People's Hospital, Foshan, Guangdong 528000, China
| | - Yuejian Wang
- Cancer Research Institute, Foshan First People's Hospital, Foshan, Guangdong 528000, China.
| | - Xiaosong Liu
- Cancer Research Institute, Foshan First People's Hospital, Foshan, Guangdong 528000, China; Inflammation and Healing Research Cluster, School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, QLD 4558, Australia.
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2
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Wang Y, Shang Q, Xu W, Li D, Gu H, Wei L. Characterization of two new monoclonal antibodies against human papillomavirus type 16 L1 protein. Diagn Pathol 2014; 9:101. [PMID: 24884993 PMCID: PMC4099146 DOI: 10.1186/1746-1596-9-101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) infection is implicated in cervical carcinogenesis. This study aimed to characterize two new monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against HPV L1 protein. Methods The immunocompetence of AE3 and AG7 mAbs for HPV L1 protein was evaluated by Western blot analysis, immunostaining, hemagglutination inhibition assay, and ELISA. The heavy chain variable region (VH) and light chain variable region (VL) of AE3 and AG7 mAbs were sequenced and analyzed. Results Both mAbs specifically recognized HPV16 L1 and virus-like particles (VLPs). Both the affinity and the titer of AE3 mAb were higher than that of AG7. There were differences in sequences in the complementary determining regions (CDR) 2 and 3 of VL, as well as in the CDR1 and CDR3 of VH. The two mAbs have distinct predicted three-dimensional structures. Conclusions We characterized two mAbs neutralizing antibodies for HPV L1 protein, which would help develop genetic-engineered neutralizing antibodies against HPV16 for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Hongxi Gu
- Department of Microbiology, Heilongjiang Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, China.
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3
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Mesothelin virus-like particle immunization controls pancreatic cancer growth through CD8+ T cell induction and reduction in the frequency of CD4+ foxp3+ ICOS- regulatory T cells. PLoS One 2013; 8:e68303. [PMID: 23874581 PMCID: PMC3706370 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous study has shown that mesothelin (MSLN) is a potential immunotherapeutic target for pancreatic cancer. Here, we further studied the immunogenicity of chimeric murine MSLN-virus-like particles (mMSLN-VLPs), their ability to break tolerance to mMSLN, a self-antigen, and deciphered the mechanism of immune responses elicited by mMSLN-VLP immunization using a pancreatic cancer (PC) mouse model. In addition to what we have found with xenogeneic human MSLN-VLP (hMSLN-VLP), mMSLN-VLP immunization was able to break the tolerance to intrinsic MSLN and mount mMSLN-specific, cytotoxic CD8+ T cells which led to a significant reduction in tumor volume and prolonged survival in an orthotopic PC mouse model. Furthermore, CD4+foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) were progressively decreased in both spleen and tumor tissues following mMSLN-VLP immunization and this was at least partly due to elevated levels of IL-6 production from activated plasmocytoid dendritic cell (pDC)-like cells following mMSLN-VLP immunization. Moreover, mMSLN-VLP treatment mainly reduced the frequency of the CD4+foxp3+ICOS− Treg subset. However, mMSLN-VLP induced IL-6 production also increased ICOSL expression on pDC-like cells which supported the proliferation of immunosuppressive CD4+foxp3+ICOS+ Treg cells. This study reveals that mMSLN-VLP immunization is capable of controlling PC progression by effectively mounting an immune response against mMSLN, a tumor self-antigen, and altering the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment via activation of pDCs-like cells and reduction in the frequency of CD4+foxp3+ICOS− Treg cells. However, combination therapies will likely need to be used in order to target residual CD4+foxp3+ICOS+ Treg cells.
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4
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Rajendar B, Sivakumar V, Sriraman R, Raheem M, Lingala R, Matur RV. A simple and rapid method to monitor the disassembly and reassembly of virus-like particles. Anal Biochem 2013; 440:15-7. [PMID: 23711723 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2013.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 05/03/2013] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Protein fluorescence spectra (~300-440 nm) could be used as a simple and sensitive method to monitor the disassembly and reassembly of virus-like particles (VLPs). Insect cell expressed and purified HPV-16 L1 VLPs show significantly high fluorescence intensity, whereas the fluorescence is almost quenched after disassembly by adding the reducing agent. By removing the reducing agent, the fluorescence was restored to its original intensity, indicating the reassembly of VLPs. The data are consistent with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) reactivity using conformation-specific mouse monoclonal antibody. The same method could be extended to VLPs of other viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Burki Rajendar
- Research and Development Center, Indian Immunologicals, Rakshapuram, Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500032, India
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5
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6
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Pastrana DV, Pumphrey KA, Cuburu N, Schowalter RM, Buck CB. Characterization of monoclonal antibodies specific for the Merkel cell polyomavirus capsid. Virology 2010; 405:20-5. [PMID: 20598728 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2010] [Revised: 05/13/2010] [Accepted: 06/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) has been implicated as a causative agent in Merkel cell carcinoma. Robust polyclonal antibody responses against MCV have been documented in human subjects, but monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) specific for the VP1 capsid protein have not yet been characterized. We generated 12 mAbs capable of binding recombinant MCV virus-like particles. The use of a short immunogenic priming schedule was important for production of the mAbs. Ten of the 12 mAbs were highly effective for immunofluorescent staining of cells expressing capsid proteins. An overlapping set of 10 mAbs were able to neutralize the infectivity of MCV-based reporter vectors, with 50% effective doses in the low picomolar range. Three mAbs interfered with the binding of MCV virus-like particles to cells. This panel of anti-capsid antibodies should provide a useful set of tools for the study of MCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana V Pastrana
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892-4263, USA
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7
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Zhang R, Zhang S, Li M, Chen C, Yao Q. Incorporation of CD40 ligand into SHIV virus-like particles (VLP) enhances SHIV-VLP-induced dendritic cell activation and boosts immune responses against HIV. Vaccine 2010; 28:5114-27. [PMID: 20471443 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.03.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2009] [Revised: 03/22/2010] [Accepted: 03/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Engagement of CD40 with CD40L induces dendritic cell (DC) maturation and activation, thereby promoting immune responses. The objective of this study was to investigate whether immunization with chimeric CD40L/SHIV virus-like particles (CD40L/SHIV-VLP) could enhance immune responses to SIV Gag and HIV Env proteins by directly activating DCs. We found that CD83, CD40, and CD86 were significantly up-regulated and significantly increased cytokines production were observed after hCD40L/SHIV-VLP treatment in human CD14(+) monocyte-derived DCs as compared to SHIV-VLP treatment. Mice immunized with mCD40L/SHIV-VLP showed more than a two-fold increase in HIV Env-specific IgG antibody production, an increase in SIV Gag and HIV Env-specific IFN-gamma and IL-4 producing cells, and an increase in HIV Env-specific cytotoxic activity compared to that in SHIV-VLP immunized mice. Furthermore, multifunctional CD4(+) Th1 cells, which simultaneously produce IFN-gamma, IL-2 and TNF-alpha triple cytokines, and CD8(+) T-cells, which produce IFN-gamma were elevated in the mCD40L/SHIV-VLP immunized group. These data demonstrate that chimeric CD40L/SHIV-VLP potently induce DC activation and enhance the magnitude of both humoral and cellular immune responses to the SIV Gag and HIV Env proteins in the mouse model. Therefore, incorporation of CD40L into VLP may represent a novel strategy to develop effective HIV vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongxin Zhang
- Molecular Surgeon Research Center, Michael E. DeBakey Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, United States
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8
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Abstract
Papillomavirus (PV) induces exophytic lesions (papillomas, warts) and flat lesions (flat warts, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia) in cutaneous and mucosal epithelia. The lesions are usually benign and generally regress without eliciting any serious clinical problems in a host but occasionally persist. Persistent lesions can be debilitating and can also provide a focus for malignant transformation to squamous cell carcinoma, particularly in the presence of environmental or genetic cofactors. This has been experimentally demonstrated in animals, particularly in cattle, where bovine PV (BPV)-induced papillomas progress to cancer of the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the urinary bladder in animals exposed to bracken fern in the pasture, and in rabbits, where the progression of skin papillomas to squamous cell carcinoma depends on a particular variant of cottontail rabbit PV (CRPV) and on the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II haplotype of the animal. In this review, various aspects of the biology of BPV and CRPV are described and compared with those of human PV, including viral genome structure, regulation of transcription of the viral oncogenes, function of the viral oncoproteins, co-operation between virus and cofactors, virus latency, immunity and vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Campo
- Institute of Comparative Medicine, Glasgow University Veterinary School, Glasgow, UK.
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9
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Samara RN, Khleif SN. HPV as a model for the development of prophylactic and therapeutic cancer vaccines. Curr Mol Med 2009; 9:766-73. [PMID: 19689303 PMCID: PMC6948838 DOI: 10.2174/156652409788970625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
HPV has been linked to many human malignancies and, as such, represents a major public health crisis. The understanding of HPV biology, however, has helped tremendously in developing prophylactic vaccines, which should help in decreasing mortality due to HPV infections. Understanding HPV biology has allowed researchers to use the virus as a model for the development of not only prophylactic vaccines, but also therapeutic ones. The advantages of HPV as a model stem from the limited number of proteins encoded by the HPV genome that can be targeted by vaccines, and also from the restricted expression of certain viral proteins during different stages of infection. In this review, we discuss how HPV can be used as a model for the development of both prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raed N. Samara
- Cancer Vaccine Section, National Cancer Institute, NCI-NNMC, Bldg 10, Rm. 5101, Bethesda, MD 20889, USA
| | - Samir N. Khleif
- Cancer Vaccine Section, National Cancer Institute, NCI-NNMC, Bldg 10, Rm. 5101, Bethesda, MD 20889, USA
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10
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Le Poole C, Denman CJ, Arbiser JL. Immunosuppression may be present within condyloma acuminata. J Am Acad Dermatol 2008; 59:967-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2008.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2008] [Revised: 08/05/2008] [Accepted: 08/11/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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11
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Bandurska K, Brodzik R, Spitsin S, Kohl T, Portocarrero C, Smirnov Y, Pogrebnyak N, Sirko A, Koprowski H, Golovkin M. Plant-produced hepatitis B core protein chimera carrying anthrax protective antigen domain-4. Hybridoma (Larchmt) 2008; 27:241-7. [PMID: 18707542 DOI: 10.1089/hyb.2008.0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg) can generate a strong immune response and is recognized as an effective carrier for foreign epitopes. The domain-4 epitope of the anthrax protective antigen (PA-D4) plays an essential role in generating protective immunity against virulent Bacillus anthracis. Here we report the successful production of a recombinant protein comprised of the antigenic PA-D4 integrated into the c/e1 loop of HBcAg in transgenic low-alkaloid Nicotiana tabacum. Sera of mice injected with the plant-derived purified HB/PA-D4 protein exhibited significant anti-PA- and anti-HBcAg-specific IgG titers; however, formation of virus-like particles (VLP) was not observed. These data support the feasibility of producing complex protein chimeras in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Bandurska
- Biotechnology Foundation Laboratories, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107, USA
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12
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Human papillomavirus type 16 L1E7 chimeric capsomeres have prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy against papillomavirus in mice. Mol Cancer Ther 2008; 7:1329-35. [DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-07-2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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13
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Manavi M, Hudelist G, Fink-Retter A, Gschwantler-Kaulich D, Pischinger K, Czerwenka K. Human papillomavirus DNA integration and messenger RNA transcription in cervical low- and high-risk squamous intraepithelial lesions in Austrian women. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2007; 18:285-94. [PMID: 17587315 DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1438.2007.01017.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The human papillomavirus (HPV) plays an important role in the progression of cervical carcinoma. High-risk (HR) HPV types have been mainly identified in cytologic high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSILs) and histologic invasive carcinoma of the cervix. We examined cervical swabs of patients with abnormal Papanicolaou (Pap) smears, diagnosed as low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSILs) including atypical squamous cells of uncertain significance or HSILs. Low-risk (LR) HPV and HR-HPV types were identified by the Digene Hybrid Capture II test. Two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis was used to specify the physical state of HPV DNA sequences. Expression of E6/E7 messenger RNA (mRNA) transcripts was analyzed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Histopathologic results were correlated to the patients' physical status and HPV DNA mRNA transcripts. Pap smears with HPV infections of LR and HR types were correlated to the degree of squamous intraepithelial lesions (SILs). Comparing the physical states of HPV DNA sequences with the expression of HPV E6/E7 mRNA transcripts, all types were identified only as extrachromosomal in benign cervical smears, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) I and II. HPV16 showed all physical states in CIN III/carcinoma in situ (CIS), whereas HPV18 only existed in mixed and integrated forms. HPV31/33/52b/58 appeared in all stages of lesions most commonly in extrachromosomal form; in integrated form, they were present only in CIN III/CIS. Although integration of some HR-HPV types is not always necessary for progression of SILs, the above-mentioned method is useful to analyze the physical state of HPV DNA sequences and predict the progression of SILs.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Manavi
- Division of Special Gynecology, Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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McCormick AA, Corbo TA, Wykoff-Clary S, Nguyen LV, Smith ML, Palmer KE, Pogue GP. TMV-peptide fusion vaccines induce cell-mediated immune responses and tumor protection in two murine models. Vaccine 2006; 24:6414-23. [PMID: 16860441 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2006] [Revised: 06/01/2006] [Accepted: 06/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Fusion of peptides to viral carriers has proven an effective method for improving cellular immunity. In this study we explore the ability of a plant virus, Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), to stimulate cellular immunity by interacting directly with immune cells. Fluorescently labeled TMV was incubated in vitro with murine spleen or lymph node cells, and near quantitative labeling of lymphocytes was achieved after 2 h, which persisted for up to 48 h. Direct TMV uptake and upregulation of the CD86 activation marker was measured in nearly all dendritic cells (DCs) by flow cytometry. To demonstrate that TMV can also provide functional antigen delivery and immune stimulation in vivo, two well-characterized T-cell epitopes that provide protection against tumor challenge in mice were fused to TMV coat protein by genetic manipulation, or by chemical conjugation. Vaccination of C57BL/6 mice elicited measurable cellular responses by interferon gamma (IFN gamma) ELISpot and resulted in significantly improved protection from tumor challenge in both the EG.7-Ova and B16 melanoma models. From these results we conclude that TMV was an effective antigen carrier for inducing cellular immune responses to less than 1 microg of peptide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison A McCormick
- Large Scale Biology Corporation, Vaccine Development, Vacaville, CA 95688, USA.
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15
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Abstract
Recent decades have witnessed a reduction in the incidence of cervical cancer in countries where screening programmes have achieved broad coverage. The recognized importance of high-risk HPV (human papillomavirus) infection in the aetiology of cervical cancer may introduce a role for HPV DNA testing in cervical screening programmes. Positive HPV DNA tests indicate women at risk of cervical cancer with greater sensitivity, but reduced specificity, compared with exfoliative cytology. Combining HPV testing with cytology may be useful in the triage of minor cytological abnormalities into those requiring referral to colposcopy (HPV positive) compared with those who can be safely managed by cytological surveillance (HPV negative). With its high sensitivity and high-negative-predictive value, HPV testing may also be useful for predicting treatment failure, since residual disease is very unlikely in the event of a negative HPV test. Ultimately, prevention is better than cure, and the advent of HPV prophylactic vaccines may obviate the need for population-based cervical screening programmes in the future. A multivalent vaccine administered to adolescents prior to the onset of sexual activity and boosted at regular intervals throughout their sexually active life may provide protection against type-specific HPV infection, malignant precursors and invasive cervical disease. Several large randomized placebo-controlled trials have been conducted with promising results. For those generations of women already exposed to high-risk HPV infection, therapeutic vaccines may offer advantages over conventional treatment, although much work still needs to be done.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma J Crosbie
- Academic Unit of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Manchester, St Mary's Hospital, Whitworth Park, Manchester M13 0JH, UK
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Li CQ, Soistman E, Carter DC. Ferritin nanoparticle technology...A new platform for antigen presentation and vaccine development. Ind Biotechnol (New Rochelle N Y) 2006. [DOI: 10.1089/ind.2006.2.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chester Q. Li
- New Century Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 895 Martin Road, Huntsville, Alabama 35824
| | - Elizabeth Soistman
- New Century Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 895 Martin Road, Huntsville, Alabama 35824
| | - Daniel C. Carter
- New Century Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 895 Martin Road, Huntsville, Alabama 35824
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García-Piñeres AJ, Hildesheim A, Trivett M, Williams M, Wu L, Kewalramani VN, Pinto LA. Role of DC-SIGN in the activation of dendritic cells by HPV-16 L1 virus-like particle vaccine. Eur J Immunol 2006; 36:437-45. [PMID: 16385626 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200535068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-grabbing non-integrin (DC-SIGN), a specific C-type lectin expressed on DC, binds and transmits different pathogens to susceptible cells. In the present study, we examined the role of DC-SIGN in the capture of human papillomavirus (HPV) pseudovirions and activation of DC. We demonstrate that HPV virus-like particles (VLP) bind to DC-SIGN expressed on transfected Raji cells and that antibodies against DC-SIGN block this interaction. DC take up VLP, which activate expression of costimulatory markers and cytokines/chemokines. Although our results indicate that DC-SIGN is not the major receptor for VLP in DC, this interaction contributes to the activation of DC surface antigens (HLA class I) and of various cytokines/chemokines, particularly TNF-alpha, IL-6, and RANTES. Induction of these markers in DC by VLP was significantly abrogated when binding to DC-SIGN was blocked by anti-DC-SIGN antibodies. These results suggest that DC-SIGN has a functional role in DC activation induced by HPV-16 L1-VLP, and thus highlight new aspects of DC interactions with HPV VLP.
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18
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Chung YC, Huang JH, Lai CW, Sheng HC, Shih SR, Ho MS, Hu YC. Expression, purification and characterization of enterovirus-71 virus-like particles. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12:921-7. [PMID: 16521221 PMCID: PMC4066158 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v12.i6.921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: Enterovirus 71 (EV71) has been implicated as the etiological agent responsible for the recent outbreaks of hand, foot and mouth disease associated with severe neurological diseases in the Asia-Pacific region.
METHODS: The assembly process was hypothesized to occur via an orchestrated proteolytic processing of the P1 precursor by the viral protease 3CD. To test this hypothesis, we constructed 3 recombinant baculoviruses: Bac-P1 expressing P1; Bac-3CD expressing 3CD; and Bac-P1-3CD co-expressing P1 and 3CD.
RESULTS: Both single infection by Bac-P1-3CD and co-infection by Bac-P1 and Bac-3CD resulted in correct cleavage of P1 to yield individual proteins VP0, VP1 and VP3, while the former approach yielded higher VLP production. In the cells, the structural proteins self-assembled into clusters of virus-like particles (VLP) resembling the authentic EV71 particle aggregates. After ultracentrifugation purification, the dispersed VLPs were indistinguishable from the authentic virus in size, appearance, composition and surface epitopes, as determined by SDS-PAGE, Western blot, transmission electron microscopy and immunogold labeling.
CONCLUSION: Our data, for the first time, suggest that in insect cells EV71 structural proteins adopt a processing and assembly pathway similar to poliovirus assembly. The preservation of particle morphology and composition suggest that the VLP may be a valuable vaccine candidate to prevent EV71 epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao-Chi Chung
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan, China
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19
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Qian J, Dong Y, Pang YYS, Ibrahim R, Berzofsky JA, Schiller JT, Khleif SN. Combined prophylactic and therapeutic cancer vaccine: Enhancing CTL responses to HPV16 E2 using a chimeric VLP in HLA-A2 mice. Int J Cancer 2006; 118:3022-9. [PMID: 16425257 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.21781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
We identified the strategies to induce a CTL response to human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 E2 in HLA-A2 transgenic mice (AAD). A chimeric HPV16 virus-like particle (VLP) that includes full length HPV16 E7 and E2 (VLP-E7E2) was generated. The combination of E2 and E7 has the advantage that E2 is expressed in early dysplasia and neoplasia lesions, where E7 is expressed in more advance lesions. Since T cell response to E2 is less defined, we first evaluated the strategies to enhancing CD8(+) T cell responses to HPV E7, using different combinations of immune-modulators with VLP-E7E2. Data showed that the CTL response to E7 could be significantly enhanced by coinjection of GM-CSF and anti-CD40 antibodies with chimeric VLP-E7E2 without adjuvant. However, using the same combination, a low level of CD8(+) T cell response to E2 was detected. To enhance the CD8+ T cell response to E2, we analyzed T cell epitopes from E2 sequence. A heterogenous prime-boost with chimeric VLP-E7E2 and E2 peptides was performed. The data showed that the priming with chimeric VLP-E7E2, followed by boosting with E2 peptides, gave a better CTL response than 2 immunizations with E2 peptides. The enhanced immunity is due to the increase of CD11c(+) and CD11c(+) CD40(+) double positive dendritic cells in mice that received immune-modulators, GM-CSF and anti-CD40. Furthermore, the level of anti-L1 antibodies remains similar in mice immunized with chimeric VLP with/without immune-modulators. Thus, the data suggested that the chimeric VLP-E7E2 has a therapeutic potential for the treatment of HPV-associated CINs and cancer without diminishing VLPs potential as a prophylactic vaccine by inducing anti-L1 antibodies against free virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahua Qian
- Vaccine Branch, NCI, National Naval Medical Center, Bldg 8, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Cui Z, Huang L. Liposome-polycation-DNA (LPD) particle as a carrier and adjuvant for protein-based vaccines: therapeutic effect against cervical cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2005; 54:1180-90. [PMID: 15846491 PMCID: PMC11032885 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-005-0685-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2004] [Accepted: 02/07/2005] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
With the successful identification of many tumor-specific antigens, tumor-associated antigens, and the potential of using unfractioned tumor cell derivatives as tumor antigens, a system and/or adjuvant that can deliver these antigens and help them to induce strong and effective anti-tumor immune responses is greatly needed. Previously, we reported that a MHC class I-restricted peptide epitope derived from human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 E7 protein, when incorporated into a clinically proven safe LPD (liposome-polycation-DNA) particle, was able to effectively eradicate tumors established in mice. Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer among women worldwide. HPV infection is clearly linked to this cancer. Vaccines based on the early (E) gene products of HPV could be effective in controlling it. However, besides the fact that epitope vaccines have many limitations particularly, concerning the diverse HLAs in humans, the use of the epitope as an antigen prevented us from fully characterizing the immune responses induced by the LPD as a vaccine carrier and/or adjuvant in previous studies. In the present study, by using the HPV 16 E7 protein as an antigen, we first showed that LPD, as a vaccine carrier and adjuvant induced strong and robust immune responses, both cellular and antibody. We then showed that immunization with LPD particles incorporated with either the wild type HPV 16 E7 protein or a potentially safer mutant induced strong immune responses that caused complete regressions of a model cervical cancer tumor established in murines. LPD could be a potent vaccine carrier and/or adjuvant for many antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengrong Cui
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, 633 Salk Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331 USA
| | - Leaf Huang
- Center for Pharmacogenetics, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, 633 Salk Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
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21
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Williamson AL, Passmore JA, Rybicki EP. Strategies for the prevention of cervical cancer by human papillomavirus vaccination. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2005; 19:531-44. [PMID: 16150392 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2005.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
As cervical cancer is causally associated with 14 high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV), a successful HPV vaccine will have a major impact on this disease. Although some persistent HPV infections progress to cervical cancer, host immunity is generally able to clear most HPV infections. Both cell-mediated and antibody responses have been implicated in influencing the susceptibility, persistence or clearance of genital HPV infection. There have been two clinical trials that show that vaccines based on virus-like particles (VLPs) made from the major capsid protein, L1, are able to type specifically protect against cervical intra-epithelial neoplasia and infection. However, there is no evidence that even a mixed VLP vaccine will protect against types not included in the vaccine, and a major challenge that remains is how to engineer protection across a broader spectrum of viruses. Strategies for production of HPV vaccines using different vaccine vectors and different production systems are also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A-L Williamson
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, and National Health Laboratory Service, Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa.
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22
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Chen YH, Wu JC, Wang KC, Chiang YW, Lai CW, Chung YC, Hu YC. Baculovirus-mediated production of HDV-like particles in BHK cells using a novel oscillating bioreactor. J Biotechnol 2005; 118:135-47. [PMID: 15951042 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2005.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2004] [Revised: 12/14/2004] [Accepted: 02/21/2005] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
We have recently demonstrated the assembly of hepatitis delta virus-like particles (HDV VLP) by co-transducing hepatoma cells using two recombinant baculoviruses, one encoding hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), and one encoding large delta antigen (L-HDAg). In this study, we further demonstrated the assembly and secretion of VLP in other mammalian cells. The assembly efficiency varied depending on cell lines, the baculovirus constructs and the relative dosage of both recombinant viruses. The co-transduction of BHK cells led to the formation of VLPs resembling authentic virions in size and appearance. The production process was transferred to a novel oscillating packed bed bioreactor, BelloCell, in which the transduction efficiency was up to approximately 90% for a high cell density of 1.5 x 10(7) cells/cm(3) bed and a total yield of 427 microg based on HBsAg in the VLP (harvested from 940 ml medium) was obtained. The particle yield corresponded to an average volumetric yield of 454 ngml(-1) and a specific yield of 285 microg/10(9) cells, and is significantly superior to that can be obtained by the commonly employed transfection method. The combination of baculovirus transduction and BelloCell reactor, thus, may represent a simple and efficient approach for the production of HDV VLP and viral vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Heng Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
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23
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Hussain SF, Paterson Y. What is needed for effective antitumor immunotherapy? Lessons learned using Listeria monocytogenes as a live vector for HPV-associated tumors. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2005; 54:577-86. [PMID: 15650885 PMCID: PMC11033010 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-004-0600-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2004] [Accepted: 07/12/2004] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
As a vaccine vector, Listeria monocytogenes targets the innate immune system, resulting in a cytokine response that enhances antigen-presenting cell function as well as inducing a Th1 profile. It also enhances cell-mediated immunity by targeting antigen delivery in antigen-presenting cells to both the MHC class I pathway of exogenous presentation that activates CD8 T cells and the MHC class II pathway that processes antigen endogenously and presents it to CD4 T cells. In this review, we describe the development of vaccine constructs that target the human papillomavirus 16 (HPV-16) E7 antigen, and we characterize their effects on tumor regression as well as various immune parameters both innate and adaptive. In particular, we describe the effect on tumor angiogenesis, induction of antitumor suppressor factors like CD4+CD25+ T cells and regulatory cytokines TGF-beta and IL-10, homing and infiltration of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells to the tumor, and also effects of the vaccines on antigen-presenting cells, especially focusing on dendritic cell maturation and ability to influence tumor regression. We believe that the identification of several immune parameters that correlate with antitumor efficacy, and of some that have a negative correlation, may have wider application for other cancer immunotherapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Farzana Hussain
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 323 Johnson Pavilion, 36th St. and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6076 USA
| | - Yvonne Paterson
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 323 Johnson Pavilion, 36th St. and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6076 USA
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24
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Hu YC. Baculovirus as a highly efficient expression vector in insect and mammalian cells. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2005; 26:405-16. [PMID: 15780188 PMCID: PMC7091893 DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-7254.2005.00078.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2004] [Accepted: 12/24/2004] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Baculovirus has been widely used for the production of recombinant proteins in insect cells. Since the finding that baculovirus can efficiently transduce mammalian cells, the applications of baculovirus have been greatly expanded. The prospects and drawbacks of baculovirus-mediated gene expression, either in insect or in mammalian cells, are reviewed. Recent progresses in expanding the applications to studies of gene regulation, viral vector preparation, in vivo and ex vivo gene therapy studies, generation of vaccine vectors, etc are discussed and the efforts directed towards overcoming the existing bottlenecks are particularly emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-chen Hu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, China.
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25
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Padilla-Paz LA. Human Papillomavirus Vaccine: History, Immunology, Current Status, and Future Prospects. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2005; 48:226-40. [PMID: 15725875 DOI: 10.1097/01.grf.0000151585.16357.e6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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26
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Garnett GP. Role of Herd Immunity in Determining the Effect of Vaccines against Sexually Transmitted Disease. J Infect Dis 2005; 191 Suppl 1:S97-106. [PMID: 15627236 DOI: 10.1086/425271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vaccination programs provide both direct protection to those immunized and herd immunity, which is indirect protection of those who remain susceptible, owing to a reduced prevalence of infections. METHODS The well-understood impact of vaccination against ubiquitous childhood infections is compared with that of vaccination against sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and theoretical insights are derived from a review of mathematical modeling studies. RESULTS Typically, a large fraction of cases of STIs are acquired by those with modest risk, and these cases could be prevented by low-efficacy vaccines. If coverage is good, vaccination of only one sex can protect the other sex. Candidate vaccines against human papillomavirus (HPV) and genital herpes are in the final stages of testing. The former is likely to be highly efficacious for a limited number of disease-causing HPV types, and the latter has provided protection against disease in women who initially were seronegative for both herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 and HSV-2, with 73% efficacy. In models, this vaccine had a substantial impact when infectiousness was assumed to be reduced along with incidence of disease. CONCLUSION With such vaccines on the horizon, the requirements for vaccine delivery need to be considered, particularly who should be vaccinated and at what age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey P Garnett
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Campus, London, UK.
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27
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Palucha A, Loniewska A, Satheshkumar S, Boguszewska-Chachulska AM, Umashankar M, Milner M, Haenni AL, Savithri HS. Virus-like particles: models for assembly studies and foreign epitope carriers. PROGRESS IN NUCLEIC ACID RESEARCH AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 80:135-68. [PMID: 16164974 PMCID: PMC7119358 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6603(05)80004-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Virus‐like particles (VLPs), formed by the structural elements of viruses, have received considerable attention over the past two decades. The number of reports on newly obtained VLPs has grown proportionally with the systems developed for the expression of these particles. The chapter outlines the recent achievements in two important fields of research brought about by the availability of VLPs produced in a foreign host. These are: (1) The requirements for VLP assembly and (2) the use of VLPs as carriers for foreign epitopes. VLP technology is a rapidly advancing domain of molecular and structural biology. Extensive progress in VLP studies was achieved as the insect cell based protein production system was developed. This baculovirus expression system has many advantages for the synthesis of viral structural proteins resulting in the formation of VLPs. It allows production of large amounts of correctly folded proteins while also providing cell membranes that can serve as structural elements for enveloped viruses. These features give us the opportunity to gain insights into the interactions and requirements accompanying VLP formation that are similar to the assembly events occurring in mammalian cells. Other encouraging elements are the ability to easily scale up the system and the simplicity of purification of the assembled VLPs. The growing number of VLPs carrying foreign protein fragments on their surface and studies on the successful assembly of these chimeric molecules is a promising avenue towards the development of a new technology, in which the newly designed VLPs will be directed to particular mammalian cell types by exposing specific binding domains. The progress made in modeling the surface of VLPs makes them to date the best candidates for the design of delivery systems that can efficiently reach their targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Palucha
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Pawinskiego 5a, 02-106 Warszawa, Poland
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28
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Frazer I. Is vaccine therapy the future in cancer prevention? Expert Opin Pharmacother 2004; 5:2427-34. [PMID: 15571460 DOI: 10.1517/14656566.5.12.2427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
One vaccine designed to prevent cancer by preventing a precursor infection is already in common use, and at least one more is in the latter stages of clinical development. These vaccines are part of a new era of cancer immunoprophylaxis. Several further vaccines are in preclinical and clinical development, targeted at preventing cancer precursor infections, and these should add to our ability to prevent this common human disorder. However, vaccines to prevent cancers not triggered by infection are a more remote prospect, for a variety of reasons.
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29
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Ghim SJ, Rector A, Delius H, Sundberg JP, Jenson AB, Van Ranst M. Equine papillomavirus type 1: complete nucleotide sequence and characterization of recombinant virus-like particles composed of the EcPV-1 L1 major capsid protein. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 324:1108-15. [PMID: 15485669 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.09.154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Equus caballus papillomavirus type 1 (EcPV-1) was isolated from a cutaneous papilloma, the most common neoplasm in horses. The complete EcPV-1 nucleotide sequence and genomic organization were determined. Phylogenetic analysis showed that EcPV-1 is a close-to-root papillomavirus, with only distant relationships to the fibropapillomaviruses and the benign cutaneous papillomaviruses. To produce EcPV-1 virus-like particles (VLPs), the EcPV-1 L1 major capsid protein was expressed in insect cells using a recombinant baculovirus vector. The self-assembled EcPV-1 VLPs were morphologically indistinguishable from wild type papillomavirus virions. Monoclonal antibodies were developed against intact and denatured EcPV-1 VLPs. When tested by ELISA, all monoclonal antibodies produced against intact (#18) and some against denatured EcPV-1 VLPs (#16) reacted with intact EcPV-1 VLPs only, demonstrating that the VLPs carry type-specific conformational as well as linear epitopes on their surface. Recombinant EcPV-1 VLPs offer the potential of a noninfectious vaccine to prevent and eradicate equine cutaneous papillomatosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-Je Ghim
- Laboratory of Vaccinology, John Graham Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville Health Science Center, Louisville, KY, USA
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30
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Berzofsky JA, Ahlers JD, Janik J, Morris J, Oh S, Terabe M, Belyakov IM. Progress on new vaccine strategies against chronic viral infections. J Clin Invest 2004. [PMID: 15314679 DOI: 10.1172/jci200422674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the most cost-effective strategies for preventing viral infections, vaccines have proven effective primarily against viruses causing acute, self-limited infections. For these it has been sufficient for the vaccine to mimic the natural virus. However, viruses causing chronic infection do not elicit an immune response sufficient to clear the infection and, as a result, vaccines for these viruses must elicit more effective responses--quantitative and qualitative--than does the natural virus. Here we examine the immunologic and virologic basis for vaccines against three such viruses, HIV, hepatitis C virus, and human papillomavirus, and review progress in clinical trials to date. We also explore novel strategies for increasing the immunogenicity and efficacy of vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay A Berzofsky
- Molecular Immunogenetics and Vaccine Research Section, Vaccine Branch, The Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute/NIH, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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31
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Berzofsky JA, Ahlers JD, Janik J, Morris J, Oh S, Terabe M, Belyakov IM. Progress on new vaccine strategies against chronic viral infections. J Clin Invest 2004; 114:450-62. [PMID: 15314679 PMCID: PMC503779 DOI: 10.1172/jci22674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the most cost-effective strategies for preventing viral infections, vaccines have proven effective primarily against viruses causing acute, self-limited infections. For these it has been sufficient for the vaccine to mimic the natural virus. However, viruses causing chronic infection do not elicit an immune response sufficient to clear the infection and, as a result, vaccines for these viruses must elicit more effective responses--quantitative and qualitative--than does the natural virus. Here we examine the immunologic and virologic basis for vaccines against three such viruses, HIV, hepatitis C virus, and human papillomavirus, and review progress in clinical trials to date. We also explore novel strategies for increasing the immunogenicity and efficacy of vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay A Berzofsky
- Molecular Immunogenetics and Vaccine Research Section, Vaccine Branch, The Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute/NIH, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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32
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Manoutcharian K, Díaz-Orea A, Gevorkian G, Fragoso G, Acero G, González E, De Aluja A, Villalobos N, Gómez-Conde E, Sciutto E. Recombinant bacteriophage-based multiepitope vaccine against Taenia solium pig cysticercosis. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2004; 99:11-24. [PMID: 15113650 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2003.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2003] [Revised: 11/26/2003] [Accepted: 12/22/2003] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to test the capacity of recombinant phages to deliver antigens for vaccination against porcine cysticercosis. Thus, three peptides (KETc1, KETc12, GK1) and a recombinant antigen KETc7, previously proven to induce high levels of protection against pig cysticercosis, were expressed on the surface of the M13 bacteriophage at multiple copies. The pool of these four recombinant phages induced high levels of protection against an experimental murine cysticercosis. The immunogenicity of the phage vaccine preparation was therefore, tested in pigs, the natural host of Taenia solium. Subcutaneous or oral vaccination with these phages induced antigen-specific cellular immune responses in pigs. Preliminary data also points to the protective capacity of this recombinant phage vaccine against pig cysticercosis. The immunogenicity of these recombinant phages, together with the low cost of their production, make them a realistic candidate to be tested in pigs as an anti-cysticercus phage vaccine for field trials. This is the first report describing the application of a filamentous bacteriophage as a vaccine in large animals such as pigs, the only intermediate hosts of T. solium, a parasite of major medical importance in developing countries. The potential application of phages as a modern platform for vaccines for human and animal diseases is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Manoutcharian
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México CP 04510, D.F., Mexico.
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33
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Rollman E, Arnheim L, Collier B, Oberg D, Hall H, Klingström J, Dillner J, Pastrana DV, Buck CB, Hinkula J, Wahren B, Schwartz S. HPV-16 L1 genes with inactivated negative RNA elements induce potent immune responses. Virology 2004; 322:182-9. [PMID: 15063127 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2004.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2003] [Revised: 01/26/2004] [Accepted: 02/03/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Introduction of point mutations in the 5' end of the human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) L1 gene specifically inactivates negative regulatory RNA processing elements. DNA vaccination of C57Bl/6 mice with the mutated L1 gene resulted in improved immunogenicity for both neutralizing antibodies as well as for broad cellular immune responses. Previous reports on the activation of L1 by codon optimization may be explained by inactivation of the regulatory RNA elements. The modified HPV-16 L1 DNA that induced anti-HPV-16 immunity may be seen as a complementary approach to protein subunit immunization against papillomavirus.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/blood
- Antibodies, Viral/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Capsid Proteins
- Cells, Cultured
- Disease Models, Animal
- Genes, Regulator
- Genes, Viral
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Neutralization Tests
- Oncogene Proteins, Viral/genetics
- Oncogene Proteins, Viral/immunology
- Papillomaviridae/genetics
- Papillomaviridae/immunology
- Papillomavirus Infections/blood
- Papillomavirus Infections/immunology
- Papillomavirus Infections/prevention & control
- Point Mutation
- Spleen/immunology
- Vaccination
- Vaccines, DNA/administration & dosage
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Rollman
- Department of Virology, Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, Solna, Sweden.
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34
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Pastrana DV, Buck CB, Pang YYS, Thompson CD, Castle PE, FitzGerald PC, Krüger Kjaer S, Lowy DR, Schiller JT. Reactivity of human sera in a sensitive, high-throughput pseudovirus-based papillomavirus neutralization assay for HPV16 and HPV18. Virology 2004; 321:205-16. [PMID: 15051381 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2003.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 287] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2003] [Revised: 12/17/2003] [Accepted: 12/22/2003] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Sensitive high-throughput neutralization assays, based upon pseudoviruses carrying a secreted alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) reporter gene, were developed and validated for human papillomavirus (HPV)16, HPV18, and bovine papillomavirus 1 (BPV1). SEAP pseudoviruses were produced by transient transfection of codon-modified papillomavirus structural genes into an SV40 T antigen expressing line derived from 293 cells, yielding sufficient pseudovirus from one flask for thousands of titrations. In a 96-well plate format, in this initial characterization, the assay was reproducible and appears to be as sensitive as, but more specific than, a standard papillomavirus-like particle (VLP)-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The neutralization assay detected type-specific HPV16 or HPV18 neutralizing antibodies (titers of 160-10240) in sera of the majority of a group of women infected with the corresponding HPV type, but not in virgin women. Sera from HPV16 VLP vaccinees had high anti-HPV16 neutralizing titers (mean: 45000; range: 5120-163840), but no anti-HPV18 neutralizing activity. The SEAP pseudovirus-based neutralization assay should be a practical method for quantifying potentially protective antibody responses in HPV natural history and prophylactic vaccine studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana V Pastrana
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892-4263, USA
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35
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Zhao W, Liao GY, Jiang YJ, Jiang SD. No requirement of HCV 5’NCR for HCV-like particles assembly in insect cells. World J Gastroenterol 2003; 9:2226-31. [PMID: 14562383 PMCID: PMC4656468 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v9.i10.2226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To express all three HCV structural proteins in the presence or absence of HCV 5’NCR to investigate the requirement of 5’NCR for the assembly of HCV-like particles in insect cells.
METHODS: HCV structural protein encoding sequences CE1E2 and 5’NCR-CE1E2 were amplified with PCR. Recombinant baculovirus were constructed with recombinant DNA techniques. HCV structural proteins expressed in insect cells were analyzed by immunofluorescence and SDS-PAGE. Immunoprecipitation experiment of insect cell lysates with anti-E2 monoclonal antibody (MAb) was carried out and the immunoprecipitated proteins were subjected to SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting with anti-C, anti-E2 MAbs and HCV positive serum. The virus-like particles in insect cells were visualized by electron microscopy (EM). The HCV-like particles were purified by sucrose gradient centrifugation and identified by EM and immune aggregation EM.
RESULTS: The recombinant baculovirus reBV/CE1E2 containing HCV C, E1, E2 genes and reBV/CS containing the same structural protein genes plus 5’NCR were constructed. The insect cells infected with either reBV/CE1E2 or reBV/CS expressed HCV C, E1 and E2 proteins with a molecular weight of 20 kD, 35 kD and 66 kD respectively. The results of immunoprecipitation and the immunoblotting revealed the coimmunoprecipitation of C, E1, and E2 proteins, indicating the interaction of HCV structural proteins expressed in insect cells. Electron microscopy of insect cells infected with reBV/CE1E2 or reBV/CS demonstrated spherical particles (40 to 60 nm in diameter) similar to the HCV virions from sera or hepatic tissues of HCV infected humans. The HCV-like particles were partially purified by sucrose gradient centrifugation, and the purified VLPs showed immuno-reactivity with anti-HCV antibodies.
CONCLUSION: HCV 5’NCR is not required for the assembly of HCV-like particles in insect cells, HCV core and envelope proteins are sufficient for viral particle formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhao
- Laboratory of Vaccine Research, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, Yunnan Province, China
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36
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Varsani A, Williamson AL, de Villiers D, Becker I, Christensen ND, Rybicki EP. Chimeric human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) L1 particles presenting the common neutralizing epitope for the L2 minor capsid protein of HPV-6 and HPV-16. J Virol 2003; 77:8386-93. [PMID: 12857908 PMCID: PMC165259 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.15.8386-8393.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Both the Human papillomavirus (HPV) major (L1) and minor (L2) capsid proteins have been well investigated as potential vaccine candidates. The L1 protein first oligomerizes into pentamers, and these capsomers assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs) that are highly immunogenic. Here we examine the potential of using HPV type 16 (HPV-16) L1 subunits to display a well-characterized HPV-16 L2 epitope (LVEETSFIDAGAP), which is a common-neutralizing epitope for HPV types 6 and 16, in various regions of the L1 structure. The L2 sequence was introduced by PCR (by replacing 13 codons) into sequences coding for L1 surface loops D-E (chideltaC-L2), E-F (chideltaA-L2), and an internal loop C-D (chideltaH-L2); into the h4 helix (chideltaF-L2); and between h4 and beta-J structural regions (chideltaE-L2). The chimeric protein product was characterized using a panel of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that bind to conformational and linear epitopes, as well as a polyclonal antiserum raised to the L2 epitope. All five chimeras reacted with the L2 serum. ChideltaA-L2, chideltaE-L2, and chideltaF-L2 reacted with all the L1 antibodies, chideltaC-L2 did not bind H16:V5 and H16:E70, and chideltaH-L2 did not bind any conformation-dependent MAb. The chimeric particles elicited high-titer anti-L1 immune responses in BALB/c mice. Of the five chimeras tested only chideltaH-L2 did not elicit an L2 response, while chideltaF-L2 elicited the highest L2 response. This study provides support for the use of PV particles as vectors to deliver various epitopes in a number of locations internal to the L1 protein and for the potential of using chimeric PV particles as multivalent vaccines. Moreover, it contributes to knowledge of the structure of HPV-16 L1 VLPs and their derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Varsani
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa and Department of Pathology, The Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
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Chu NR. Therapeutic vaccination for the treatment of mucosotropic human papillomavirus-associated disease. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2003; 3:477-86. [PMID: 12783616 DOI: 10.1517/14712598.3.3.477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
There is a high prevalence of diseases caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Unfortunately, current treatments are inadequate. However, because there is evidence to support a role for the immune system in host defence against this virus, an immunotherapeutic approach is warranted. The existing immunotherapies are not completely effective, nor are they durable. In addition, natural history studies associated with spontaneous regression have provided little guidance to the design of successful interventions. This state of knowledge has encouraged efforts towards the development of novel immunotherapeutic strategies. Successful preclinical studies of therapeutic vaccine candidates have led to clinical studies for a variety of HPV-associated indications, such as anogenital warts and cervical and anal intraepithelial neoplasia. Immunisation approaches such as adjuvanted peptides, virus-like particles and fusion constructs are discussed. Specifically, chimaeric molecules comprised of mycobacterial heat-shock proteins (Hsps) and HPV16 E7 appear promising.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Randall Chu
- Stressgen Biotechnologies Corp., 350-4243 Glanford Ave, Victoria, BC, Canada, V8Z 4B9.
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Abstract
The human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid consists of 360 copies of the major capsid protein, L1, arranged as 72 pentamers on a T=7 icosahedral lattice, with substoichiometric amounts of the minor capsid protein, L2. In order to understand the arrangement of L2 within the HPV virion, we have defined and biochemically characterized a domain of L2 that interacts with L1 pentamers. We utilized an in vivo binding assay involving the coexpression of recombinant HPV type 11 (HPV11) L1 and HPV11 glutathione S-transferase (GST) L2 fusion proteins in Escherichia coli. In this system, L1 forms pentamers, GST=L2 associates with these pentamers, and L1+L2 complexes are subsequently isolated by using the GST tag on L2. The stoichiometry of L1:L2 in purified L1+L2 complexes was 5:1, indicating that a single molecule of L2 interacts with an L1 pentamer. Coexpression of HPV11 L1 with deletion mutants of HPV11 L2 defined an L1-binding domain contained within amino acids 396 to 439 near the carboxy terminus of L2. L2 proteins from eight different human and animal papillomavirus serotypes were tested for their ability to interact with HPV11 L1. This analysis targeted a hydrophobic region within the L1-binding domain of L2 as critical for L1 binding. Introduction of negative charges into this hydrophobic region by site-directed mutagenesis disrupted L1 binding. L1-L2 interactions were not significantly disrupted by treatment with high salt concentrations (2 M NaCl), weak detergents, and urea concentrations of up to 2 M, further indicating that L1 binding by this domain is mediated by strong hydrophobic interactions. L1+L2 protein complexes were able to form virus-like particles in vitro at pH 5.2 and also at pH 6.8, a pH that is nonpermissive for assembly of L1 protein alone. Thus, L1/L2 interactions are primarily hydrophobic, encompass a relatively short stretch of amino acids, and have significant effects upon in vitro assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renée L Finnen
- Section of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado 80262, USA
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Khleif SN. Human papillomavirus therapy for the prevention and treatment of cervical cancer. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2003; 4:111-9. [PMID: 12594937 DOI: 10.1007/s11864-003-0012-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Cervical carcinoma is associated with human papillomavirus infection. Proliferation of cancer cells depends on the continual expression of the E6 and E7 viral oncogenes. This article includes treatment strategies that can interfere with expression or function of the proteins and immunotherapeutic approaches that can eliminate cells that express E6 and E7 proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samir N Khleif
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Naval Medical Center, Building 8, Room 4137, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Abstract
Tumorigenesis due to papillomavirus (PV) infection was first demonstrated in rabbits and cattle early last century. Despite the evidence obtained in animals, the role of viruses in human cancer was dismissed as irrelevant. It took a paradigm shift in the late 1970s for some viruses to be recognised as 'tumour viruses' in humans, and in 1995, more than 60 years after Rous's first demonstration of CRPV oncogenicity, WHO officially declared that 'HPV-16 and HPV-18 are carcinogenic to humans'. Experimental studies with animal PVs have been a determining factor in this decision. Animal PVs have been studied both as agents of disease in animals and as models of human PV infection. In addition to the study of PV infection in whole animals, in vitro studies with animal PV proteins have contributed greatly to the understanding of the mechanisms of cell transformation. Animal PVs cause distressing diseases in both farm and companion animals, such as teat papillomatosis in cattle, equine sarcoids and canine oral papillomatosis and there is an urgent need to understand the pathogenesis of these problematic infections. Persistent and florid teat papillomatosis in cows can lead to mastitis, prevent the suckling of calves and make milking impossible; heavily affected animals are culled and so occasionally are whole herds. Equine sarcoids are often recurrent and untreatable and lead to loss of valuable animals. Canine oral papillomatosis can be very extensive and persistent and lead to great distress. Thus the continuing research in the biology of animal PVs is amply justified. BPVs and CRPV have been for many years the model systems with which to study the biology of HPV. Induction of papillomas and their neoplastic progression has been experimentally demonstrated and reproduced in cattle and rabbits, and virus-cofactor interactions have been elucidated in these systems. With the advancements in molecular and cell culture techniques, the direct study of HPV has become less problematic and understandably research efforts have shifted in focus from animal to human PVs. However, there are still areas in which studies on animal PVs will continue to provide answers to questions pertaining to virus biology. One of these questions is the involvement of HPV in oesophageal and bladder cancer in humans as is the case for BPV in cattle. Another is the site of viral latency. Lymphocytes have been proposed as a site of latency for both BPV and HPV but only experiments performed in animals could clarify this point. Animal PVs have been instrumental in the development of vaccines as cattle, rabbit and more recently dog all provide the opportunity to study vaccination in the natural host. Several anti-HPV vaccines, both prophylactic and therapeutic, based on those developed in animals, are now in clinical trials with encouraging results. In vitro studies with two animal PV early proteins, the transcriptional regulator E2 and the oncoprotein E5, among others, have contributed to the elucidation of viral gene control and cell transformation. BPV E2 was the first viral product to be identified as a transcriptional regulator; more recently, its association with mitotic chromosomes has been suggested as a mechanism for the partition of viral genomes between daughter cells, and its L2-mediated localisation in the sub-nuclear compartments PODs is believed to favour viral DNA encapsidation. E5 is the major transforming protein of several BPVs. Many of the function of E5 proteins have been first established for BPV E5 and later validated for HPV E5. E5 interacts with 16k ductin/subunit c and this interaction is deemed responsible for the down-regulation of gap junction intercellular communication and the inhibition of acidification of endomembranes. E5 activates growth factor receptors and numerous kinases, including cdks, and down-regulates expression of MHC class I. Thus E5 would help the establishment of viral infection by promoting both cell proliferation and immune evasion. Despite the extensive studies on vaccination in animals, E5 has not been tried inE5 has not been tried in animal models as a possible anti-papillomavirus vaccine. A recent study has reported that vaccination of mice with HPV-16 E5 in a recombinant adenovirus reduced the growth of tumours induced by E5-expressing cells. Perhaps this is an instance in which work on animal PVs should follow HPV and the potential for E5 vaccination should be validated in naturally occurring animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Saveria Campo
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Comparative Medicine, Glasgow University, UK.
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Peh WL, Middleton K, Christensen N, Nicholls P, Egawa K, Sotlar K, Brandsma J, Percival A, Lewis J, Liu WJ, Doorbar J. Life cycle heterogeneity in animal models of human papillomavirus-associated disease. J Virol 2002; 76:10401-16. [PMID: 12239317 PMCID: PMC136551 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.20.10401-10416.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal papillomaviruses are widely used as models to study papillomavirus infection in humans despite differences in genome organization and tissue tropism. Here, we have investigated the extent to which animal models of papillomavirus infection resemble human disease by comparing the life cycles of 10 different papillomavirus types. Three phases in the life cycles of all viruses were apparent using antibodies that distinguish between early events, the onset of viral genome amplification, and the expression of capsid proteins. The initiation of these phases follows a highly ordered pattern that appears important for the production of virus particles. The viruses examined included canine oral papillomavirus, rabbit oral papillomavirus (ROPV), cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV), bovine papillomavirus type 1, and human papillomavirus types 1, 2, 11, and 16. Each papillomavirus type showed a distinctive gene expression pattern that could be explained in part by differences in tissue tropism, transmission route, and persistence. As the timing of life cycle events affects the accessibility of viral antigens to the immune system, the ideal model system should resemble human mucosal infection if vaccine design is to be effective. Of the model systems examined here, only ROPV had a tissue tropism and a life cycle organization that resembled those of the human mucosal types. ROPV appears most appropriate for studies of the life cycles of mucosal papillomavirus types and for the development of prophylactic vaccines. The persistence of abortive infections caused by CRPV offers advantages for the development of therapeutic vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woei Ling Peh
- National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London NW7 1AA, UK
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Dale CJ, Liu XS, De Rose R, Purcell DFJ, Anderson J, Xu Y, Leggatt GR, Frazer IH, Kent SJ. Chimeric human papilloma virus-simian/human immunodeficiency virus virus-like-particle vaccines: immunogenicity and protective efficacy in macaques. Virology 2002; 301:176-87. [PMID: 12359458 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2002.1589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Vaccines to efficiently block or limit sexual transmission of both HIV and human papilloma virus (HPV) are urgently needed. Chimeric virus-like-particle (VLP) vaccines consisting of both multimerized HPV L1 proteins and fragments of SIV gag p27, HIV-1 tat, and HIV-1 rev proteins (HPV-SHIV VLPs) were constructed and administered to macaques both systemically and mucosally. An additional group of macaques first received a priming vaccination with DNA vaccines expressing the same SIV and HIV-1 antigens prior to chimeric HPV-SHIV VLP boosting vaccinations. Although HPV L1 antibodies were induced in all immunized macaques, weak antibody or T cell responses to the chimeric SHIV antigens were detected only in animals receiving the DNA prime/HPV-SHIV VLP boost vaccine regimen. Significant but partial protection from a virulent mucosal SHIV challenge was also detected only in the prime/boosted macaques and not in animals receiving the HPV-SHIV VLP vaccines alone, with three of five prime/boosted animals retaining some CD4+ T cells following challenge. Thus, although some immunogenicity and partial protection was observed in non-human primates receiving both DNA and chimeric HPV-SHIV VLP vaccines, significant improvements in vaccine design are required before we can confidently proceed with this approach to clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Jane Dale
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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Gravitt PE, Kamath AM, Gaffikin L, Chirenje ZM, Womack S, Shah KV. Human papillomavirus genotype prevalence in high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions and colposcopically normal women from Zimbabwe. Int J Cancer 2002; 100:729-32. [PMID: 12209615 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.10538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Bernard HU. Gene Expression of Genital Human Papillomaviruses and Considerations on Potential Antiviral Approaches. Antivir Ther 2002. [DOI: 10.1177/135965350200700401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Genital human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are carcinogenic to humans and are associated with most cases of cervical cancer, genital and laryngeal warts, and certain cutaneous neoplastic lesions. Five of the more than 50 known genital HPV types, HPV-6, -11, -16, -18 and -31, have become the models to study gene expression. The comparison of the studies of these five viruses and analyses of the genomic sequences of those genital HPV types that have not been transcriptionally studied make it likely that genital HPVs share most strategies for regulating their transcription. These strategies are quite different from those of unrelated human and animal papillomaviruses. Among these common properties are (i) a specific promoter structure allowing for fine-tuned negative feedback, (ii) a transcriptional enhancer that is specific for epithelial cells, (iii) regulation by progesterone and glucocorticoid hormones, (iv) silencers, whose principal function appears to be transcriptional repression in the basal layer of infected epithelia, (v) specifically positioned nucleosomes that mediate the functions of some enhancer and the silencer factors, (vi) nuclear matrix attachment regions that can, under different conditions, repress or stimulate transcription, and (vii) as yet poorly understood late promoters positioned very remote from the late genes. Most of these properties are controlled by cellular proteins that, due to their simultaneous importance for cellular processes, may not be useful as HPV-specific drug targets. It should be possible, however, to target complex cis-responsive elements unique to these HPV genomes by nucleotide sequence-specific molecules, such as antisense RNA, polyamides and artificial transcription factors. The application of small molecule-based drugs may be restricted to target proteins encoded by the HPV DNA, such as the replication factor E1 and the transcription/replication factor E2.
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