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Kang C, Kim J, Ju S, Cho H, Kim HY, Yoon IS, Yoo JW, Jung Y. Colon-Targeted Trans-Cinnamic Acid Ameliorates Rat Colitis by Activating GPR109A. Pharmaceutics 2022; 15:pharmaceutics15010041. [PMID: 36678670 PMCID: PMC9865397 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15010041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We designed colon-targeted trans-cinnamic acid (tCA) and synthesized its conjugates with glutamic acid (tCA-GA) and aspartic acid (tCA-AA). We evaluated the anti-colitic activity of colon-targeted tCA using a dinitrobenzenesulfonic acid-induced rat colitis model. The conjugates lowered the distribution coefficient and Caco-2 cell permeability of tCA and converted to tCA in the cecum, with higher rates and percentages with tCA-GA than with tCA-AA. Following oral gavage, tCA-GA delivered a higher amount of tCA to the cecum and exhibited better anti-colitic effects than tCA and sulfasalazine (SSZ), which is the current treatment for inflammatory bowel disease. In the cellular assay, tCA acted as a full agonist of GPR109A (EC50: 530 µM). The anti-colitic effects of tCA-GA were significantly compromised by the co-administration of the GPR109A antagonist, mepenzolate. Collectively, colon-targeted tCA potentiated the anti-colitic activity of tCA by effectively activating GPR109A in the inflamed colon, enabling tCA to elicit therapeutic superiority over SSZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changyu Kang
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaejeong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Sanghyun Ju
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Heeyeong Cho
- Biotechnology & Therapeutic Division, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
- Department of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Korea University of Science and Technology, 141 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Young Kim
- Biotechnology & Therapeutic Division, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Soo Yoon
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-51-510-2527; Fax: +82-51-513-6754
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Park S, Kang C, Kim J, Ju S, Yoo JW, Yoon IS, Kim MS, Lee J, Jung Y. A Colon-Targeted Prodrug of Riluzole Improves Therapeutic Effectiveness and Safety upon Drug Repositioning of Riluzole to an Anti-Colitic Drug. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:3784-3794. [PMID: 36043999 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c00255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Riluzole (RLZ) is a neuroprotective drug indicated for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. To examine the feasibility of RLZ for repositioning as an anti-inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) drug, RLZ (2, 5, and 10 mg/kg) was administered orally to rats with colitis induced by 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfonic acid. Oral RLZ was effective against rat colitis in a dose-dependent manner, which was statistically significant at doses over 5 mg/kg. To address safety issues upon repositioning and further improve anti-colitic effectiveness, RLZ was coupled with salicylic acid (SA) via an azo-bond to yield RLZ-azo-SA (RAS) for the targeted colonic delivery of RLZ. Upon oral gavage, RAS (oral RAS) was efficiently delivered to and activated to RLZ in the large intestine, and systemic absorption of RLZ was substantially reduced. Oral RAS ameliorated colonic damage and inflammation in rat colitis and was more effective than oral RLZ and sulfasalazine, a current anti-IBD drug. Moreover, oral RAS potently inhibited glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) in the inflamed distal colon, leading to the suppression of NFκB activity and an increase in the level of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10. Taken together, RAS, which enables RLZ to be delivered to and inhibit GSK3β in the inflamed colon, may facilitate repositioning of RLZ as an anti-IBD drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sohee Park
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Changyu Kang
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaejeong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Sanghyun Ju
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Soo Yoon
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Soo Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaewon Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
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Dapsone Azo-Linked with Two Mesalazine Moieties Is a "Me-Better" Alternative to Sulfasalazine. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14030684. [PMID: 35336057 PMCID: PMC8949065 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14030684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Dapsone (DpS) is an antimicrobial and antiprotozoal agent, especially used to treat leprosy. The drug shares a similar mode of action with sulfonamides. Additionally, it possesses anti-inflammatory activity, useful for treating autoimmune diseases. Here, we developed a “me-better” alternative to sulfasalazine (SSZ), a colon-specific prodrug of mesalazine (5-ASA) used as an anti-inflammatory bowel diseases drug; DpS azo-linked with two molecules of 5-ASA (AS-DpS-AS) was designed and synthesized, and its colon specificity and anti-colitic activity were evaluated. AS-DpS-AS was converted to DpS and the two molecules of 5-ASA (up to approximately 87% conversion) within 24 h after incubation in the cecal contents. Compared to SSZ, AS-DpS-AS showed greater efficiency in colonic drug delivery following oral gavage. Simultaneously, AS-DpS-AS substantially limited the systemic absorption of DpS. In a dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced rat colitis model, oral AS-DpS-AS elicited better efficacy against rat colitis than oral SSZ. Moreover, intracolonic treatment with DpS and/or 5-ASA clearly showed that combined treatment with DpS and 5-ASA was more effective against rat colitis than the single treatment with either DpS or 5-ASA. These results suggest that AS-DpS-AS may be a “me-better” drug of SSZ with higher therapeutic efficacy, owing to the combined anti-colitic effects of 5-ASA and DpS.
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Hong S, Ju S, Yoo JW, Ha NC, Jung Y. Design and evaluation of IKK-activated GSK3β inhibitory peptide as an inflammation-responsive anti-colitic therapeutic. Biomater Sci 2021; 9:6584-6596. [PMID: 34582526 DOI: 10.1039/d1bm00533b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β), a multi-functional kinase, is a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of inflammation. Inhibitory κB kinase (IKK)-activated GSK3β inhibitory peptide (IAGIP) was designed as an inflammation-responsive anti-colitic therapeutic. To optimize therapeutic efficiency, IAGIP was tested using two different drug delivery techniques: colon-targeted delivery and cell-permeable peptide modification. In cell-based experiments, in response to tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated activation of IKK, cell-permeable IAGIP (CTP-IAGIP) inhibited GSK3β, leading to increased production of anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10) and suppression of TNF- and LPS-induced NFκB activity. Oral gavage of CTP-IAGIP loaded in the colon-targeted capsule attenuated 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced rat colitis and lowered the expression levels of NFκB-regulated proteins in the inflamed colons. CTP-IAGIP further induced IL-10 production in the inflamed colonic tissues; however, the levels of IL-10 were not affected in the normal colonic tissue or colonic tissue in which inflammation had subsided. Collectively, our data suggest that IAGIP administered using the aforementioned drug delivery techniques is an orally active anti-colitic drug selectively responding to inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sungchae Hong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241 Republic of Korea.
| | - Sanghyun Ju
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241 Republic of Korea.
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241 Republic of Korea.
| | - Nam-Chul Ha
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Center for Food and Bioconvergence, Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826 Republic of Korea.
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241 Republic of Korea.
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Zu M, Ma Y, Cannup B, Xie D, Jung Y, Zhang J, Yang C, Gao F, Merlin D, Xiao B. Oral delivery of natural active small molecules by polymeric nanoparticles for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 176:113887. [PMID: 34314785 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.113887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is rapidly rising throughout the world. Although tremendous efforts have been made, limited therapeutics are available for IBD management. Natural active small molecules (NASMs), which are a gift of nature to humanity, have been widely used in the prevention and alleviation of IBD; they have numerous advantageous features, including excellent biocompatibility, pharmacological activity, and mass production potential. Oral route is the most common and acceptable approach for drug administration, but the clinical application of NASMs in IBD treatment via oral route has been seriously restricted by their inherent limitations such as high hydrophobicity, instability, and poor bioavailability. With the development of nanotechnology, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) have provided a promising platform that can efficiently encapsulate versatile NASMs, overcome multiple drug delivery barriers, and orally deliver the loaded NASMs to targeted tissues or cells while enhancing their stability and bioavailability. Thus, NPs can enhance the preventive and therapeutic effects of NASMs against IBD. Herein, we summarize the recent knowledge about polymeric matrix-based carriers, targeting ligands for drug delivery, and NASMs. We also discuss the current challenges and future developmental directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menghang Zu
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, College of Sericulture, Textile, and Biomass Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Ya Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, College of Sericulture, Textile, and Biomass Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Brandon Cannup
- Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Digestive Disease Research Group, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302, United States
| | - Dengchao Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, College of Sericulture, Textile, and Biomass Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China; State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 611137, China; College of Food Science, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, South Korea
| | - Jinming Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 611137, China
| | - Chunhua Yang
- Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Digestive Disease Research Group, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302, United States; Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA 30033, United States
| | - Fei Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 611137, China.
| | - Didier Merlin
- Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Digestive Disease Research Group, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302, United States; Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA 30033, United States.
| | - Bo Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, College of Sericulture, Textile, and Biomass Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China.
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Lee H, Park S, Ju S, Kim S, Yoo JW, Yoon IS, Min DS, Jung Y. Preparation and Evaluation of Colon-Targeted Prodrugs of the Microbial Metabolite 3-Indolepropionic Acid as an Anticolitic Agent. Mol Pharm 2021; 18:1730-1741. [PMID: 33661643 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.0c01228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Microbial metabolites play a critical role in mucosal homeostasis by mediating physiological communication between the host and colonic microbes, whose perturbation may lead to gut inflammation. The microbial metabolite 3-indolepropionic acid (3-IPA) is one such communication mediator with potent antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activity. To apply the metabolite for the treatment of colitis, 3-IPA was coupled with acidic amino acids to yield colon-targeted 3-IPA, 3-IPA-aspartic acid (IPA-AA) and 3-IPA-glutamic acid (IPA-GA). Both conjugates were activated to 3-IPA in the cecal contents, which occurred faster for IPA-AA. Oral gavage of IPA-AA (oral IPA-AA) delivered a millimolar concentration of IPA-AA to the cecum, liberating 3-IPA. In a 2,4-dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (DNBS)-induced rat colitis model, oral IPA-AA ameliorated rat colitis and was less effective than sulfasalazine (SSZ), a current anti-inflammatory bowel disease drug. To enhance the anticolitic activity of 3-IPA, it was azo-linked with the GPR109 agonist 5-aminonicotinic acid (5-ANA) to yield IPA-azo-ANA, expecting a mutual anticolitic action. IPA-azo-ANA (activated to 5-ANA and 2-amino-3-IPA) exhibited colon specificity in in vitro and in vivo experiments. Oral IPA-azo-ANA mitigated colonic damage and inflammation and was more effective than SSZ. These results suggest that colon-targeted 3-IPA ameliorated rat colitis and its anticolitic activity could be enhanced by codelivery of the GPR109A agonist 5-ANA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanju Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Sohee Park
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Sanghyun Ju
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Soojin Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Soo Yoon
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Do Sik Min
- College of Pharmacy, Yonsei University, 85 Songdogwahak-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21983, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
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5-[(3-Carboxy-4-hydroxyphenyl)diazenyl] nicotinic acid, an azo-linked mesalazine-nicotinic acid conjugate, is a colon-targeted mutual prodrug against dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s40005-021-00517-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Kim S, Lee S, Lee H, Ju S, Park S, Kwon D, Yoo JW, Yoon IS, Min DS, Jung YS, Jung Y. A Colon-Targeted Prodrug, 4-Phenylbutyric Acid-Glutamic Acid Conjugate, Ameliorates 2,4-Dinitrobenzenesulfonic Acid-Induced Colitis in Rats. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12090843. [PMID: 32899177 PMCID: PMC7558321 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12090843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
An elevated level of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is considered an aggravating factor for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). To develop an ER-stress attenuator that is effective against colitis, 4-phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA), a chemical chaperone that alleviates ER stress, was conjugated with acidic amino acids to yield 4-PBA-glutamic acid (PBA-GA) and 4-PBA-aspartic acid (PBA-AA) conjugates. The PBA derivatives were converted to 4-PBA in the cecal contents, and the conversion was greater with PBA-GA than that with PBA-AA. After oral administration of PBA-GA (oral PBA-GA), up to 2.7 mM PBA was detected in the cecum, whereas 4-PBA was not detected in the blood, indicating that PBA-GA predominantly targeted the large intestine. In 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfonic acid-induced colitis in rats, oral PBA-GA alleviated the damage and inflammation in the colon and substantially reduced the elevated levels of ER stress marker proteins in the inflamed colon. Moreover, PBA-GA was found to be as effective as the currently used anti-IBD drug, sulfasalazine. In conclusion, PBA-GA is a colon-targeted prodrug of 4-PBA and is effective against rat colitis probably via the attenuation of ER stress in the inflamed colon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soojin Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea; (S.K.); (S.L.); (H.L.); (S.J.); (S.P.); (D.K.); (J.-W.Y.); (I.-S.Y.)
| | - Seunghyun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea; (S.K.); (S.L.); (H.L.); (S.J.); (S.P.); (D.K.); (J.-W.Y.); (I.-S.Y.)
| | - Hanju Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea; (S.K.); (S.L.); (H.L.); (S.J.); (S.P.); (D.K.); (J.-W.Y.); (I.-S.Y.)
| | - Sanghyun Ju
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea; (S.K.); (S.L.); (H.L.); (S.J.); (S.P.); (D.K.); (J.-W.Y.); (I.-S.Y.)
| | - Sohee Park
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea; (S.K.); (S.L.); (H.L.); (S.J.); (S.P.); (D.K.); (J.-W.Y.); (I.-S.Y.)
| | - Doyoung Kwon
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea; (S.K.); (S.L.); (H.L.); (S.J.); (S.P.); (D.K.); (J.-W.Y.); (I.-S.Y.)
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea; (S.K.); (S.L.); (H.L.); (S.J.); (S.P.); (D.K.); (J.-W.Y.); (I.-S.Y.)
| | - In-Soo Yoon
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea; (S.K.); (S.L.); (H.L.); (S.J.); (S.P.); (D.K.); (J.-W.Y.); (I.-S.Y.)
| | - Do Sik Min
- College of Pharmacy, Yonsei University, 85 Songdogwahak-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21983, Korea;
| | - Young-Suk Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea; (S.K.); (S.L.); (H.L.); (S.J.); (S.P.); (D.K.); (J.-W.Y.); (I.-S.Y.)
- Correspondence: (Y.-S.J.); (Y.J.); Tel.: +51-510-2816 (Y.-S.J.); +51-510-2527(Y.J.); Fax: +51-513-6754 (Y.-S.J. & Y.J.)
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea; (S.K.); (S.L.); (H.L.); (S.J.); (S.P.); (D.K.); (J.-W.Y.); (I.-S.Y.)
- Correspondence: (Y.-S.J.); (Y.J.); Tel.: +51-510-2816 (Y.-S.J.); +51-510-2527(Y.J.); Fax: +51-513-6754 (Y.-S.J. & Y.J.)
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Wang S, Liu R, Fu Y, Kao WJ. Release mechanisms and applications of drug delivery systems for extended-release. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2020; 17:1289-1304. [PMID: 32619149 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2020.1788541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Drug delivery systems with extended-release profiles are ideal in improving patient compliance with enhanced efficacy. To develop devices capable of a prolonged delivery kinetics, it is crucial to understand the various underlying mechanisms contributing to extended drug release and the impact thereof on modulating the long-term performance of such systems in a practical application environment. AREAS COVERED This review article intends to provide a comprehensive summary of release mechanisms in extended-release drug delivery systems, particularly polymer-based systems; however, other material types will also be mentioned. Selected current research in the delivery of small molecule drugs and macromolecules is highlighted. Emphasis is placed on the combined impact of different release mechanisms and drug properties on the long-term release kinetics in vitro and in vivo. EXPERT OPINION The development of drug delivery systems over an extended duration is promising but also challenging when considering the numerous interrelated delivery-related parameters. Achieving a well-controlled extended drug release requires advanced techniques to minimize burst release and lag phase, a better understanding of the dynamic interrelationship between drug properties and release profiles over time, and a thorough elucidation of the impact of multiple in vivo conditions to methodically evaluate the eventual clinical efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University , Chengdu, China
| | - Renhe Liu
- Global Health Drug Discovery Institute , Beijing, China
| | - Yao Fu
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University , Chengdu, China
| | - W John Kao
- Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Biomedical Engineering Programme, Chemical Biology Centre, and Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong , Pokfulam, China
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Jeong S, Lee H, Kim S, Ju S, Kim W, Cho H, Kim HY, Heo G, Im E, Yoo JW, Yoon IS, Jung Y. 5-Aminosalicylic Acid Azo-Coupled with a GPR109A Agonist Is a Colon-Targeted Anticolitic Codrug with a Reduced Risk of Skin Toxicity. Mol Pharm 2019; 17:167-179. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.9b00872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hanju Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Soojin Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Sanghyun Ju
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Heeyeong Cho
- Biotechnology & Therapeutic Division, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon 305-343, Republic of Korea
- Korea University of Science and Technology, 141 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong, Daejeon 305-343, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Young Kim
- Biotechnology & Therapeutic Division, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon 305-343, Republic of Korea
| | - Gwangbeom Heo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Eunok Im
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Soo Yoon
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Kim W, Kim D, Jeong S, Ju S, Lee H, Kim S, Yoo JW, Yoon IS, Jung Y. Conjugation of Amisulpride, an Anti-Psychotic Agent, with 5-Aminosalicylic Acid via an Azo Bond Yields an Orally Active Mutual Prodrug against Rat Colitis. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:pharmaceutics11110585. [PMID: 31703411 PMCID: PMC6920822 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11110585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Amisulpride (ASP), an anti-psychotic agent, is a pharmacologically equivalent to sulpiride (SP). Because SP demonstrates anti-ulcer and anti-colitic activities, ASP with an aniline moiety was azo-coupled to salicylic acid to generate 5-(aminoethanoylsulfamoyl)-N-[(1-ethylpyrrolidin-2-yl)methyl]-2-methoxybenzamide (ASP-azo-ASA), with the expectation that it would act as a colon-specific mutual prodrug against colitis. Following a 24 h incubation, approximately 80% of ASP-azo-ASA was cleaved to form ASP and 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) in the cecal contents, whereas it remained stable in the small intestinal contents. Oral gavage of ASP-azo-ASA (oral ASP-azo-ASA) delivered 5-ASA to the cecum to levels comparable with those observed for sulfasalazine (SSZ; clinical colon-specific prodrug of 5-ASA) and without detectable concentrations of ASP in the blood, indicating efficient colonic delivery. Oral ASP-azo-ASA ameliorated 2, 4-dinitrobenzenesulfonic acid hydrate (DNBS)-induced colitis in rats more effectively than oral SSZ. Additionally, oral ASP-azo-ASA lowered the levels of inflammatory mediators in the inflamed distal colon more effectively than oral SSZ. Combined treatment with 5-ASA and ASP via the rectal route more effectively reversed colonic damage and inflammation than treatment with 5-ASA or ASP alone, confirming the mutual anti-colitic actions of 5-ASA and ASP. In conclusion, ASP-azo-ASA is an orally active mutual prodrug against rat colitis with limited systemic absorption of ASP.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yunjin Jung
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +051-510-2527; Fax: +051-513-6754
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Kim W, Lee H, Kim S, Joo S, Jeong S, Yoo JW, Jung Y. Sofalcone, a gastroprotective drug, covalently binds to KEAP1 to activate Nrf2 resulting in anti-colitic activity. Eur J Pharmacol 2019; 865:172722. [PMID: 31614142 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2019.172722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Sofalcone is a synthetic chalcone being used as a gastric mucosa protective agent in Japan. Sofalcone contains a 1,3-diaryl-2-propen-1-one moiety, which is a common chemical scaffold in naturally occurring chalcones. The α,β-unsaturated carbonyl group (Michael reaction acceptor) has electrophilic properties. We investigated the biochemical mechanisms by which sofalcone activated the cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory nuclear factor-erythroid 2 (NF-E2) p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-heme oxygenase (HO)-1 pathway. Furthermore, we investigated whether the activation of this pathway was involved in sofalcone -mediated protective effects in an experimental colitis model. Sofalcone induced HO-1 protein expression, which was dependent on increased nuclear accumulation of Nrf2 in human colon carcinoma cells. In addition, Sofalcone reacted with nucleophilic thiol compounds to form Michael adducts. A reduced form of sofalcone (SFCR) in which the Michael reaction acceptor was deactivated, did not exert biological or chemical activity. Biotin-tagged sofalcone bound to Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (KEAP1), a cytosolic repressor of Nrf2. This binding was prevented by pretreatment with sofalcone and a thiol compound but not with SFCR. Furthermore, sofalcone treatment induced dissociation of the Nrf2-KEAP1 complex. Rectal administration of sofalcone alleviated colon damage and inflammation and increased colon nuclear accumulation of Nrf2 and HO-1 levels in a dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced rat colitis model. The protective effects of sofalcone against colon damage and inflammation were significantly inhibited by co-administration of an HO-1 inhibitor. In conclusion, sofalcone activated the Nrf2-HO-1 pathway by covalently binding to KEAP1 via Michael addition, and may confer anti-colitic effects by inducing Nrf2 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hanju Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Soojin Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Sanghyun Joo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea.
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Kim W, Kim S, Ju S, Lee H, Jeong S, Yoo JW, Yoon IS, Jung Y. Colon-Targeted Delivery Facilitates the Therapeutic Switching of Sofalcone, a Gastroprotective Agent, to an Anticolitic Drug via Nrf2 Activation. Mol Pharm 2019; 16:4007-4016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.9b00664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Soojin Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Sanghyun Ju
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hanju Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Soo Yoon
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Yang Y, Kim W, Kim D, Jeong S, Yoo JW, Jung Y. A colon-specific prodrug of metoclopramide ameliorates colitis in an experimental rat model. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2018; 13:231-242. [PMID: 30643389 PMCID: PMC6312693 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s185257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Background We examined whether metoclopramide (MCP), a modulator of dopamine and serotonin receptors, alleviated colitis and had synergistic effects when coadministered with 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) in an experimental model of colitis. Methods MCP azo-linked to 5-ASA (5-[4-chloro-2-{2-(diethylamino)ethylcarbamoyl}– 1-methoxyphenyl]azosalicylic acid, MCP-azo-ASA) was synthesized, where 5-ASA was used as a colon-targeting carrier and an anti-colitic agent, and the ability of MCP-azo-ASA to target the colon in vitro and in vivo was evaluated. Results Our results indicate that MCP-azo-ASA was cleaved to MCP and 5-ASA in the cecal contents, but not in the contents of the small intestine. Oral gavage with equimolar concentrations of MCP-azo-ASA and sulfasalazine (SSZ, a colon-specific prodrug of 5-ASA widely used clinically) demonstrated that the two prodrugs delivered comparable amounts of 5-ASA to the cecum. MCP was barely detected in the blood after oral gavage with MCP-azo-ASA. In a rat model of 2,4-dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid hydrate (DNBS)-induced colitis, MCP-azo-ASA alleviated colonic damage in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, MCP-azo-ASA reduced the concentrations of inflammatory mediators in the inflamed colon. At low equimolar doses, MCP-azo-ASA, but not SSZ, resulted in significant anti-colitic effects, which indicates that MCP has anti-colitic activity. MCP-azo-ASA had anti-colitic effects equal to those of SSZ at high equimolar doses. Conclusion Thus, our results indicate that MCP-azo-ASA is a colon-specific prodrug of MCP. Targeted delivery of MCP to the colon ameliorated DNBS-induced colitis in rats, and we did not observe any synergistic effects of MCP after co-delivery with 5-ASA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yejin Yang
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea,
| | - Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea,
| | - Dayoon Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea,
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea,
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea,
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea,
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Eom T, Yoo W, Kim S, Khan A. Biologically activatable azobenzene polymers targeted at drug delivery and imaging applications. Biomaterials 2018; 185:333-347. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Therapeutic switching of sulpiride, an anti-psychotic and prokinetic drug, to an anti-colitic drug using colon-specific drug delivery. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2018; 9:334-343. [DOI: 10.1007/s13346-018-00599-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Tekeli İO, Ateşşahin A, Sakin F, Aslan A, Çeribaşı S, Yipel M. Protective effects of conventional and colon-targeted lycopene and linalool on ulcerative colitis induced by acetic acid in rats. Inflammopharmacology 2018; 27:10.1007/s10787-018-0485-x. [PMID: 29736689 DOI: 10.1007/s10787-018-0485-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the potential protective effects of conventional and colon-targeted lycopene (TLC) and linalool (TLN) on acetic acid (AA)-induced ulcerative colitis (UC) in rats. METHODS Conventional and colon-targeted LC (10 mg/kg) and LN (200 mg/kg) were administered in vivo orally for 7 days and sulfasalazine (100 mg/kg) was also used as reference drug. Then, 4% AA was administered intrarectally to induce UC. Subsequently, the colon tissues were taken as samples for biochemical and histopathological analysis. RESULTS Malondialdehyde (MDA), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), IL-6, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) levels were decreased (p < 0.05) in the targeted groups compared to the AA group, whereas nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf-2) level was increased (p < 0.05). Tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) level was also decreased (p < 0.05) and catalase activity (CAT) was increased (p < 0.05) in the TLC group compared to the AA group. IL-1β and IL-6 levels were lower in the TLC group compared to the conventional LC and sulfasalazine groups (p < 0.05). COX-2 and NF-κB levels were lower, while the Nrf-2 level was higher in the targeted groups compared to the conventional groups (p < 0.05). Furthermore, COX-2 level was lower and Nrf-2 level was higher in the targeted groups compared to the sulfasalazine group (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION As expected, sulfasalazine was effective on all parameters analyzed, but the colon-targeted pretreatments were more effective from sulfasalazine on some parameters. Therefore, colon-targeted plant-derived therapies might be alternative approaches to provide protection against UC, which deserves to be investigated further.
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Affiliation(s)
- İbrahim Ozan Tekeli
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mustafa Kemal University, 31060, Hatay, Turkey.
| | - Ahmet Ateşşahin
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Fırat University, 23119, Elazığ, Turkey
| | - Fatih Sakin
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mustafa Kemal University, 31060, Hatay, Turkey
| | - Abdullah Aslan
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Fırat University, 23119, Elazığ, Turkey
| | - Songül Çeribaşı
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Fırat University, 23119, Elazığ, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Yipel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Namık Kemal University, 59030, Tekirdağ, Turkey
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Kang S, Kim W, Jeong S, Lee Y, Nam J, Lee S, Jung Y. Oxidized 5-aminosalicylic acid activates Nrf2-HO-1 pathway by covalently binding to Keap1: Implication in anti-inflammatory actions of 5-aminosalicylic acid. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 108:715-724. [PMID: 28473247 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.04.366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Mesalazine (5-aminosalicylic acid, 5-ASA), a currently used drug for anti-inflammatory bowel disease, is easily oxidized by HOCl, a strong oxidant generated in gut inflammation, to produce electrophilic quinones. We investigated whether this chemical feature has an implication in the anti-inflammatory pharmacology of 5-ASA. Human colon carcinoma HCT116 cells were treated with HOCl-reacted 5-ASA. Oxidized 5-ASA activated Nrf2 while 5-ASA itself was not effective. Activation of Nrf2 led to induction of hemeoxygenase (OH)-1, an anti-inflammatory enzyme. Western blot analysis of Keap1, a cytosolic repressor of Nrf2, following precipitation of biotin-labeled proteins in cell lysates treated with biotin-tagged 5-ASA, revealed a much greater amount of Keap1 when biotin-tagged 5-ASA was oxidized with HOCl. Precipitation of Keap1 was attenuated markedly by pretreatment with oxidized 5-ASA or a sulfhydryl donor. In addition, treatment with oxidized 5-ASA in cell lysates reduced the Keap1 amount that coimmunoprecipitated with Nrf2. In parallel, rectal administration of 5-ASA increased the level of HO-1 and nuclear Nrf2 in the inflamed colonic tissues, but not in normal colonic tissues. Moreover, oral gavage of sulfasalazine, a colon-specific prodrug of 5-ASA currently used clinically, activated the Nrf2-HO-1 pathway in the colonic tissues where inflammation was in progress, which was not observed when inflammation subsided. Collectively, our data suggest that Nrf2-HO-1 pathway is involved in the anti-inflammatory pharmacology of 5-ASA, which was likely being exerted exclusively in the inflammatory state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sookjin Kang
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea
| | - Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea
| | - Yonghyun Lee
- KAIST Institute for the BioCentury, Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Joon Nam
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea
| | - Sunyoung Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea.
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Kim W, Yang Y, Kim D, Jeong S, Yoo JW, Yoon JH, Jung Y. Conjugation of metronidazole with dextran: a potential pharmaceutical strategy to control colonic distribution of the anti-amebic drug susceptible to metabolism by colonic microbes. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2017; 11:419-429. [PMID: 28243064 PMCID: PMC5317261 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s129922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Metronidazole (MTDZ), the drug of choice for the treatment of protozoal infections such as luminal amebiasis, is highly susceptible to colonic metabolism, which may hinder its conversion from a colon-specific prodrug to an effective anti-amebic agent targeting the entire large intestine. Thus, in an attempt to control the colonic distribution of the drug, a polymeric colon-specific prodrug, MTDZ conjugated to dextran via a succinate linker (Dex-SA-MTDZ), was designed. Upon treatment with dextranase for 8 h, the degree of Dex-SA-MTDZ depolymerization (%) with a degree of substitution (mg of MTDZ bound in 100 mg of Dex-SA-MTDZ) of 7, 17, and 30 was 72, 38, and 8, respectively, while that of dextran was 85. Depolymerization of Dex-SA-MTDZ was found to be necessary for the release of MTDZ, because dextranase pretreatment ensures that de-esterification occurs between MTDZ and the dextran backbone. In parallel, Dex-SA-MTDZ with a degree of substitution of 17 was found not to release MTDZ upon incubation with the contents of the small intestine and stomach of rats, but it released MTDZ when incubated with rat cecal contents (including microbial dextranases). Moreover, Dex-SA-MTDZ exhibited prolonged release of MTDZ, which contrasts with drug release by small molecular colon-specific prodrugs, MTDZ sulfate and N-nicotinoyl-2-{2-(2-methyl-5-nitroimidazol-1-yl)ethyloxy}-d,l-glycine. These prodrugs were eliminated very rapidly, and no MTDZ was detected in the cecal contents. Consistent with these in vitro results, we found that oral gavage of Dex-SA-MTDZ delivered MTDZ (as MTDZ conjugated to [depolymerized] dextran) to the distal colon. However, upon oral gavage of the small molecular prodrugs, no prodrugs were detected in the distal colon. Collectively, these data suggest that dextran conjugation is a potential pharmaceutical strategy to control the colonic distribution of drugs susceptible to colonic microbial metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wooseong Kim
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, Department of Manufacturing Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yejin Yang
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, Department of Manufacturing Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Dohoon Kim
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, Department of Manufacturing Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, Department of Manufacturing Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, Department of Manufacturing Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Hyun Yoon
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, Department of Manufacturing Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, Department of Manufacturing Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Inflammatory bowel disease: exploring gut pathophysiology for novel therapeutic targets. Transl Res 2016; 176:38-68. [PMID: 27220087 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2016.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2015] [Revised: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease are the 2 major phenotypes of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which are influenced by a complex interplay of immunological and genetic elements, though the precise etiology still remains unknown. With IBD developing into a globally prevailing disease, there is a need to explore new targets and a thorough understanding of the pathophysiological differences between the healthy and diseased gut could unearth new therapeutic opportunities. In this review, we provide an overview of the major aspects of IBD pathogenesis and thereafter present a comprehensive analysis of the gut pathophysiology leading to a discussion on some of the most promising targets and biologic therapies currently being explored. These include various gut proteins (CXCL-10, GATA-3, NKG2D, CD98, microRNAs), immune cells recruited to the gut (mast cells, eosinophils, toll-like receptors 2, 4), dysregulated proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin-6, -13, -18, -21), and commensal microbiota (probiotics and fecal microbiota transplantation). We also evaluate some of the emerging nonconventional therapies being explored in IBD treatment focusing on the latest developments in stem cell research, oral targeting of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue, novel anti-inflammatory signaling pathway targeting, adenosine deaminase inhibition, and the beneficial effects of antioxidant and nutraceutical therapies. In addition, we highlight the growth of biologics and their targets in IBD by providing information on the preclinical and clinical development of over 60 biopharmaceuticals representing the state of the art in ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease drug development.
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Luo SX, Zhang RX, Huang Q, Xu LS, Wang ZZ. Macromolecular drug conjugates II: chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis kinetics of the secondary 5-fluorouracil-1-acetic acid/β-cyclodextrin conjugate. J INCL PHENOM MACRO 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10847-016-0639-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Kim W, Nam J, Lee S, Jeong S, Jung Y. 5-Aminosalicylic Acid Azo-Linked to Procainamide Acts as an Anticolitic Mutual Prodrug via Additive Inhibition of Nuclear Factor kappaB. Mol Pharm 2016; 13:2126-35. [PMID: 27112518 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
To improve the anticolitic efficacy of 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA), a colon-specific mutual prodrug of 5-ASA was designed. 5-ASA was coupled to procainamide (PA), a local anesthetic, via an azo bond to prepare 5-(4-{[2-(diethylamino)ethyl]carbamoyl}phenylazo)salicylic acid (5-ASA-azo-PA). 5-ASA-azo-PA was cleaved to 5-ASA and PA up to about 76% at 10 h in the cecal contents while remaining stable in the small intestinal contents. Oral gavage of 5-ASA-azo-PA and sulfasalazine, a colon-specific prodrug currently used in clinic, to rats showed similar efficiency in delivery of 5-ASA to the large intestine, and PA was not detectable in the blood after 5-ASA-azo-PA administration. Oral gavage of 5-ASA-azo-PA alleviated 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid-induced rat colitis. Moreover, combined intracolonic treatment with 5-ASA and PA elicited an additive ameliorative effect. Furthermore, combined treatment with 5-ASA and PA additively inhibited nuclear factor-kappaB (NFκB) activity in human colon carcinoma cells and inflamed colonic tissues. Finally, 5-ASA-azo-PA administered orally was able to reduce inflammatory mediators, NFκB target gene products, in the inflamed colon. 5-ASA-azo-PA may be a colon-specific mutual prodrug acting against colitis, and the mutual anticolitic effects occurred at least partly through the cooperative inhibition of NFκB activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University , Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Joon Nam
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University , Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunyoung Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University , Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University , Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University , Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
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Vieira ACF, Serra AC, Veiga FJ, Gonsalves AMDR, Basit AW, Murdan S. Diclofenac-β-cyclodextrin for colonic drug targeting: In vivo performance in rats. Int J Pharm 2016; 500:366-70. [PMID: 26784980 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2015] [Revised: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this in vivo study was to assess the ability of the prodrug conjugate diclofenac-β-cyclodextrin to release diclofenac in the colon following oral administration, using sulfapyridine (a metabolite of sulfasalazine) as a marker of colonic absorption. Two groups of rats were used; the test rats received a suspension containing the two prodrugs, diclofenac-β-cyclodextrin and sulfasalazine, while the control rats received a suspension containing the corresponding free drugs, sodium diclofenac and sulfapyridine. The rats were fasted overnight with free access to water before and throughout the first 12h of the study. Blood was collected from the tail vein at pre-determined time points and the plasma analyzed for the concentrations of diclofenac and sulfapyridine. Following the oral administration of the two prodrugs, a more extended absorption profile was observed and Cmax was achieved 10h post-dose, in contrast to rapid absorption of the free drugs (tmax of diclofenac being 1.3h, and that of sulfapyridine being 2.1h). In addition to a later tmax, conjugation of diclofenac to β-cyclodextrin also resulted in a reduced Cmax and a reduced AUC. The same tmax for diclofenac-β-cyclodextrin as for sulfasalazine confirms the colonic metabolism of diclofenac-β-cyclodextrin. This study shows the potential of this new cyclodextrin-based prodrug to target and release diclofenac specifically in the colon following oral administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amélia C F Vieira
- Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Pharmaceutical Studies, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Portugal; Chymiotechnon and Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Arménio C Serra
- Chymiotechnon and Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Francisco J Veiga
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Studies, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | | | - Abdul W Basit
- Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sudaxshina Murdan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom.
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Wei SJ, Luo SX, Huang Q, Xu LS, Wang ZZ. Regioselective synthesis, stability and release behaviors of the secondary 5-fluorouracil acetic acid/β-cyclodextrin conjugate for colon delivery. J INCL PHENOM MACRO 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10847-015-0580-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Nam J, Kim W, Lee S, Jeong S, Yoo JW, Kim MS, Jung Y. Dextran-5-(4-ethoxycarbonylphenylazo)salicylic acid ester, a polymeric colon-specific prodrug releasing 5-aminosalicylic acid and benzocaine, ameliorates TNBS-induced rat colitis. J Drug Target 2015; 24:468-74. [DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2015.1087528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joon Nam
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunyoung Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Soo Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Lee S, Lee Y, Kim W, Nam J, Jeong S, Yoo JW, Kim MS, Moon HR, Jung Y. Evaluation of glycine-bearing celecoxib derivatives as a colon-specific mutual prodrug acting on nuclear factor-κB, an anti-inflammatory target. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2015; 9:4227-37. [PMID: 26300626 PMCID: PMC4535551 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s88543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In an inflammatory state where HOCl is generated, glycine readily reacts with HOCl to produce glycine chloramine, an anti-inflammatory oxidant. Colonic delivery of celecoxib elicits anticolitic effects in a trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced rat colitis model. Glycine-bearing celecoxib derivatives were prepared and evaluated as a colon-specific mutual prodrug acting on nuclear factor-κB (NFκB), an anticolitic target. Glycylcelecoxib (GC), N-glycylaspart-1-ylcelecoxib (N-GA1C), and C-glycylaspart-1-ylcelecoxib (C-GA1C) were synthesized and their structures identified using infrared and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer. The celecoxib derivatives were chemically stable in pH 6.8 and 1.2 buffers. GC and C-GA1C were resistant to degradation in the small intestinal contents, while N-GA1C was substantially cleaved to release celecoxib. In contrast, all the celecoxib derivatives were degraded to liberate celecoxib in the cecal content. These results suggest that GC and C-GA1C could be delivered to and liberate celecoxib and glycine in the large intestine. In human colon carcinoma HCT116 and murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells, combined celecoxib–glycine chloramine treatment additively suppressed the production of proinflammatory NFκB target gene products. Collectively, our data suggest that C-GA1C is a potential colon-specific mutual prodrug acting against NFκB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunyoung Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Yonghyun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea ; Bio-Nanomedicine Lab, Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Joon Nam
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Min-Soo Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Hyung Ryong Moon
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
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Yum S, Jeong S, Lee S, Nam J, Kim W, Yoo JW, Kim MS, Lee BL, Jung Y. Colon-targeted delivery of piceatannol enhances anti-colitic effects of the natural product: potential molecular mechanisms for therapeutic enhancement. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2015; 9:4247-58. [PMID: 26273188 PMCID: PMC4532174 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s88670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Piceatannol (PCT), an anti-colitic natural product, undergoes extensive Phase II hepatic metabolism, resulting in very low bioavailability. We investigated whether colon-targeted delivery of PCT could enhance anti-colitic effects and how therapeutic enhancement occurred at the molecular level. Molecular effects of PCT were examined in human colon carcinoma cells and inflamed colons. The anti-colitic effects of PCT in a colon-targeted capsule (colon-targeted PCT) were compared with PCT in a gelatin capsule (conventional PCT) in a trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced rat colitis model. Colon-targeted PCT elicited greatly enhanced recovery of the colonic inflammation. In HCT116 cells, PCT inhibited nuclear factor kappaB while activating anti-colitic transcription factors, nuclear factor-erythroid 2 (NF-E2) p45-related factor 2, and hypoxia-inducible factor-1. Colon-targeted PCT, but not conventional PCT, modulated production of the target gene products of the transcription factors in the inflamed colonic tissues. Rectal administration of PCT, which simulates the therapeutic action of colon-targeted PCT, also ameliorated rat colitis and reproduced the molecular effects in the inflamed colonic tissues. Colon-targeted delivery increased therapeutic efficacy of PCT against colitis, likely resulting from multitargeted effects exerted by colon-targeted PCT. The drug delivery technique may be useful for therapeutic optimization of anti-colitic lead compounds including natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soohwan Yum
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunyoung Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Joon Nam
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Soo Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Bok Luel Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Lee Y, Kim J, Kim W, Nam J, Jeong S, Lee S, Yoo JW, Kim MS, Jung Y. Celecoxib coupled to dextran via a glutamic acid linker yields a polymeric prodrug suitable for colonic delivery. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2015; 9:4105-13. [PMID: 26251576 PMCID: PMC4524528 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s89077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Celecoxib, a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, is potentially useful for the treatment of colonic diseases such as colorectal cancer and colitis. However, the cardiovascular toxicity of celecoxib limits its routine use in the clinic. Generally, colon-specific delivery of a drug both increases the therapeutic availability in the large intestine and decreases the systemic absorption of the drug, most likely resulting in enhanced therapeutic effects against colonic diseases such as colitis and reduced systemic side effects. To develop a colon-specific prodrug of celecoxib that could reduce its cardiovascular toxicity and improve its therapeutic activity, dextran–glutamic acid–celecoxib conjugate (glutam-1-yl celecoxib-dextran ester [G1CD]) was prepared and evaluated. While stable in pH 1.2 and 6.8 buffer solutions and small-intestinal contents, G1CD efficiently released celecoxib in cecal contents. Oral administration of G1CD to rats delivered a larger amount of celecoxib to the large intestine than free celecoxib. G1CD prevented the systemic absorption of celecoxib and did not decrease the serum level of 6-ketoprostaglandin F1α, an inverse indicator of cardiovascular toxicity of celecoxib. Collectively, G1CD may be a polymeric colon-specific celecoxib prodrug with therapeutic and toxicological advantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghyun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea ; Bio-Nanomedicine Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jungyun Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Joon Nam
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunyoung Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Wook Yoo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Soo Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Kim W, Lee Y, Jeong S, Nam J, Lee S, Jung Y. Colonic delivery of celecoxib is a potential pharmaceutical strategy for repositioning the selective COX-2 inhibitor as an anti-colitic agent. Arch Pharm Res 2015; 38:1830-8. [PMID: 25860026 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-015-0602-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Celecoxib is a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor applied to the treatment of arthritis. Repositioning the anti-inflammatory drug as an anti-inflammatory bowel disease drug has obstacles such as controversial anti-colitic efficacy and potential side effects. We examined whether colonic delivery of celecoxib could circumvent the therapeutic limitations. N-succinylglutam-1-yl celecoxib (SG1C), a colon-specific prodrug of celecoxib), was administered orally to rats with colitis and the anti-inflammatory activity and pharmacologic mechanisms were investigated. SG1C alleviated the colonic injury and lowered myeloperoxidase activity in the inflamed colonic tissues much more effectively than conventional celecoxib. While suppressing expression of pro-inflammatory nuclear factor kappaB gene products including cyclooxygenase-2, SG1C elevated an anti-inflammatory nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45 (NF-E2)-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its target gene product heme oxygenase (HO)-1 in the inflamed colon. In contrast, no significant molecular effects were observed with conventional celecoxib. Unlike conventional celecoxib, SG1C did not lower the serum level of 6-keto-PGF1α, an inverse indicator of cardiovascular adverse effects. Collectively, colonic delivery of celecoxib, likely improving therapeutic and toxicological properties of celecoxib, may be a feasible pharmaceutical strategy to therapeutically switch celecoxib to an anti-colitic drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 609-735, South Korea.
| | - Yonghyun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 609-735, South Korea.
- Bio-Nanomedicine Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 305-701, South Korea.
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 609-735, South Korea.
| | - Joon Nam
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 609-735, South Korea.
| | - Sunyoung Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 609-735, South Korea.
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 609-735, South Korea.
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Jeong S, Park H, Hong S, Yum S, Kim W, Jung Y. Lipophilic modification enhances anti-colitic properties of rosmarinic acid by potentiating its HIF-prolyl hydroxylases inhibitory activity. Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 747:114-22. [PMID: 25483211 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Revised: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of hypoxia inducible factor-prolyl hydroxylase-2 (HPH), leading to activation of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1 is a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of colitis. Rosmarinic acid (RA), an ester of caffeic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphenyllactic acid is a naturally occurring polyphenolic compound with two catechols, a or inhibition of HPH. To improve accessibility of highly hydrophilic RA to HPH, an intracellular target, RA was chemically modified to decrease hydrophilicity. Of the less-hydrophilic derivatives, rosmarinic acid methyl ester (RAME) most potently inhibited HPH. Accordingly, RAME prevented hydroxylation of HIF-1α and consequently stabilized HIF-1α protein in cells. RAME inhibition of HPH and induction of HIF-1α were diminished by elevated doses of the required factors of HPH, 2-ketoglutarate and ascorbate. RAME induction of HIF-1α led to activation of an ulcer healing pathway, HIF-1-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), in human colon carcinoma cells. RAME administered rectally ameliorated TNBS-induced rat colitis and substantially decreased the levels of pro-inflammatory mediators in the inflamed colonic tissue. In parallel with the cellular effects of RAME, RAME up-regulated HIF-1α and VEGF in the inflamed colonic tissue. Thus, lipophilic modification of RA improves its ability to inhibit HPH, leading to activation of the HIF-1-VEGF pathway. RAME, a lipophilic RA derivative, may exert anti-colitic effects via activation of the ulcer healing pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Huijeong Park
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungchae Hong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Soohwan Yum
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea.
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Lee Y, Kim W, Hong S, Park H, Yum S, Yoon JH, Jung Y. Colon-targeted celecoxib ameliorates TNBS-induced rat colitis: a potential pharmacologic mechanism and therapeutic advantages. Eur J Pharmacol 2014; 726:49-56. [PMID: 24462351 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2013] [Revised: 12/20/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The clinical usefulness of celecoxib, a selective cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor, for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is controversial in terms of efficacy and toxicity. To overcome these problems, colon-specific drug delivery was adopted, which generally confers therapeutic and toxicological advantages of drugs for treatment of colonic diseases. N-succinylaspart-1-yl celecoxib (SA1C), a colon-specific prodrug of celecoxib, was administered orally to rats with experimental colitis, and the anti-colitic effects and a molecular mechanism were investigated and compared to those of conventional celecoxib. SA1C, which delivered a much greater amount of celecoxib to the inflamed colon, alleviated the colonic injury, lowered myeloperoxidase activity in the inflamed colonic tissues and was much more effective than conventional celecoxib. SA1C but not conventional celecoxib significantly attenuated expression of NFκB target gene products in the inflamed tissues. Consistent with this, SA1C effectively prevented nuclear accumulation of p65 in the inflamed tissues. Moreover, while conventional celecoxib lowered the serum level of 6-keto-PGF1α, an inverse indicator of cardiovascular toxicity, SA1C did not change its serum level. Our data suggest that colonic delivery of celecoxib is a feasible strategy for treatment of IBD with improved therapeutic and toxicological properties.
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Yum S, Park H, Hong S, Jeong S, Kim W, Jung Y. N-(2-Mercaptopropionyl)-glycine, a diffusible antioxidant, activates HIF-1 by inhibiting HIF prolyl hydroxylase-2: implication in amelioration of rat colitis by the antioxidant. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 443:1008-13. [PMID: 24361888 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.12.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We investigated anti-colitic effects of N-(2-mercaptopropionyl)-glycine (NMPG), a diffusible antioxidant, in TNBS-induced rat colitis model and a potential molecular mechanism underlying the pharmacologic effect of the antioxidant. NMPG alleviated colonic injury and effectively lowered myeloperoxidase activity. Moreover, NMPG substantially attenuated expression of pro-inflammatory mediators in the inflamed colon. NMPG induced hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) in human colon carcinoma cells, leading to elevated secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a target gene product of HIF-1 involved in ulcer healing of gastrointestinal mucosa. NMPG induction of HIF-1α occurred by inhibiting HIF prolyl hydroxylase-2 (HPH-2), an enzyme that plays a major role in negatively regulating HIF-1α protein stability. In in vitro Von Hippel-Lindau protein binding assay, the inhibitory effect of NMPG on HPH-2 was attenuated by escalating dose of ascorbate but not 2-ketoglutarate, cofactors of the enzyme. Consistent with this, cell-permeable ascorbate significantly attenuated NMPG induction of HIF-1α in cells. Our data suggest that NMPG is an anti-colitic antioxidant that exerts its pharmacologic effects at least partly through activation of an ulcer healing pathway, HIF-1-VEGF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soohwan Yum
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea
| | - Huijeong Park
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea
| | - Sungchae Hong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea
| | - Seongkeun Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea
| | - Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, South Korea.
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Kim H, Kim W, Yum S, Hong S, Oh JE, Lee JW, Kwak MK, Park EJ, Na DH, Jung Y. Caffeic acid phenethyl ester activation of Nrf2 pathway is enhanced under oxidative state: structural analysis and potential as a pathologically targeted therapeutic agent in treatment of colonic inflammation. Free Radic Biol Med 2013; 65:552-562. [PMID: 23892357 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2013.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2013] [Revised: 06/08/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) is a polyphenolic natural product that possesses numerous biological activities including anti-inflammatory effects. CAPE-mediated nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45 (NF-E2)-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activation is likely responsible for some of its biological effects. CAPE was chemically modified to yield CAPE analogues that were subjected to experiments examining cellular Nrf2 activity. CAPE and the CAPE analogue with a catechol moiety, but not the other analogues, activated the Nrf2 pathway. In addition, only biotin-labeled CAPE analogues with the catechol moiety precipitated Kelch-like ECH associated protein 1 (Keap1) when incubated with cell lysates and streptavidin agarose beads. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) oxidation of the catechol moiety in CAPE produced an oxidized, electrophilic form of CAPE (Oxi-CAPE) and greatly enhanced the ability of CAPE to activate Nrf2 and to bind to Keap1. Rectal administration of CAPE ameliorated 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced rat colitis and activated the Nrf2 pathway in the inflamed colon, and incubation of CAPE in the lumen of the inflamed distal colon generated Oxi-CAPE. However, these biological effects and chemical change of CAPE were not observed in the normal colon. Our data suggest that CAPE requires the catechol moiety for the oxidation-enhanced activation of the Nrf2 pathway and has potential as a pathologically targeted Nrf2-activating agent that is exclusively activated in pathological states with oxidative stress such as colonic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunjeong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Wooseong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Soohwan Yum
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungchae Hong
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Eun Oh
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Woo Lee
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi-Kyoung Kwak
- College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, Gyeonggi-do 420-743, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Ji Park
- College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 702-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hee Na
- College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 702-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea.
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Yadav V, Gaisford S, Merchant HA, Basit AW. Colonic bacterial metabolism of corticosteroids. Int J Pharm 2013; 457:268-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2013.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Revised: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Glycyrrhizin enhances therapeutic activity of a colon-specific methylprednisolone prodrug against experimental colitis. Dig Dis Sci 2013. [PMID: 23192646 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-012-2495-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Co-administration of a reduction inhibitor and a colon-specific prodrug of a glucocorticoid susceptible to colonic reductive metabolism is suggested as a strategy to circumvent the therapeutic loss of the glucocorticoid delivered to and acting locally at the large intestine. AIMS We examined whether the strategy was feasible as a pharmacotherapy for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. METHODS Glycyrrhizin (GCZ), a reduction inhibitor, was tested for its inhibition of the colonic metabolism of methylprednisolone (MP). Therapeutic activity against TNBS-induced rat colitis and adrenal suppression were compared after oral administration of methylprednisolone 21-sulfate sodium (MPS), a colon-specific prodrug of MP, or MPS/GCZ to colitic rats. RESULTS Upon incubation of MP with the cecal contents, MP disappeared, and this was delayed by addition of GCZ. In addition, more MP produced from MPS in the cecal contents accumulated in the presence of GCZ. Consistent with these results, upon oral administration of MPS/GCZ, MPS or MP, MP was detected at a greater level in the large intestine for MPS/GCZ. MPS/GCZ ameliorated TNBS-induced colitis of rats, and this therapeutic effect was superior to that of MPS and MP. Moreover, MPS/GCZ decreased the plasma levels of corticosterone and ACTH to a greater extent than MPS, but less than MP. CONCLUSIONS Co-administration of GCZ, a reduction inhibitor, may be a plausible strategy to reduce the therapeutic loss of MP produced from MPS in the large intestine, thus improving the therapeutic property of the prodrug against inflammatory bowel disease.
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Lee Y, Kim H, Kim W, Yoon JH, Jeong SH, Jung Y. Colon-specific delivery of celecoxib is a potential strategy to improve toxicological and pharmacological properties of the selective Cox-2 inhibitor: implication in treatment of familiar adenomatous polyposis. J Drug Target 2012; 20:524-34. [PMID: 22632102 DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2012.693498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
In general, colon-specific delivery of a drug decreases systemic absorption and increases therapeutic concentration of the drug at the target site. N-succinylglutam-1 or 5-yl celecoxib (SG1C and SG5C) were prepared as a colon-specific prodrug of celecoxib, a selective Cox-2 inhibitor, and investigated whether the celecoxib derivatives could deliver celecoxib to the target site and improve cardiovascular toxicity and therapeutic effectiveness for the treatment of familiar adenomatous polyposis. SG1C and SA5C were cleaved to release celecoxib in the cecal contents while stable in small intestinal contents. The cecal release of celecoxib was much greater for SG1C than SG5C. SG1C administered orally was barely detected in the blood and urine. SG1C delivered much greater amount of celecoxib to the large intestine while keeping the plasma concentration of celecoxib at much lower level compared with oral administration of free celecoxib. Consistent with these pharmacokinetic results, SG1C supplied a greater concentration of celecoxib for the entire colonic tissue and did not change the serum level of 6-keto-PGF(1α) whose decrease is associated with the cardiovascular toxicity of celecoxib. Taken together, colon-specific delivery of celecoxib using a prodrug approach may be a useful strategy to improve toxicological and pharmacological properties of celecoxib.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghyun Lee
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
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Lee Y, Jung EH, Kim H, Yoon JH, Kim DD, Jung Y. Preparation and in vitro evaluation of celecoxib-amino acid conjugates as a colon specific prodrug. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s40005-012-0018-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Lee Y, Kim J, Kim H, Kang S, Yoon JH, Kim DD, Kim YM, Jung Y. N-Succinylaspart-1-yl Celecoxib is a Potential Colon-Specific Prodrug of Celecoxib with Improved Therapeutic Properties. J Pharm Sci 2012; 101:1831-42. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.23082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2011] [Revised: 01/25/2012] [Accepted: 01/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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40
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Shukla RK, Tiwari A. Carbohydrate polymers: Applications and recent advances in delivering drugs to the colon. Carbohydr Polym 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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41
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Hong S, Yum S, Yoo HJ, Kang S, Yoon JH, Min D, Kim YM, Jung Y. Colon-targeted cell-permeable NFκB inhibitory peptide is orally active against experimental colitis. Mol Pharm 2012; 9:1310-9. [PMID: 22428658 DOI: 10.1021/mp200591q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
For the purpose of development of orally active peptide therapeutics targeting NFκB for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), two major barriers in oral delivery of therapeutic peptides, metabolic lability and tissue impermeability, were circumvented by introduction of a colon-targeted delivery system and cell permeable peptides (CPP) to NFκB inhibitory peptides (NIP). Suppression of NFκB activation was compared following treatment with various CPP conjugated NIPs (CPP-NIP). The most potent CPP-NIP was loaded in a capsule coated with a colon specific polymer, which was administered orally to colitic rats. The anti-inflammatory activity of the colon-targeted CPP-NIP was evaluated by measuring inflammatory indices in the inflamed colonic tissue. For confirmation of the local action of the CPP-NIP, the same experiment was done after rectal administration. Tissue permeability of the CPP-NIP was examined microscopically and spectrophotometrically using FITC-labeled CPP-NIP (CPP-NIP-FITC). NEMO binding domain peptide (NBD, TALDWSWLQTE) fused with a cell permeable peptide CTP (YGRRARRRARR), CTP-NBD, was most potent in inhibiting NFκB activity in cells. Colon-targeted CTP-NBD, but not colon-targeted NBD and CTP-NBD in an enteric capsule, ameliorated the colonic injury, which was in parallel with decrease in MPO activity and the levels of inflammatory mediators. Intracolonic treatment with CTP-NBD alleviated rat colitis and improved all the inflammatory indicators. CTP-NBD-FITC was detected at much greater level in the inflamed tissue than was NBD-FITC. Taken together, introduction of cell permeability and colon targetability to NIP may be a feasible strategy for an orally active peptide therapy for treatment of IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sungchae Hong
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Molecular Biology, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
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Structure–activity relationship of salicylic acid derivatives on inhibition of TNF-α dependent NFκB activity: Implication on anti-inflammatory effect of N-(5-chlorosalicyloyl)phenethylamine against experimental colitis. Eur J Med Chem 2012; 48:36-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2011.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2011] [Revised: 11/02/2011] [Accepted: 11/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Kim H, Lee Y, Yoo H, Kim J, Kong H, Yoon JH, Jung Y, Kim YM. Synthesis and evaluation of sulfate conjugated metronidazole as a colon-specific prodrug of metronidazole. J Drug Target 2011; 20:255-63. [DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2011.639024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Kong H, Lee Y, Kim H, Hong S, Kim DD, Yoon JH, Jung Y, Kim YM. Susceptibility of glucocorticoids to colonic metabolism and pharmacologic intervention in the metabolism: implication for therapeutic activity of colon-specific glucocorticoid 21-sulfate sodium at the target site. J Pharm Pharmacol 2011; 64:128-38. [PMID: 22150680 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.2011.01386.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The systemic side effects of glucocorticoids have prevented their long-term use for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Colon-specific delivery of glucocorticoids has been adopted as a strategy to circumvent the toxicological trouble. Glucocorticoids delivered to the large intestine might undergo metabolisms by colonic microflora, which should affect therapeutic availability at the target site. It was investigated whether the susceptibility of glucocorticoids to the colonic metabolisms and pharmacologic intervention in the metabolism could modulate the therapeutic availability of colon-targeted glucocorticoids. METHODS Various glucocorticoids and their derivatives, glucocorticoid 21-sulfate sodium compounds, were incubated in the cecal contents in the presence or absence of reduction inhibitors and the change in the levels of the drugs was monitored. KEY FINDINGS The accumulation profiles of the corresponding glucocorticoids liberated from glucocorticoid 21-sulfate sodium compounds vary, depending on the metabolic susceptibility of glucocorticoids. Reduction inhibitors prevented the cecal metabolisms of glucocorticoids, which was most prominent for prednisolone (PD) and methylprednisolone (MP). Moreover, reduction inhibitors increased the accumulated amount of MP and PD released from PD- and MP-21-sulfate sodium in the cecal contents. CONCLUSIONS Our data provide information useful for selection of a glucocorticoid and a pharmacologic strategy for the design of an efficient colon-specific glucocorticoid prodrug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyesik Kong
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal/Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
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A two pulse drug delivery system for amoxicillin: an attempt to counter the scourge of bacterial resistance against antibiotics. ACTA PHARMACEUTICA 2011; 61:313-22. [PMID: 21945910 DOI: 10.2478/v10007-011-0026-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Bearing in mind the present scenario of the increasing biological tolerance of bacteria against antibiotics, a time controlled two pulse dosage form of amoxicillin was developed. The compression coating inlay tablet approach was used to deliver the drug in two pulses to different parts of the GIT after a well defined lag time between the two releases. This was made possible by formulating a core containing one of the two drug fractions (intended to be delivered as the second pulse), which was spray coated with a suspension of ethyl cellulose and a hydrophilic but water insoluble agent as a pore former (microcrystalline cellulose). Coating of up to 5% (m/m) was applied over the core tablet, giving a corresponding lag of 3, 5, 7 and 12 h. Increasing the level of coating led to retardation of the water uptake capacity of the core, leading to prolongation of the lag time. Microcrystalline cellulose was used as a hydrophilic but water insoluble porosity modifier in the barrier layer, varying the concentration of which had a significant effect on shortening or prolongation of the lag time. This coated system was further partially compression coated with the remaining drug fraction (to be released as the first immediate release pulse) with a disintegrant, giving a final tablet. The core tablet and the final two pulse inlay tablet were further investigated for their in vitro performance.
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Kong H, Kim H, Do H, Lee Y, Hong S, Yoon JH, Jung Y, Kim YM. Structural effects of N-aromatic acyl-amino acid conjugates on their deconjugation in the cecal contents of rats: implication in design of a colon-specific prodrug with controlled conversion rate at the target site. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2011; 32:343-54. [PMID: 21800327 DOI: 10.1002/bdd.763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2011] [Revised: 05/31/2011] [Accepted: 06/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hyesik Kong
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy; Pusan National University; Busan; Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunjeong Kim
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy; Pusan National University; Busan; Republic of Korea
| | - Heejeong Do
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy; Pusan National University; Busan; Republic of Korea
| | - Yonghyun Lee
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy; Pusan National University; Busan; Republic of Korea
| | - Sungchae Hong
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy; Pusan National University; Busan; Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Hyun Yoon
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy; Pusan National University; Busan; Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jung
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy; Pusan National University; Busan; Republic of Korea
| | - Young Mi Kim
- Laboratory of Biomedicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy; Pusan National University; Busan; Republic of Korea
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Laroui H, Wilson DS, Dalmasso G, Salaita K, Murthy N, Sitaraman SV, Merlin D. Nanomedicine in GI. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2011; 300:G371-83. [PMID: 21148398 PMCID: PMC3064120 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00466.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Recent advances in nanotechnology offer new hope for disease detection, prevention, and treatment. Nanomedicine is a rapidly evolving field wherein targeted therapeutic approaches using nanotechnology based on the pathophysiology of gastrointestinal diseases are being developed. Nanoparticle vectors capable of delivering drugs specifically and exclusively to regions of the gastrointestinal tract affected by disease for a prolonged period of time are likely to significantly reduce the side effects of existing otherwise effective treatments. This review aims at integrating various applications of the most recently developed nanomaterials that have tremendous potential for the detection and treatment of gastrointestinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Laroui
- 1Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta;
| | - David S. Wilson
- 2School of Chemical and Bimolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta;
| | - Guillaume Dalmasso
- 1Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta;
| | - Khalid Salaita
- 3Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta; and
| | - Niren Murthy
- 2School of Chemical and Bimolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta;
| | - Shanthi V. Sitaraman
- 1Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta;
| | - Didier Merlin
- 1Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta; ,4Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia
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