Biomaterial-based scaffolds – current status and future directions

Scaffold-Mediated Drug Delivery for Enhanced Wound Healing: A Review

Wound healing is a complex physiological process involving coordinated cellular and molecular events aimed at restoring tissue integrity. Acute wounds typically progress through the sequential phases of hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling, while chronic wounds, such as venous leg ulcers and diabetic foot ulcers, often exhibit prolonged inflammation and impaired healing. Traditional wound dressings, while widely used, have limitations such poor moisture retention and biocompatibility. To address these challenges and improve patient outcomes, scaffold-mediated delivery systems have emerged as innovative approaches. They offer advantages in creating a conducive environment for wound healing by facilitating controlled and localized drug delivery. The manuscript explores scaffold-mediated delivery systems for wound healing applications, detailing the use of natural and synthetic polymers in scaffold fabrication. Additionally, various fabrication techniques are discussed for their potential in creating scaffolds with controlled drug release kinetics. Through a synthesis of experimental findings and current literature, this manuscript elucidates the promising potential of scaffold-mediated drug delivery in improving therapeutic outcomes and advancing wound care practices.

Exploring the potential of P-glycoprotein inhibitors in the targeted delivery of anti-cancer drugs: A comprehensive review

Due to the high prevalence of cancer, progress in the management of cancer is the need of the hour. Most cancer patients develop chemotherapeutic drug resistance, and many remain insidious due to overexpression of Multidrug Resistance Protein 1 (MDR1), also known as Permeability-glycoprotein (P-gp) or ABCB1 transporter (ATP-binding cassette subfamily B member 1). P-gp, a transmembrane protein that protects vital organs from outside chemicals, expels medications from malignant cells. The blood-brain barrier (BBB), gastrointestinal tract (GIT), kidneys, liver, pancreas, and cancer cells overexpress P-gp on their apical surfaces, making treatment inefficient and resistant. Compounds that compete with anticancer medicines for transportation or directly inhibit P-gp may overcome biological barriers. Developing nanotechnology-based formulations may help overcome P-gp-mediated efflux and improve bioavailability and cell chemotherapeutic agent accumulation. Nanocarriers transport pharmaceuticals via receptor-mediated endocytosis, unlike passive diffusion, which bypasses ABCB1. Anticancer drugs and P-gp inhibitors in nanocarriers may synergistically increase drug accumulation and chemotherapeutic agent toxicity. The projection of desirable binding and effect may be procured initially by molecular docking of the inhibitor with P-gp, enabling the reduction of preliminary trials in formulation development. Here, P-gp-mediated efflux and several possible outcomes to overcome the problems associated with currently prevalent cancer treatments are highlighted.

Morphological Integrated Preparation Method and Implementation of Inorganic/Organic Dual-Phase Composite Gradient Bionic Bone Scaffold

Large bone defects caused by congenital deformities and acquired accidents are increasing day by day. A large number of patients mainly rely on artificial bone for repair. However, artificial bone cannot fully imitate the structure and composition of human bone, resulting in a large gap with autologous bone function. Therefore, this article proposes a continuous preparation method for inorganic/organic biphasic composite gradient biomimetic bulk bone scaffolds. First, a controllable gradient hybrid forming platform for inorganic/organic dual-phase biomaterials was constructed, and the feeding control strategy was studied to achieve precise control of the feeding of sodium alginate/gelatin composite organic materials and hydroxyapatite inorganic materials. The speed is, respectively, sent from the corresponding feeding nozzle to the mixing chamber to realize the uniform mixing of the biphasic material and the extrusion of the composite material, and the inorganic/organic biphasic composite gradient biomimetic bone scaffold with gradual structure and composition is prepared. Second, to prove the superiority of the preparation method, the physicochemical and biological properties of the prepared scaffolds were evaluated. The test results showed that the morphological characteristics of the biphasic composite gradient bone scaffold showed good microscopic porosity and the structure and composition showed gradients. The mechanical properties are close to that of human bone tissue and in vitro cell experiments show that the scaffold has good biocompatibility and bioactivity. In conclusion, this article provides a new type of bone scaffold preparation technology and equipment for the field of tissue engineering, which has research value and application prospects.

3D printed polycaprolactone/β-tricalcium phosphate/carbon nanotube composite - Physical properties and biocompatibility

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a bio-fabrication technique used to process tissue-engineered scaffolds for bone repair and remodeling. Polycaprolactone (PCL)/β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) has been used as a base and osteoconductive biomaterial for bone tissue engineering in the past decades. The current study reveals the fabrication of a polycaprolactone (PCL)/β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) scaffold by incorporating carbon nanotubes (CNT) via 3D printing. The physical properties and cytocompatibility of a new type of tissue engineering composite from polycaprolactone/β-tri-calcium phosphate/carbon nanotubes were investigated, and it was an absorbable scaffold prepared via furnace deposition 3D printing technology. The scaffold was designed with CAD software, and the composite material was fabricated via 3D printing. The printed composite material was tested for mechanical strength, scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis, porosity calculation, systemic toxicity test, hemolysis rate determination, and effect on the proliferation of rat adipose-derived stem cells cultured in vitro. A composite scaffold with a length of 15 mm, width of 10 mm, and height of 5 mm was manufactured through CAD software drawing and 3D printing technology. Scanning electron microscopy measurements and analysis of the internal pore size of the stent are appropriate; the pores are interconnected, and the mechanical strength matches the strength of human cancellous bone. The calculated porosity of the stent was >60%, non-toxic, and non-hemolytic. The proliferation activity of the ADSC co-cultured with different scaffold materials was as follows: polycaprolactone/β-tricalcium phosphate/0.2% carbon nanotube scaffolds > polycaprolactone/β-tricalcium phosphate/0.1% carbon nanotube scaffolds > polycaprolactone/β-tricalcium phosphate/0.3% carbon nanotube scaffolds > polycaprolactone/β-tricalcium phosphate scaffolds (P < 0.05). The results showed that polycaprolactone/β-tricalcium phosphate/0.2% carbon nanotube scaffolds promoted the adhesion and proliferation of ADSC. The combination of 3D printing technology and CAD software can be used to print personalized composite stents, which have the characteristics of repeatability, high precision, and low cost. Through 3D printing technology, combining a variety of materials with each other can provide the greatest advantages of materials. The waste of resources was avoided. The prepared polycaprolactone/β-tri-calcium phosphate/0.2% carbon nanotube scaffold has a good pore structure and mechanical properties that mimic human cancellous bone, is non-toxic and non-hemolytic, and is effective in promoting ADSC proliferation in vitro. Given this correspondence, 3D printed scaffold shows good biocompatibility and strength, and the fabrication method provides a proof of concept for developing scaffolds for bone tissue engineering applications.

Can Combining Hyaluronic Acid and Physiotherapy in Knee Osteoarthritis Improve the Physicochemical Properties of Synovial Fluid?

Known as the degenerative disease of the knee with the highest prevalence, knee osteoarthritis (KOA) is characterized by a gradual destructive mechanism that, in severe cases, can provoke the need for total knee substitution. As the disease progresses, various enzymatic, immunological, and inflammatory processes abnormally degrade hyaluronic acid (HA), SF's main component, and affect the concentrations of specific proteins, with the final results seriously endangering synovial fluid (SF)'s rheological and tribological features and characteristics. No effective treatments have been found to stop the progression of KOA, but the injection of HA-based viscoelastic gels has been considered (alone or combined with physiotherapy (PT)) as an alternative to symptomatic therapies. In order to evaluate the effect of viscosupplementation and PT on the characteristics of SF, SF aspirated from groups treated for KOA (HA Kombihylan® and groups that received Kombihylan® and complex PT) was analyzed and compared from analytical, spectrophotometrical, and rheological perspectives. In the patients treated with PT, the SF extracted 6 weeks after viscosupplementation had a superior elastic modulus (G') and viscous moduli (G″), as well as a homogeneous distribution of proteins and polysaccharides. The viscosupplementation fluid improved the bioadhesive properties of the SF, and the use of the viscosupplementation fluid in conjunction with PT was found to be favorable for the distribution of macromolecules and phospholipids, contributing to the lubrication process and the treatment of OA-affected joints.

Preparation and evaluation of vaginal suppo-sponges loaded with benzydamine, in-vitro/in-vivo study

This study aimed to design a new Benzydamine HCl (BNZ) suppo-sponge for controlled, mucoadhesive dosage form for vaginal candidiasis treatment, offering advantages over traditional creams, ointments, or gels. BNZ-loaded suppo-sponges were fabricated by simple casting / freeze-drying technique utilizing the cross-linking of chitosan (Cs) with vanillin (V). Vaginal suppo-sponges were prepared based on different vanillin cross-linking ratios (V).n), from 0 to 2%w/w. To best of our knowledge, this is the first study that uses Schiff's base between chitosan and vanillin as a drug delivery system to treat fungal vaginal infections. Schiff's base formation was confirmed by FT-IR. In-vitro appraisal showed acceptable physical and mechanical characteristics. Formulations based on cross-linking of Cs with V showed a more pronounced in-vitro antifungal activity. In-vitro drug release revealed a prolonged release pattern, becoming more noticeable with the higher cross-linked suppo-sponges (22.34% after 8 h). In-vivo testing of CsV2 suppo-sponge indicated a more pronounced reduction in fungal count than both CsV0 and Tantum® Rosa in the first week, with a peak reduction on day 7 and the 10th and 11th days of the second week. Conclusively, Chitosan/vanillin suppo-sponges represent a promising delivery system for drugs intended for local treatment of vaginal candidiasis. than both CsV0 and Tantum® Rosa in the first week, with a peak reduction on day 7 and the 10th and 11th days of the second week. Conclusively, Chitosan/vanillin suppo-sponges represent a promising delivery system for drugs intended for local treatment of vaginal candidiasis.

Engineered dermis loaded with confining forces promotes full-thickness wound healing by enhancing vascularisation and epithelialisation

Tissue-engineered skin is ideal for clinical wound repair. Restoration of skin tissue defects using tissue-engineered skin remains a challenge owing to insufficient vascularisation. In our previous study, we developed a 3D bioprinted model with confined force loading and demonstrated that the confined force can affect vascular branching, which is regulated by the YAP signalling pathway. The mechanical properties of the model must be optimised to suture the wound edges. In this study, we explored the ability of a GelMA-HAMA-fibrin scaffold to support the confined forces created by 3D bioprinting and promote vascularisation and wound healing. The shape of the GelMA-HAMA-fibrin scaffold containing 3% GelMA was affected by the confined forces produced by the embedded cells. The GelMA-HAMA-fibrin scaffold was easy to print, had optimal mechanical properties, and was biocompatible. The constructs were successfully sutured together after 14 d of culture. Scaffolds seeded with cells were transplanted into skin tissue defects in nude mice, demonstrating that the cell-seeded GelMA-HAMA-fibrin scaffold, under confined force loading, promoted neovascularisation and wound restoration by enhancing blood vessel connections, creating a patterned surface, growth factors, and collagen deposition. These results provide further insights into the production of hydrogel composite materials as tissue-engineered scaffolds under an internal mechanical load that can enhance vascularisation and offer new treatment methods for wound healing. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Tissue-engineered skin is ideal for use in clinical wound repair. However, treatment of tissue defects using synthetic scaffolds remains challenging, mainly due to slow and insufficient vascularization. Our previous study developed a 3D bioprinted model with confined force loading, and demonstrated that confined force can affect vascular branching regulated by the YAP signal pathway. The mechanical properties of the construct need to be optimized for suturing to the edges of wounds. Here, we investigated the ability of a GelMA-HAMA-fibrin scaffold to support the confined forces created by 3D bioprinting and promote vascularization in vitro and wound healing in vivo. Our findings provide new insight into the development of degradable macroporous composite materials with mechanical stimulation as tissue-engineered scaffolds with enhanced vascularization, and also provide new treatment options for wound healing.

Thermoresponsive Gel-loaded Oxcarbazepine Nanosystems for Nose- To-Brain Delivery: Enhanced Antiepileptic Activity in Rats

BACKGROUND

Oxcarbazepine (OXC) is a frequently prescribed antiepileptic drug for managing focal and generalized seizures. Its therapeutic benefits are limited by its dose-dependent side effects. Nose-to-brain delivery is a novel route for improving the efficacy of antiepileptics. Drug encapsulation in mucoadhesive nanoparticles offers even more advantages for the nasal route.

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to develop oxcarbazepine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (OXC-NP) added to a mucoadhesive thermo-reversible gel for intranasal delivery and enhancement of antiepileptic activity.

METHODS

The formulation was optimized based on entrapment efficiency, polydispersity index, particle size, zeta potential, and in vitro release analysis. The therapeutic efficacy of OXC-NP was assessed in an epileptic rat model and compared to intranasal OXC and oral OXC.

RESULTS

The optimized OXC-NPs with chitosan exhibited particle size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency of 189 nm, + 31.4 mV ± 2.5 and 97.6% ± 0.14, respectively. The release of OXC was prolonged, reaching 47.1% after 6 h and 55% after 24 h. Enhanced antiepileptic activity of OXC-NP was manifested as decreased seizure score and prolonged survival. Halting of hippocampal TNF-α and IL-6 together with upregulated IL-10 could explain its anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

Intranasal OXC-NP-loaded in situ gel represents a promising formulation for enhanced antiepileptic potential achieved at low drug concentrations.

New Methacrylated Biopolymer-Based Hydrogels as Localized Drug Delivery Systems in Skin Cancer Therapy

The aim of the present work was to obtain drug-loaded hydrogels based on combinations of dextran, chitosan/gelatin/xanthan, and poly (acrylamide) as a sustained and controlled release vehicle of Doxorubicin, a drug used in skin cancer therapy that is associated with severe side effects. Hydrogels for use as 3D hydrophilic networks with good manipulation characteristics were produced using methacrylated biopolymer derivatives and the methacrylate group's polymerization with synthetic monomers in the presence of a photo-initiator, under UV light stimulation (365 nm). Transformed infrared spectroscopy analysis (FT-IR) confirmed the hydrogels' network structure (natural-synthetic composition and photocrosslinking), while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis confirmed the microporous morphology. The hydrogels are swellable in simulated biological fluids and the material's morphology regulates the swelling properties: the maximum swelling degree was obtained for dextran-chitosan-based hydrogels because of their higher porosity and pore distribution. The hydrogels are bioadhesive on a biological simulating membrane, and values for the force of detachment and work of adhesion are recommended for applications on skin tissue. The Doxorubicin was loaded into the hydrogels and the drug was released by diffusion for all the resulting hydrogels, with small contributions from the hydrogel networks' relaxation. Doxorubicin-loaded hydrogels are efficient on keratinocytes tumor cells, the sustained released drug interrupting the cells' division and inducing cell apoptosis; we recommend the obtained materials for the topical treatment of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma.

Electrospun nanofibres in drug delivery: advances in controlled release strategies

Emerging drug-delivery systems demand a controlled or programmable or sustained release of drug molecules to improve therapeutic efficacy and patient compliance. Such systems have been heavily investigated as they offer safe, accurate, and quality treatment for numerous diseases. Amongst newly developed drug-delivery systems, electrospun nanofibres have emerged as promising drug excipients and are coming up as promising biomaterials. The inimitable characteristics of electrospun nanofibres in terms of their high surface-to-volume ratio, high porosity, easy drug encapsulation, and programmable release make them an astounding drug-delivery vehicle.

Chitosan-Based Scaffolds for the Treatment of Myocardial Infarction: A Systematic Review

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), such as myocardial infarction (MI), constitute one of the world's leading causes of annual deaths. This cardiomyopathy generates a tissue scar with poor anatomical properties and cell necrosis that can lead to heart failure. Necrotic tissue repair is required through pharmaceutical or surgical treatments to avoid such loss, which has associated adverse collateral effects. However, to recover the infarcted myocardial tissue, biopolymer-based scaffolds are used as safer alternative treatments with fewer side effects due to their biocompatibility, chemical adaptability and biodegradability. For this reason, a systematic review of the literature from the last five years on the production and application of chitosan scaffolds for the reconstructive engineering of myocardial tissue was carried out. Seventy-five records were included for review using the "preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses" data collection strategy. It was observed that the chitosan scaffolds have a remarkable capacity for restoring the essential functions of the heart through the mimicry of its physiological environment and with a controlled porosity that allows for the exchange of nutrients, the improvement of the electrical conductivity and the stimulation of cell differentiation of the stem cells. In addition, the chitosan scaffolds can significantly improve angiogenesis in the infarcted tissue by stimulating the production of the glycoprotein receptors of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family. Therefore, the possible mechanisms of action of the chitosan scaffolds on cardiomyocytes and stem cells were analyzed. For all the advantages observed, it is considered that the treatment of MI with the chitosan scaffolds is promising, showing multiple advantages within the regenerative therapies of CVD.

The Application of Porous Scaffolds for Cardiovascular Tissues

As the number of arteriosclerotic diseases continues to increase, much improvement is still needed with treatments for cardiovascular diseases. This is mainly due to the limitations of currently existing treatment options, including the limited number of donor organs available or the long-term durability of the artificial organs. Therefore, tissue engineering has attracted significant attention as a tissue regeneration therapy in this area. Porous scaffolds are one of the effective methods for tissue engineering. However, it could be better, and its effectiveness varies depending on the tissue application. This paper will address the challenges presented by various materials and their combinations. We will also describe some of the latest methods for tissue engineering.

Micro-CT analysis of osteomyelitis of rabbit tibial for model establishment and biomaterials application in tissue engineering

Osteomyelitis is one of the most difficult diseases to treat in orthopedics field. The construction of animal models of osteomyelitis is now more mature but still lacks a deeper criterion other than "successful infection". In this work, rabbit tibial osteomyelitis model with S. aureus infection was established. Whole tibia, cortical bone around bone window, and tibial condyle were characterized in considerable detail using micro-CT and other means at 2/4/6 weeks, respectively. The results show that in addition to the obvious inflammatory response and bone destruction, osteomyelitis caused some other effects on compact and cancellous bone, and in particular, changes in bone mineral density after infection were of interest. Although the modeling groups all exhibited osteolysis and bone loss, their overall bone mineral density averages and those of the control groups were mostly in the range of 870 mg/cm³ to 920 mg/cm³, without statistical difference. The results suggest that overall bone mineral density is determined by both bone destruction conditions and the amount of dead bone deposition. This work provides a reference basis for the selection of time points for the subsequent animal models establishment and some valuable reference indicators of the application of biomaterials in tissue engineering.

Medical Applications of Porous Biomaterials: Features of Porosity and Tissue-Specific Implications for Biocompatibility

Porosity is an important material feature commonly employed in implants and tissue scaffolds. The presence of material voids permits the infiltration of cells, mechanical compliance, and outward diffusion of pharmaceutical agents. Various studies have confirmed that porosity indeed promotes favorable tissue responses, including minimal fibrous encapsulation during the foreign body reaction (FBR). However, increased biofilm formation and calcification is also described to arise due to biomaterial porosity. Additionally, the relevance of host responses like the FBR, infection, calcification, and thrombosis are dependent on tissue location and specific tissue microenvironment. In this review, the features of porous materials and the implications of porosity in the context of medical devices is discussed. Common methods to create porous materials are also discussed, as well as the parameters that are used to tune pore features. Responses toward porous biomaterials are also reviewed, including the various stages of the FBR, hemocompatibility, biofilm formation, and calcification. Finally, these host responses are considered in tissue specific locations including the subcutis, bone, cardiovascular system, brain, eye, and female reproductive tract. The effects of porosity across the various tissues of the body is highlighted and the need to consider the tissue context when engineering biomaterials is emphasized.

Catalyst-Free Click Chemistry for Engineering Chondroitin Sulfate-Multiarmed PEG Hydrogels for Skin Tissue Engineering

The quest for an ideal biomaterial perfectly matching the microenvironment of the surrounding tissues and cells is an endless challenge within biomedical research, in addition to integrating this with a facile and sustainable technology for its preparation. Engineering hydrogels through click chemistry would promote the sustainable invention of tailor-made hydrogels. Herein, we disclose a versatile and facile catalyst-free click chemistry for the generation of an innovative hydrogel by combining chondroitin sulfate (CS) and polyethylene glycol (PEG). Various multi-armed PEG-Norbornene (A-PEG-N) with different molecular sizes were investigated to generate crosslinked copolymers with tunable rheological and mechanical properties. The crosslinked and mechanically stable porous hydrogels could be generated by simply mixing the two clickable Tetrazine-CS (TCS) and A-PEG-N components, generating a self-standing hydrogel within minutes. The leading candidate (TCS-8A-PEG-N (40 kD)), based on the mechanical and biocompatibility results, was further employed as a scaffold to improve wound closure and blood flow in vivo. The hydrogel demonstrated not only enhanced blood perfusion and an increased number of blood vessels, but also desirable fibrous matrix orientation and normal collagen deposition. Taken together, these results demonstrate the potential of the hydrogel to improve wound repair and hold promise for in situ skin tissue engineering applications.

Advances in the stimuli-responsive injectable hydrogel for controlled release of drugs

The stimuli-responsiveness of injectable hydrogel has been drastically developed for the controlled release of drugs and achieved encouraging curative effects in a variety of diseases including wounds, cardiovascular diseases and tumors. The gelation, swelling and degradation of such hydrogels respond to endogenous biochemical factors (such as pH, reactive oxygen species, glutathione, enzymes, glucose) and/or to exogenous physical stimulations (like light, magnetism, electricity and ultrasound), thereby accurately releasing loaded drugs in response to specifically pathological status and as desired for treatment plan and thus improving therapeutic efficacy effectively. In this paper, we give a detailed introduction of recent progresses in responsive injectable hydrogels and focus on the design strategy of various stimuli-sensitivities and their resultant alteration of gel dissociation and drug liberation behaviour. Their application in disease treatment is also discussed. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Biomedical applications of electrospun nanofibers in the management of diabetic wounds

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a complex disease that affects almost all the body's vital organs. Around 415 million people have been diagnosed with DM worldwide, and most of them are due to type 2 DM. The incidence of DM is estimated to increase by 642 million individuals by 2040. DM is considered to have many complications among which diabetic wound (DW) is one of the most distressing complication. DW affects 15% of people with diabetes and is triggered by the loss of glycaemic control, peripheral neuropathy, vascular diseases, and immunosuppression. For timely treatment, early detection, debridement, offloading, and controlling infection are crucial. Even though several treatments are available, the understanding of overlying diabetes-related wound healing mechanisms as therapeutic options has increased dramatically over the past decades. Conventional dressings are cost-effective; however, they are not productive enough to promote the overall process of DW healing. Thanks to tissue engineering developments, one of the promising current trends in innovative wound dressings such as hydrocolloids, hydrogels, scaffolds, films, and nanofibers which merges traditional healing agents and modern products/practices. Nanofibers prepared by electrospinning with enormous porosity, excellent absorption of moisture, the better exchange rate of oxygen, and antibacterial activities have increased interest. The application of these nanofibers can be extended by starting with a careful selection of polymers, loading with active therapeutic moieties such as peptides, proteins, active pharmaceutical ingredients (API), and stem cells, etc. to make them as potential dosage forms in the management of DWs. This review explains the potential applications of electrospun nanofibers in DW healing. A schematic view of role of nanofibers in diabetic wounds.

Emerging landscape of cell-penetrating peptide-mediated nucleic acid delivery and their utility in imaging, gene-editing, and RNA-sequencing

The safety issues like immunogenicity and unacceptable cancer risk of viral vectors for DNA/mRNA vaccine delivery necessitate the development of non-viral vectors with no toxicity. Among the non-viral strategies, cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been a topic of interest recently because of their ability to cross plasma membranes and facilitate nucleic acids delivery both in vivo and in vitro. In addition to the application in the field of gene vaccine and gene therapy, CPPs based nucleic acids delivery have been proved by its potential application like gene editing, RNA-sequencing, and imaging. Here, we focus on summarizing the recent applications and progress of CPPs-mediated nucleic acids delivery and discuss the current problems and solutions in this field.

Wound healing properties of a fibrin-based dermal replacement scaffold

When serious cutaneous injury occurs, the innate wound healing process attempts to restore the skin's appearance and function. Wound healing outcome is affected by factors such as contraction, revascularisation, regeneration versus fibrosis and re-epithelialisation and is also strongly influenced by the pattern and extent of damage to the dermal layer. Dermal replacement scaffolds have been designed to substitute for lost tissue, provide a structure to promote dermal regeneration, and aid skin grafting, resulting in a superior healing outcome. In this study the wound healing properties of a novel fibrin-alginate dermal scaffold were assessed in the porcine wound healing model and also compared to two widely used dermal scaffolds and grafting alone. The fibrin-alginate scaffold, unlike the other scaffolds tested, is not used in combination with an overlying skin graft. Fibrin scaffold treated wounds showed increased, sustained superficial blood flow and reduced contraction during early healing while showing comparable wound closure, re-epithelialisation and final wound outcome to other treatments. The increase in early wound vascularisation coupled with a decrease in contraction and no requirement for a skin graft suggest that the fibrin-based scaffold could provide an effective, distinctive treatment option to improve healing outcomes in human patients.

Multifarious applications of bioactive glasses in soft tissue engineering

Tissue engineering (TE), a new paradigm in regenerative medicine, repairs and restores the diseased or damaged tissues and eliminates drawbacks associated with autografts and allografts. In this context, many biomaterials have been developed for regenerating tissues and are considered revolutionary in TE due to their flexibility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. One such well-documented biomaterial is bioactive glasses (BGs), known for their osteoconductive and osteogenic potential and their abundant orthopedic and dental clinical applications. However, in the last few decades, the soft tissue regenerative potential of BGs has demonstrated great promise. Therefore, this review comprehensively covers the biological application of BGs in the repair and regeneration of tissues outside the skeleton system. BGs promote neovascularization, which is crucial to encourage host tissue integration with the implanted construct, making them suitable biomaterial scaffolds for TE. Moreover, they heal acute and chronic wounds and also have been reported to restore the injured superficial intestinal mucosa, aiding in gastroduodenal regeneration. In addition, BGs promote regeneration of the tissues with minimal renewal capacity like the heart and lungs. Besides, the peripheral nerve and musculoskeletal reparative properties of BGs are also reported. These results show promising soft tissue regenerative potential of BGs under preclinical settings without posing significant adverse effects. Albeit, there is limited bench-to-bedside clinical translation of elucidative research on BGs as they require rigorous pharmacological evaluations using standardized animal models for assessing biomolecular downstream pathways.

Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) plant gum: From biological applications to advanced nanomedicine

Natural polymers are an efficient class of eco-friendly and biodegradable polymers, because they are readily available, come from natural sources, inexpensive and can be chemically modified with the correct reagents. Guar gum (GG) is a natural polymer with great potential to be used in pharmaceutical formulations due to its unique composition and lack of toxicity. GG can be designed to suit the needs of the biological and medical engineering sectors. In the development of innovative drug delivery systems, GG is commonly utilized as a rate-controlling excipient. In this review, different properties of GG including chemical composition, extraction methods and its usefulness in diabetes, cholesterol lowering, weight control, tablet formulations as well as its food application were discussed. The other purpose of this study is to evaluate potential use of GG and its derivatives for advanced nanomedicine such as drug delivery, tissue engineering and nanosensing. It should be noted that some applicable patents in medical area have also been included in the rest of this survey to extend knowledge about guar gum and its polymeric nature.

Plasma-assisted multiscale topographic scaffolds for soft and hard tissue regeneration

The design of transplantable scaffolds for tissue regeneration requires gaining precise control of topographical properties. Here, we propose a methodology to fabricate hierarchical multiscale scaffolds with controlled hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties by employing capillary force lithography in combination with plasma modification. Using our method, we fabricated biodegradable biomaterial (i.e., polycaprolactone (PCL))-based nitrogen gas (N-FN) and oxygen gas plasma-assisted flexible multiscale nanotopographic (O-FMN) patches with natural extracellular matrix-like hierarchical structures along with flexible and controlled hydrophilic properties. In response to multiscale nanotopographic and chemically modified surface cues, the proliferation and osteogenic mineralization of cells were significantly promoted. Furthermore, the O-FMN patch enhanced regeneration of the mineralized fibrocartilage tissue of the tendon-bone interface and the calvarial bone tissue in vivo in rat models. Overall, the PCL-based O-FMN patches could accelerate soft- and hard-tissue regeneration. Thus, our proposed methodology was confirmed as an efficient approach for the design and manipulation of scaffolds having a multiscale topography with controlled hydrophilic property.

Supercritical fluid (SCF)-assisted fabrication of carrier-free drugs: An eco-friendly welcome to active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs)

Despite the success in developing various pharmaceutical formulations, most of the active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs)/drugs, according to the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS), often suffer from various intrinsic limitations of solubility and permeability, substantially hindering their bioavailability in vivo. Regardless of the fact that the availability of different particle fabrication approaches (top-down and bottom-up) towards pharmaceutical manufacturing, the supercritical fluid (SCF) technology has emerged as one of the highly effective substitutes due to the environmentally benign nature and processing convenience, as well as the economically promising character of SCFs. The exceptional features of SCFs have endowed the fabrication of various APIs either solely or in combination with the compatible supramolecular species towards achieving improved drug delivery. Operating such APIs in high-pressure conditions often results in arbitrary-sized particulate forms, ranging from micron-sized to sub-micron/nano-sized particles. Comparatively, these SCF-processed particles offer enhanced tailorable physicochemical and morphological properties (size, shape, and surface), as well as improved performance efficacy (bioavailability and therapy) over the unprocessed APIs. Although the "carrier-based" delivery is practical among diverse delivery systems, the direct fabrication of APIs into suitable particulate forms, referred to as "carrier-free" delivery, has increased attention towards improving the bioavailability and conveying a high payload of the APIs. This review gives a comprehensive emphasis on the SCF-assisted fabrication of diverse APIs towards exploring their great potential in drug delivery. Initially, we discuss various challenges of drug delivery and particle fabrication approaches. Further, different supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂)-based fabrication approaches depending on the character of SCFs are explicitly described, highlighting their advantages and suitability in processing diverse APIs. Then, we provide detailed insights on various processing factors affecting the properties and morphology of SCF-processed APIs and their pharmaceutical applications, emphasizing their performance efficacy when administered through multiple routes of administration. Finally, we summarize this compilation with exciting perspectives based on the lessons learned so far and moving forward in terms of challenges and opportunities in the scale-up and clinical translation of these drugs using this innovative technology.

Challenges and Opportunities of Nanotechnological based Approach for the Treatment of Tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, because of its unique biochemical behavior and a complex host relationship, successfully evades the host immune system. Therefore, chemotherapy appears to be the first-line option for patients with tuberculosis. However, poor patient compliance with anti-tubercular treatment and variability in anti-tubercular drug pharmacokinetics are among the major driving factors for the emergence of drug resistance. The rising cases of extrapulmonary TB, cross-resistance patterns, high prevalence of tuberculosis and HIV co-infections make tuberculosis treatment more complicated than conventional multidrug therapy. Due to their distinct advantages like higher solubility, increased payload, controlled release profiles, tissue-specific accumulation, and lack of toxicity, nanoscale materials have immense potential for drug delivery applications. An appropriate selection of polymer and careful particle engineering further improves therapeutic outcomes with opportunities to overcome conventional anti-tubercular drugs' challenges. The present review introduces the prospect of using nanotechnology in tuberculosis (TB) chemotherapy and provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in nanocarriers implied for delivering anti-tubercular drugs.

Polysaccharide-Based Drug Delivery Systems for the Treatment of Periodontitis

Periodontal diseases are worldwide health problems that negatively affect the lifestyle of many people. The long-term effect of the classical treatments, including the mechanical removal of bacterial plaque, is not effective enough, causing the scientific world to find other alternatives. Polymer-drug systems, which have different forms of presentation, chosen depending on the nature of the disease, the mode of administration, the type of polymer used, etc., have become very promising. Hydrogels, for example (in the form of films, micro-/nanoparticles, implants, inserts, etc.), contain the drug included, encapsulated, or adsorbed on the surface. Biologically active compounds can also be associated directly with the polymer chains by covalent or ionic binding (polymer-drug conjugates). Not just any polymer can be used as a support for drug combination due to the constraints imposed by the fact that the system works inside the body. Biopolymers, especially polysaccharides and their derivatives and to a lesser extent proteins, are preferred for this purpose. This paper aims to review in detail the biopolymer-drug systems that have emerged in the last decade as alternatives to the classical treatment of periodontal disease.

A Comparative Review of Natural and Synthetic Biopolymer Composite Scaffolds

Tissue engineering (TE) and regenerative medicine integrate information and technology from various fields to restore/replace tissues and damaged organs for medical treatments. To achieve this, scaffolds act as delivery vectors or as cellular systems for drugs and cells; thereby, cellular material is able to colonize host cells sufficiently to meet up the requirements of regeneration and repair. This process is multi-stage and requires the development of various components to create the desired neo-tissue or organ. In several current TE strategies, biomaterials are essential components. While several polymers are established for their use as biomaterials, careful consideration of the cellular environment and interactions needed is required in selecting a polymer for a given application. Depending on this, scaffold materials can be of natural or synthetic origin, degradable or nondegradable. In this review, an overview of various natural and synthetic polymers and their possible composite scaffolds with their physicochemical properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability, morphology, mechanical strength, pore size, and porosity are discussed. The scaffolds fabrication techniques and a few commercially available biopolymers are also tabulated.

Bioactive anti-oxidative polycaprolactone/gelatin electrospun nanofibers containing selenium nanoparticles/vitamin E for wound dressing applications

In this study, polycaprolactone/gelatin (PCL/GEL) electrospun nanofibers containing biogenic selenium nanoparticles (Se NPs) and Se NPs/vitamin E (VE) with average diameters of 397.8 nm and 279.5 nm, respectively (as determined by SEM inspection) were prepared and their effect on wound healing was evaluated using in-vivo studies. The energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) mapping, TEM micrograph, and FTIR spectra of the prepared nanofibers strongly demonstrated well entrapment of Se NPs and VE into scaffolds. An amount of 57% Se NPs and 43% VE were gradually released from PCL/GEL/Se NPs/VE scaffold after 4 days immersion in PBS solution (pH 7.4). The both PCL/GEL/Se NPs and PCL/GEL/Se NPs/VE scaffolds supported 3T3 cell proliferation and attachment as confirmed by MTT assay and SEM imaging. Complete re-epithelialization, low level of edema and inflammatory cells in coordination with high level of oriented collagens demonstrated the wound healing activity of PCL/GEL/Se NPs/VE. Besides, significant antioxidant efficacy of PCL/GEL/Se NPs and PCL/GEL/Se NPs/VE scaffolds was demonstrated according to GSH and MDA assays. To sum up, the prepared PCL/GEL/Se NPs/VE scaffold in the present study represented suitable healing effect on animal model which candidate it for further studies.

Implantation of regenerative complexes in traumatic brain injury canine models enhances the reconstruction of neural networks and motor function recovery

Rationale: The combination of medical and tissue engineering in neural regeneration studies is a promising field. Collagen, silk fibroin and seed cells are suitable options and have been widely used in the repair of spinal cord injury. In this study, we aimed to determine whether the implantation of a complex fabricated with collagen/silk fibroin (SF) and the human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMSCs) can promote cerebral cortex repair and motor functional recovery in a canine model of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Methods: A porous scaffold was fabricated with cross-linked collagen and SF. Its physical properties and degeneration rate were measured. The scaffolds were co-cultured with hUCMSCs after which an implantable complex was formed. After complex implantation to a canine model of TBI, the motor evoked potential (MEP) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were used to evaluate the integrity of the cerebral cortex. The neurologic score, motion capture, surface electromyography (sEMG), and vertical ground reaction force (vGRF) were measured in the analysis of motor functions. In vitro analysis of inflammation levels was performed by Elisa while immunohistochemistry was used in track the fate of hUCMSCs. In situ hybridization, transmission electron microscope, and immunofluorescence were used to assess neural and vascular regeneration. Results: Favorable physical properties, suitable degradation rate, and biocompatibility were observed in the collagen/SF scaffolds. The group with complex implantation exhibited the best cerebral cortex integrity and motor functions. The implantation also led to the regeneration of more blood vessels and nerve fibers, less glial fibers, and inflammatory factors. Conclusion: Implantation of this complex enhanced therapy in traumatic brain injury (TBI) through structural repair and functional recovery. These effects exhibit the translational prospects for the clinical application of this complex.

Advances and prospects in biomimetic multilayered scaffolds for articular cartilage regeneration

Due to the sophisticated hierarchical structure and limited reparability of articular cartilage (AC), the ideal regeneration of AC defects has been a major challenge in the field of regenerative medicine. As defects progress, they often extend from the cartilage layer to the subchondral bone and ultimately lead to osteoarthritis. Tissue engineering techniques bring new hope for AC regeneration. To meet the regenerative requirements of the heterogeneous and layered structure of native AC tissue, a substantial number of multilayered biomimetic scaffolds have been studied. Ideal multilayered scaffolds should generate zone-specific functional tissue similar to native AC tissue. This review focuses on the current status of multilayered scaffolds developed for AC defect repair, including design strategies based on the degree of defect severity and the zone-specific characteristics of AC tissue, the selection and composition of biomaterials, and techniques for design and manufacturing. The challenges and future perspectives of biomimetic multilayered scaffold strategies for AC regeneration are also discussed.

Hybrid Freeze-Dried Dressings Composed of Epidermal Growth Factor and Recombinant Human-Like Collagen Enhance Cutaneous Wound Healing in Rats

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) is important for promoting skin repair and remodeling. Native collagen is also widely used as a scaffold for skin tissue engineering. The limitations of EGF include easy decomposition or inactivation, whereas native collagen is immunogenic and has poor solubility. Therefore, we constructed a freeze-dried dressing based on the recombinant human-like collagen (RHC) to act as a carrier for EGF (RHC/EGF freeze-dried dressing) and promote skin wound closure. Here, the freeze-dried dressing that combined EGF and RHC significantly enhanced the proliferation, adhesion, and spreading of NIH/3T3 fibroblasts and migration of HaCaT keratinocytes at the wound site. The physicochemical characteristics of the RHC/EGF freeze-dried dressing investigated using scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry revealed that it was a loose and porous cake that redissolved quickly. The molecular mechanisms involved in cell proliferation and angiogenesis were also assessed. The expression levels of the markers Ki-67, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, vascular endothelial growth factor, and cluster of differentiation 31 were significantly increased after treatment with the RHC/EGF freeze-dried dressing (P < 0.01, vs. RHC or EGF alone). This increase indicated that the RHC/EGF freeze-dried dressing significantly accelerated wound closure, re-epithelialization, and the orderly arrangement and deposition of collagen in the Sprague–Dawley rats with full-thickness skin defects. This work describes a significant step toward the development of wound environments conducive to healing, and the RHC/EGF freeze-dried dressing is a potential therapeutic strategy in wound management.

Crosslinking of gum-based composite scaffolds for enhanced strength and stability: A comparative study between sodium trimetaphosphate and glutaraldehyde

Tissue engineering is one of the potential fields in the domain of regenerative medicine. Engineered scaffolds are an excellent substitute for the conventional use of bone grafts as they are biocompatible, economic, and provide limitless supply with no risk of disease transmission. Gum-based scaffolds present a good scope for studying tissue-engineering models and analyzing controlled drug delivery. Uniform blending of the gums and the presence of the optimal concentration of appropriate crosslinkers are very crucial for biodegradability nature. Gum-based scaffolds containing gellan gum, xanthan gum, polyvinyl alcohol, and hydroxyapatite, cross-linked with either glutaraldehyde (GA) or sodium trimetaphosphate (STMP) were fabricated to study the efficiency of crosslinkers and were characterized for degradation profile, swelling capacity, porosity, mechanical strength, morphology, X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared, and in vitro biocompatibility. Scaffolds crosslinked with STMP exhibited higher degradation rate at Day 21 than scaffolds crosslinked with GA. However, higher compressive strength was obtained for scaffolds cross-linked with STMP signifying that they have a better ability to resist compressive forces. Superior cell viability was observed in STMP-crosslinked scaffolds. In conclusion, STMP serves as a better crosslinker in comparison to GA and can be used in the fabrication of scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

Osteoimmunomodulatory effects of biomaterial modification strategies on macrophage polarization and bone regeneration

Biomaterials as bone substitutes are always considered as foreign bodies that can trigger host immune responses. Traditional designing principles have been always aimed at minimizing the immune reactions by fabricating inert biomaterials. However, clinical evidence revealed that those methods still have limitations and many of which were only feasible in the laboratory. Currently, osteoimmunology, the very pioneering concept is drawing more and more attention-it does not simply regard the immune response as an obstacle during bone healing but emphasizes the intimate relationship of the immune and skeletal system, which includes diverse cells, cytokines, and signaling pathways. Properties of biomaterials like topography, wettability, surface charge, the release of cytokines, mediators, ions and other bioactive molecules can impose effects on immune responses to interfere with the skeletal system. Based on the bone formation mechanisms, the designing methods of the biomaterials change from immune evasive to immune reprogramming. Here, we discuss the osteoimmunomodulatory effects of the new modification strategies-adjusting properties of bone biomaterials to induce a favorable osteoimmune environment. Such strategies showed potential to benefit the development of bone materials and lay a solid foundation for the future clinical application.

The mineralization, drug release and in vivo bone defect repair properties of calcium phosphates/PLA modified tantalum scaffolds

Calcium phosphate based biomaterials have been widely studied in biomedical areas. Herein, amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) nanospheres and hydroxyapatite (HA) nanorods were separately prepared and used for coating tantalum (Ta) scaffolds with a polymer of polylactide (PLA). We have found that different crystal phases of calcium phosphate coated on Ta scaffolds displayed different effects on the surface morphologies, mineralization and bovine serum albumin (BSA) release. The ACP-PLA and HA-PLA coated on Ta scaffold were more favorable for in vitro mineralization than bare and PLA coated Ta scaffolds, and resulted in a highly hydrophilic surfaces. Meanwhile, the osteoblast-like cells (MG63) showed favorable properties of adhesion and spreading on both ACP-PLA and HA-PLA coated Ta scaffolds. The ACP-PLA and HA-PLA coated Ta scaffolds showed a high biocompatibility and potential applications for in vivo bone defect repair.

Calcium phosphate modified tantalum scaffolds displayed high performance on mineralization, sustained drug release and in vivo bone defect repair.

Advanced Nanotechnology Leading the Way to Multimodal Imaging-Guided Precision Surgical Therapy

Surgical resection is the primary and most effective treatment for most patients with solid tumors. However, patients suffer from postoperative recurrence and metastasis. In the past years, emerging nanotechnology has led the way to minimally invasive, precision and intelligent oncological surgery after the rapid development of minimally invasive surgical technology. Advanced nanotechnology in the construction of nanomaterials (NMs) for precision imaging-guided surgery (IGS) as well as surgery-assisted synergistic therapy is summarized, thereby unlocking the advantages of nanotechnology in multimodal IGS-assisted precision synergistic cancer therapy. First, mechanisms and principles of NMs to surgical targets are briefly introduced. Multimodal imaging based on molecular imaging technologies provides a practical method to achieve intraoperative visualization with high resolution and deep tissue penetration. Moreover, multifunctional NMs synergize surgery with adjuvant therapy (e.g., chemotherapy, immunotherapy, phototherapy) to eliminate residual lesions. Finally, key issues in the development of ideal theranostic NMs associated with surgical applications and challenges of clinical transformation are discussed to push forward further development of NMs for multimodal IGS-assisted precision synergistic cancer therapy.

Nanogels as drug-delivery systems: a comprehensive overview

Nanogels have attracted considerable attention as nanoscopic drug carriers, particularly for site-specific or time-controlled delivery of bioactive mediators. A high diversity of polymer systems and the simple modification of their physicochemical features have provided multipurpose forms of nanogel preparations. Nanogels have outstandingly high stability, drug loading ability, biologic consistence, good permeation capability and can be responsive to environmental stimuli. Great potential has been shown by nanogels in many fields including delivery of genes, chemotherapy drugs, diagnosis, targeting of specific organs and several others. This review focuses mainly on different types of nanogels, methods of preparation including methods of drug loading, different modes of biodegradation mechanisms as well as main mechanisms of drug release from nanogels. Recent applications of nanogels are also briefly discussed and exemplified.

Polyacrylate/polyacrylate-PEG biomaterials obtained by high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) with tailorable drug release and effective mechanical and biological properties

The paper focuses on the preparation of polyacrylate based biomaterials designed as patches for dermal/transdermal drug delivery using materials obtained by the high internal phase emulsion (HIPE) technique. In particular, butyl acrylate and glycidyl methacrylate were selected, respectively, as backbone and functional monomer while two different crosslinkers, bifunctional or trifunctional, were used to form the covalent network. The influence of PEG on the main properties of the materials was also investigated. The obtained materials show a characteristic and interconnected internal structure as confirmed by SEM studies. By an industrial point of view, an interesting feature of this system is that it can be shaped as needed, in any form and thickness. The physiochemically characterized materials showed a tailorable curcumin (model of hydrophobic drugs) drug release, effective mechanical properties and cell viability and resulted neither pro nor anti-angiogenic as demonstrated in vivo by the chick embryo choriallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. Based on these results, the obtained polyHIPEs could be proposed as devices for dermal/transdermal drug delivery and/or for the direct application on wounded skin.

Mucoadhesive electrospun nanofibers for drug delivery systems: applications of polymers and the parameters' roles

Electrospun nanofibers have been widely studied for many medical applications. They can be designed with specific features, including mucoadhesive properties. This review summarizes the polymeric scaffolds obtained by the electrospinning process that has been applied for drug release in different mucosal sites such as oral, ocular, gastroenteric, vaginal, and nasal. We analyzed the electrospinning parameters that have to be optimized to create reproducible and efficient mucoadhesive nanofibers, among them are: electrical field, polymer concentration, viscosity, flow rate, needle-collector distance, solution conductivity, solvent, environmental parameters, and electrospinning setup. We also revised the mucoadhesive theories as well as the mucoadhesive properties of the polymers used. This review shows that the most studied mucosal site is the oral cavity, because it is accessible and easy to evaluate, while the rest are uncomfortable for the patient and difficult to assess in vivo. We found problems that need to be solved for mucoadhesive electrospun nanofibers, such as improving adhesion strength and mucosal permanence time, and the design of unidirectional release, multilayer systems for the treatment of several pathologies, to ensure the drug concentration in the tissue or target organ.

Three-Dimensional Printing of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds with Horizontal Pore and Composition Gradients

IMPACT STATEMENT

In this study, we report the development of a novel multimaterial segmented three-dimensional printing methodology to fabricate porous scaffolds containing discrete horizontal gradients of composition and porosity. This methodology is particularly beneficial to preparing porous scaffolds with intricate structures and graded compositions for the regeneration of complex tissues. The technique presented is compatible with many commercially available bioprinters commonly used in biofabrication, and can be adapted to better replicate the architectural and compositional requirements of individual tissues compared with traditional scaffold printing methods.

Biomaterials research of China from 2013 to 2017 based on bibliometrics and visualization analysis

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to evaluate the changes of development trends and research hotspots of biomaterials research from 2013 to 2017, which can identify the general information of papers and explore the changes of research content, thus providing perspectives for the development of biomaterials in China and other countries.

METHODS

Data of the paper were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection, and then analyzed by the bibliometric and CiteSpace visualization analysis.

RESULTS

It was found that a total of 3,839 related papers had been published from the year 2013 to 2017. The analysis of the articles showed that the annual quantity and quality of the articles in the biomaterials research have been increasing since 2013, and the Wang L / Chinese Academy of Sciences were the most productive author/institution. Meanwhile, the keywords "in vitro", "scaffold", "nanoparticle" , "mechanical property", and "biocompatibility" have the relatively higher frequency, and the keywords "apatite", "deposition", and "surface modification" have the strongest burst citation.

CONCLUSIONS

After statistics and analysis, we found that biomaterials is a promising research field. The study may be helpful in understanding research trends in this field.

Bioactive scaffolds for osteochondral regeneration

Treatment for osteochondral defects remains a great challenge. Although several clinical strategies have been developed for management of osteochondral defects, the reconstruction of both cartilage and subchondral bone has proved to be difficult due to their different physiological structures and functions. Considering the restriction of cartilage to self-healing and the different biological properties in osteochondral tissue, new therapy strategies are essential to be developed. This review will focus on the latest developments of bioactive scaffolds, which facilitate the osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation for the regeneration of bone and cartilage. Besides, the topic will also review the basic anatomy, strategies and challenges for osteochondral reconstruction, the selection of cells, biochemical factors and bioactive materials, as well as the design and preparation of bioactive scaffolds. Specifically, we summarize the most recent developments of single-type bioactive scaffolds for simultaneously regenerating cartilage and subchondral bone. Moreover, the future outlook of bioactive scaffolds in osteochondral tissue engineering will be discussed. This review offers a comprehensive summary of the most recent trend in osteochondral defect reconstruction, paving the way for the bioactive scaffolds in clinical therapy.

THE TRANSLATIONAL POTENTIAL OF THIS ARTICLE

This review summaries the latest developments of single-type bioactive scaffolds for regeneration of osteochondral defects. We also highlight a new possible translational direction for cartilage formation by harnessing bioactive ions and propose novel paradigms for subchondral bone regeneration in application of bioceramic scaffolds.

Enzymatic crosslinked gelatin 3D scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

Bone tissue engineering is an emerging medical field that has been developed in recent years to address pathologies with limited ability of bones to regenerate. Here we report the fabrication and characterization of microbial transglutaminase crosslinked gelatin-based scaffolds designed for serving as both cell substrate and growth factor release system. In particular, morphological, biomechanical and biological features have been analyzed. The enzyme ratio applied during the fabrication of the scaffolds affects the swelling capacity and the mechanical properties of the final structure. The developed systems are not cytotoxic according to the biocompatibility tests. The biological performance of selected formulations was studied using L-929 fibroblasts, D1 MSC and MG63 osteoblasts. Moreover, scaffolds allowed efficient osteogenic differentiation and signaling of MSCs. MSC cultured on the scaffolds not only presented lower proliferative and stemness profile, but also increased expression of osteoblast-related genes (Col1a1, Runx2, Osx). Furthermore, the in vitro release kinetics of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and bone morphogenetic protein -2 (BMP-2) from the scaffolds were also investigated. The release of the growth factors produced from the scaffolds followed a first order kinetics. These results highlight that the scaffolds designed and developed in this work may be suitable candidates for bone tissue regeneration purposes.

Novel Bioactive and Therapeutic Dental Polymeric Materials to Inhibit Periodontal Pathogens and Biofilms

Periodontitis is a common infectious disease characterized by loss of tooth-supporting structures, which eventually leads to tooth loss. The heavy burden of periodontal disease and its negative consequence on the patient's quality of life indicate a strong need for developing effective therapies. According to the World Health Organization, 10⁻15% of the global population suffers from severe periodontitis. Advances in understanding the etiology, epidemiology and microbiology of periodontal pocket flora have called for antibacterial therapeutic strategies for periodontitis treatment. Currently, antimicrobial strategies combining with polymer science have attracted tremendous interest in the last decade. This review focuses on the state of the art of antibacterial polymer application against periodontal pathogens and biofilms. The first part focuses on the different polymeric materials serving as antibacterial agents, drug carriers and periodontal barrier membranes to inhibit periodontal pathogens. The second part reviews cutting-edge research on the synthesis and evaluation of a new generation of bioactive dental polymers for Class-V restorations with therapeutic effects. They possess antibacterial, acid-reduction, protein-repellent, and remineralization capabilities. In addition, the antibacterial photodynamic therapy with polymeric materials against periodontal pathogens and biofilms is also briefly described in the third part. These novel bioactive and therapeutic polymeric materials and treatment methods have great potential to inhibit periodontitis and protect tooth structures.

Multimaterial Segmented Fiber Printing for Gradient Tissue Engineering

IMPACT STATEMENT

This study introduces a segmented three-dimensional printing methodology to create multimaterial porous scaffolds with discrete gradients and controlled distribution of compositions. This methodology can be adapted for the preparation of complex, multimaterial scaffolds with hierarchical structures and mechanical integrity useful in tissue engineering.

The paradigm shift for drug delivery systems for oral and maxillofacial implants

Along with the development of nanotechnological strategies for biomaterials associated with the prevention of infections, a myriad of clinically unproven techniques have been described to date. In this work, the aim was to perform a critical analysis of the literature available concerning antibacterial biomaterials for oral implantology and to provide a practical derivation for such a purpose. As anti-adhesive strategies may affect osseointegration, they should no longer be recommended for inclusion in this class of biomaterials, despite promising results in biomedical engineering for other, non-bone load bearing organs. Targeted, antibacterial drug delivery is most likely desirable in the case of intraosseous implants. Interfering factors such as the oral cavity environment, saliva, the bacterial microbiome, as well as, the characteristics of the alveolar mucosa and peri-implant space must be taken into account when calculating the local pharmacokinetics for antibacterial coatings. Effective release is crucial for tailoring antibacterial implant longevity providing minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) for the desired amount of time, which for oral implants, should be at least the cumulative time for the osseointegration period and functional loading period within the tissues. These parameters may differ between the implant type and its anatomical site. Also, the functional drug concentration in the peri-implant space should be calculated as the amount of the drug released from the implant surface including the concentration of the drug inactivated by biological fluids of the peri-implant space or saliva flow throughout the effective release time.