Running Demands and Activity Profile of the New Four-Quarter Match Format in Men's Field Hockey

Wearable Sensors and the Evaluation of Physiological Performance in Elite Field Hockey Players

Sports performance tracking has gained a lot of interest and widespread use in recent years, especially in elite and sub-elite sports. This makes it possible to improve the effectiveness of training, to calibrate and balance workloads according to real energy expenditure, and to reduce the likelihood of injuries due to excessive physical stress. In this context, the aim of this review was to map the scientific literature on wearable devices used in field hockey, evaluating their characteristics and the available evidence on their validity in measuring physiological and movement parameters. A systematic investigation was carried out by employing five electronic databases and search terms that incorporated field hockey, wearables, and performance analysis. Two independent reviewers conducted assessments of the 3401 titles and abstracts for inclusion, and at the end of the screening process, 102 full texts were analyzed. Lastly, a total of 23 research articles that specifically concentrated on field hockey were incorporated. The selected papers dealt with performance monitoring (6 papers), technical analysis and strategy game (6), injury prevention (1), and physiological measurements (10). To appraise the quality of the evaluations, the Oxford quality scoring system scale was employed. The extraction of information was carried out through the utilization of the participants, intervention, comparison, and outcomes (PICOS) format. The analysis encompassed research studies that implemented wearable devices during training and competitive events. Among elite field hockey competitions, GPS units were identified as the predominant wearable, followed by heart rate monitors. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) related to wearable devices showed reasonably high between-trial ICCs ranging from 0.77 to 0.99. The utilization of wearable devices in field hockey primarily centers around the measurement of player activity profiles and physiological demands. The presence of discrepancies in sampling rates and performance bands makes it arduous to draw comparisons between studies. Nevertheless, this analysis attested to the fact that wearable devices are being employed for diverse applications in the realm of field hockey.

Positional and between quarter differences in physical demands of elite female field hockey players during international matches

Objectives

The main aims of this study were to examine whether there are positional- and between-quarter differences in the physical load of elite female field hockey players during international matches.

Methods

Twenty-three international female field hockey players were equipped with Global Positioning Systems devices, while competing over nine international matches.

Results

Players covered a mean relative distance, relative player load, and distance covered in the form of low-, moderate-, and high intensity activities of 107.5 m/min, 10.3 AU/min, 41.6%, 47.9%, and 9.9%, respectively. Defenders achieved the lowest relative Player load (ES: 0.8-1.1) and greatest distance covered in the form of low intensity activities compared to Midfielders and Forwards (ES: 0.8-0.9). Forwards and Midfielders covered significantly greater distance in the form of high intensity activity compared to Defenders (ES: 1.6-2.2). Significant reductions in relative distance, relative Player load, and moderate intensity activity are observed for all positions between Quarters 1-4 despite the availability of unlimited substitutions. However, players were able to maintain their high intensity activity throughout the match with no significant differences between Quarters 1-4. The majority of variables were higher (ES > 0.2) during Quarter 2 compared to Quarter 3, especially for Midfielders and Defenders.

Conclusions

Current findings provide further evidence on the positional- and between-quarter external match load of international female field hockey players that coaches should consider when designing training programs and drills to better prepare players for match demands. The results also provide some insight into the fatigue experienced by players and the possible pacing strategies they employ during matches. These findings support the need for re-warm-ups and may further influence how coaches time their substitutions to enhance running performance in future.

Physical preparation of the Australian national male field hockey team exceeded the movement demands of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games tournament

This investigation explored differences in the pre-tournament preparation period relative to the movement demands of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games for the Australian male field-hockey team. Movement data was collected over 7 months prior to and during the 13-day Olympic tournament. Duration, distance (total; >80% individual peak velocity; >5 m.s^-1), high-speed decelerations (>3.5 m.s^-2), and total accelerations and decelerations (>2.5 m.s^-2) were measured during each running-based session. A 13-day moving sum was calculated for each variable and compared to a player-specific "worst-case scenario" (WCS) for intra-tournament total movement demands. Summed 13-day movement demands exceeded the WCS for 6-58% of the preparation period across variables, for the entire squad. During the tournament, midfielders covered significantly greater sprint distance than Defenders (+84%,p = 0.020), with no other positional differences found. Greater variation in tournament movement demands was observed between players for accelerations, decelerations, and high-speed distance (CV = 19-46%) compared to duration and distance (CV = 4-9%). In conclusion, physical preparation exposed athletes to movement demands which surpassed WCS. Additionally, gross measures of training volume (duration and distance) are more generalisable to a squad; however, additional metrics such as sprint distance and high-speed decelerations are needed to better define positional and individual movement demands, and therefore, should be monitored by practitioners.

The Physical and Physiological Match-Play Locomotor Activity Profiles of Elite Domestic Male Field Hockey

A new four-quarter match format in field hockey has meant that the locomotor activity profiles of the sport are inconsistent with the literature. The aim of this investigation was to identify the physical and physiological demands of national-level male hockey players. Thirty-two male players participated in the study. Participants were monitored with GPS and heart rate monitors. Variables analysed were total time, total distance (m), relative total distance (m.min-1), total distance in velocity bands (m), and activity intensity (m.min-1). Mean and maximum heart rate were calculated as well as total time and percentage time spent in heart rate zones relative to HRmax. Players spent 52 ± 11 min in play. The total distance covered was 5986 ± 1105 m (116 ± 12 m.min-1) with 21.4 ± 6.8 m.min-1 of high intensity activity. Defenders covered the lowest relative total distance (p < 0.001) and attackers the highest (p < 0.001). Relative total distance in Q4 was 5% lower than in Q1and Q2 (p < 0.05) with moderate intensity exercise (8.1-15.5 km.h-1) being 11% lower in Q4 compared to Q1 and Q2. The mean HR and HRmax of players were 167 ± 10 and 194 ± 11 bpm respectively. Players had a lower mean HR in Q3 (164bpm) and Q4 (164bpm) compared to Q1 (169bpm) and Q2 (168bpm; p < 0.001). The current study provides novel data outlining the physical and physiological activity profiles of national-level male field hockey players across playing positions as well as quarters of play. The results highlight a need to consider positional differences when implementing a training programme for players at national level.

Peak Running, Mechanical, and Physiological Demands of Professional Men's Field Hockey Matches

The aim of this study was to investigate the peak running, mechanical, and physiological demands of players of different positions in professional men's field hockey matches. Eighteen professional male field hockey players participated in the study, and data were collected in eleven official matches. Players wore GPS units (Vector S7, Catapult Sports) and heart rate (HR) monitors (Polar H1, Polar Electros) to collect physical and physiological data. Physical and physiological output of forwards, midfielders, and defenders in full matches and during 1-min peak periods was analysed. For all metrics and positions, the values identified for the 1-min peak periods were greater than the average values of match play (p < 0.05). In terms of 1-min peak period Player Load, all three positions were significantly different from each other. Forwards achieved the highest Player Load per minute, while defenders the lowest. The distance per minute, high-speed distance per minute, and the relative average heart rate of defenders were significantly lower than of midfielders and forwards (p < 0.05). The current study revealed the peak running, mechanical, and physiological demands of professional men's field hockey matches. It is recommended when prescribing training programmes, to consider not only match average demands, but also peak demands. Forwards and midfielders displayed similar peak demands, while defenders had the lowest demands in all metrics except the number of accelerations and decelerations per minute. Player Load per minute can be used to identify the differences in peak mechanical demands between forwards and midfielders.

A repeated shuttle sprint test with female and male international field hockey players is reliable and associated with single sprint but not intermittent endurance performance

Field hockey is a high-intensity intermittent team sport that has recently undergone a series of rule changes that have resulted in a greater demand for repeated high-intensity movements. Coaches and practitioners now require a reliable assessment of repeated accelerations, decelerations and changes of direction to assess these important match qualities. This investigation assessed the test-retest reliability of a novel 6x40m repeated shuttle sprint test (20m + 20m with a 180° turn) and its association with 40m straight line sprint and YoYo Intermittent Recovery Test performance in 28 International field hockey players (n = 14 females and n = 14 males). The sum of 6 sprint times (SUM) demonstrated ‘excellent’ (ICC = 0.94 and CV = 0.59%) and ‘good’ (ICC = 0.84 and CV = 0.75%) reliability in females and males, respectively. Best sprint time during the repeated shuttle sprint test also demonstrated suitable reliability to evaluate field hockey physical performance (ICC = 0.92 & 0.76, CV = 0.76% & 1.00% in females and males, respectively). SUM was significantly associated with 40 m straight line sprint performance in females (r = 0.90; p<0.001) and males (r = 0.92; p<0.001), but only a weak association was found with YoYo Intermittent Recovery Test performance for either group (r = 0.20; p = 0.495 & r = -0.19; p = 0.525 in females and males, respectively). In summary, field hockey testing batteries that include a repeated shuttle sprint test should consider including a test of intermittent endurance. Further, changes in SUM greater than 1.0% can be confidently interpreted by coaches and practitioners as a real change for both female and male elite field hockey players.

Increased air temperature decreases high-speed, but not total distance, in international field hockey

This study investigated the effect of heat stress on locomotor activity within international field hockey at team, positional and playing-quarter levels. Analysis was conducted on 71 matches played by the Malaysia national men’s team against 24 opponents. Fixtures were assigned to match conditions, based on air temperature [COOL (14 ± 3°C), WARM (24 ± 1°C), HOT (27 ± 1°C), or VHOT (32 ± 2°C), p < 0.001]. Relationships between locomotor metrics and air temperature (AIR), absolute and relative humidity, and wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) were investigated further using correlation and regression analyses. Increased AIR and WBGT revealed similar correlations (p < 0.01) with intensity metrics; high-speed running (AIR r = −0.51, WBGT r = −0.45), average speed (AIR r = −0.48, WBGT r = −0.46), decelerations (AIR r = −0.41, WBGT r = −0.41), sprinting efforts (AIR r = −0.40, WBGT r = −0.36), and sprinting distance (AIR r = −0.37, WBGT r = −0.29). In comparison to COOL, HOT, and VHOT matches demonstrated reduced high-speed running intensity (−14–17%; p < 0.001), average speed (−5-6%; p < 0.001), sprinting efforts (−17%; p = 0.010) and decelerations per min (−12%; p = 0.008). Interactions were found between match conditions and playing quarter for average speed (+4-7%; p = 0.002) and sprinting distance (+16-36%; p < 0.001), both of which were higher in the fourth quarter in COOL versus WARM, HOT and VHOT. There was an interaction for “low-speed” (p < 0.001), but not for “high-speed” running (p = 0.076) demonstrating the modulating effect of air temperature (particularly >25°C) on pacing within international hockey. These are the first data demonstrating the effect of air temperature on locomotor activity within international men’s hockey, notably that increased air temperature impairs high-intensity activities by 5–15%. Higher air temperatures compromise high-speed running distances between matches in hockey.

Effect of Changing Match Format from Halves to Quarters on the Performance Characteristics of Male University Field Hockey Players

The study examined whether the performance characteristics of male university field hockey players differed when the match format was 2 × 35 min halves compared to 2 × 2 × 17.5 min quarters. Thirty-five male university field hockey players (age 21.2 ± 3.0 years, height 1.81 ± 0.07 m, body mass 75.1 ± 8.9 kg), competing at national level in the UK, were monitored over 52 matches played across the 2018–2019 (2 × 35 min halves) and 2019–2020 (2 × 2 × 17.5 min quarters) seasons using 15 Hz Global Positioning System units and heart rate monitors. Total distance, high-speed running distance (≥15.5 km·h⁻¹), accelerations (≥2 m·s⁻¹), decelerations (≤−2 m·s⁻¹), average heart rate and percentage of time spent at >85% of maximum heart rate were recorded during both match formats. Two-level random intercept hierarchal models (Match—level 1, Player—level 2) suggested that the change in format from 2 × 35 min halves (2018–2019 season) to 2 × 2 × 17.5 min quarters (2019–2020 season) resulted in a reduction in total distance and high-speed running distance completed during a match (by 221 m and 120 m, respectively, both p < 0.001). As no significant cross-level interactions were observed (between season and half), the change from 35 min halves to 17.5 min quarters did not attenuate the reduced physical performance evident during the second half of matches (total distance: −235 m less in second half; high-speed running distance: −70 m less in second half; both p < 0.001). Overall, the findings suggest that the change in match format did alter the performance characteristics of male university field hockey players, but the quarter format actually reduced the total distance and high-speed running distance completed during matches, and did not attenuate the reduction in performance seen during the second half of matches.

Wearable Technologies in Field Hockey Competitions: A Scoping Review

The aim of this review is to investigate the common wearable devices currently used in field hockey competitions, and to understand the hockey-specific parameters these devices measure. A systematic search was conducted by using three electronic databases and search terms that included field hockey, wearables, accelerometers, inertial sensors, global positioning system (GPS), heart rate monitors, load, performance analysis, player activity profiles, and competitions from the earliest record. The review included 39 studies that used wearable devices during competitions. GPS units were found to be the most common wearable in elite field hockey competitions, followed by heart rate monitors. Wearables in field hockey are mostly used to measure player activity profiles and physiological demands. Inconsistencies in sampling rates and performance bands make comparisons between studies challenging. Nonetheless, this review demonstrated that wearable devices are being used for various applications in field hockey. Researchers, engineers, coaches, and sport scientists can consider using GPS units of higher sampling rates, as well as including additional variables such as skin temperatures and injury associations, to provide a more thorough evaluation of players’ physical and physiological performances. Future work should include goalkeepers and non-elite players who are less studied in the current literature.

Peak Running Intensities in Field Hockey - A Positional Analysis

The aim of this study was to investigate the positional mean peak running periods during a field hockey match using a moving average method. The secondary aim was to investigate how the peak periods changed between quarters and playing positions. The moving average method was used to analyse the data because of the nature of field hockey, which has natural fluctuations of high and low intensity periods of play. The time periods included periods from 1 to 10 minutes. The level of significance for results was set at p ≤ 0.05. The study found that forwards had a peak running intensity of 194 ± 24.2 m·min^-1, midfielders 189 ± 11.9 m·min^-1, and defenders 182.6 ± 17.9 m·min^-1. These results showed that forwards had the highest maximum running speed, with defenders having the lowest one (p = 0.0025). Additionally, running output started to plateau after 7/8-min periods for each of the three positions. Forwards did not show any statistically significant changes across the four quarters. Midfielders showed effect sizes ranging from >0.6 to >2.0 (moderate, large and very large) significance when comparing the first three quarters to the fourth one. Defenders showed >0.6 to <2.0 (moderate to large) effect sizes to occur when comparing the first and second quarter to the fourth. There are three main practical implications from the results of this study: 1) the creation of conditioning drills, 2) substitution patterns, and 3) knowledge to be able to plan and train at or above peak match demands.

The Quantification of Acceleration Events in Elite Team Sport: a Systematic Review

Background

Wearable tracking devices are commonly utilised to quantify the external acceleration load of team sport athletes during training and competition. The ability to accelerate is an important attribute for athletes in many team sports. However, there are many different acceleration metrics that exist in team sport research. This review aimed to provide researchers and practitioners with a clear reporting framework on acceleration variables by outlining the different metrics and calculation processes that have been adopted to quantify acceleration loads in team sport research.

Methods

A systematic review of three electronic databases (CINAHL, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus), was performed to identify peer-reviewed studies that published external acceleration load in elite team sports during training and/or competition. Articles published between January 2010 and April 2020 were identified using Boolean search phrases in relation to team sports (population), acceleration/deceleration (comparators), and competition and/or training (outcome). The included studies were required to present external acceleration and/or deceleration load (of any magnitude) from able-bodied athletes (mean age ≥ 18 years) via wearable technologies.

Results

A total of 124 research articles qualified for inclusion. In total, 113/124 studies utilised GPS/GNSS technology to outline the external acceleration load of athletes. Count-based metrics of acceleration were predominant of all metrics in this review (72%). There was a lack of information surrounding the calculation process of acceleration with 13% of studies specifying the filter used in the processing of athlete data, whilst 32% outlined the minimum effort duration (MED). Markers of GPS/GNSS data quality, including horizontal dilution of precision (HDOP) and the average number of satellites connected, were outlined in 24% and 27% of studies respectively.

Conclusions

Team sport research has predominantly quantified external acceleration load in training and competition with count-based metrics. Despite the influence of data filtering processes and MEDs upon acceleration, this information is largely omitted from team sport research. Future research that outlines acceleration load should present filtering processes, MEDs, HDOP, and the number of connected satellites. For GPS/GNSS systems, satellite planning tools should document evidence of available satellites for data collection to analyse tracking device performance. The development of a consistent acceleration filtering method should be established to promote consistency in the research of external athlete acceleration loads.

Volume and Intensity of Locomotor Activity in International Men's Field Hockey Matches Over a 2-Year Period

The locomotor demands of international men's field hockey matches were investigated across positions (DEF, MID, FWD) and playing quarters. Volume (i.e., total values) and intensity (i.e., relative to playing time) data were collected using 10-Hz GPS/100-Hz accelerometer units from the #11 world-ranked (WR) team, during 71 matches, against 24 opponents [WR 12 ± 11 (range, 1–60)]. Mean ± SD team total distance (TD) was 4,861 ± 871 m, with 25% (1,193 ± 329 m) “high-speed running” (>14.5 km h⁻¹) and 8% (402 ± 144 m) “sprinting” (>19.0 km h⁻¹). Reduced TD (range, −3 to 4%) and average speed (range, −3.4 to 4.7%) occurred through subsequent quarters, vs. Q1 (p < 0.05). A “large” negative relationship (r = −0.64) was found between playing duration and average speed. Positional differences (p < 0.05) were identified for all volume metrics including; playing duration (DEF, 45:50 ± 8:00 min; MID, 37:37 ± 7:12 min; FWD, 33:32 ± 6:22 min), TD (DEF, 5,223 ± 851 m; MID, 4,945 ± 827 m; FWD, 4,453 ± 741 m), sprinting distance (DEF, 315 ± 121 m; MID, 437 ± 144 m; FWD, 445 ± 129 m), and acceleration efforts (>2 m s⁻²; DEF, 48 ± 12; MID, 51 ± 11; FWD, 50 ± 14). Intensity variables similarly revealed positional differences (p < 0.05) but with a different pattern between positions; average speed (DEF, 115 ± 10 m min⁻¹; MID, 132 ± 10 m min⁻¹; FWD, 134 ± 15 m min⁻¹), sprinting (DEF, 7 ± 3 m min⁻¹; MID, 12 ± 4 m min⁻¹; FWD, 14 ± 4 m min⁻¹), and accelerations (DEF, 1.1 ± 0.3 n min⁻¹; MID, 1.4 ± 0.2 n min⁻¹; FWD, 1.5 ± 0.3 n min⁻¹). Physical outputs reduced across playing quarters, despite unlimited substitutions, demonstrating the importance of optimizing physical preparation prior to international competition. Volume and intensity data highlight specific positional requirements, with forwards displaying shorter playing durations but greater high-intensity activities than defenders.

In-Season Repeated-Sprint Training in Hypoxia in International Field Hockey Players

Repeated-sprint training in hypoxia (RSH) studies conducted “in-season” are scarce. This study investigated the effect of discontinuous, running-based RSH, on repeated-sprint treadmill performance in hypoxia in a team sport cohort, prior to international competition. Over a 6-week “in-season” period, 11 elite male players (Malaysia national team) completed eight multi-set RSH sessions on a non-motorized treadmill in a normobaric hypoxic chamber (FiO₂ = 13.8%). Three testing sessions (Sessions 1, 5, and 8), involved three sets of 5 × 8-s sprints, with 52-s recovery between sprints and 4–5 min between sets. Training sessions (Sessions 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7) consisted of four to five sets of 4–5 × 8-s sprints. During testing sessions, maximum sprinting speed was recorded for each sprint with values averaged for each set. For each set, a peak speed and fatigue index were calculated. Data were compared using two-way repeated measures ANOVA (sessions × sets). Average speed per set increased between testing sessions (p = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.49), with higher values in Session 8 (25.1 ± 0.9 km.h⁻¹, +4 ± 3%, p = 0.005), but not Session 5 (24.8 ± 1.0 km.h⁻¹, +3 ± 3%, p = 0.405), vs. Session 1 (24.2 ± 1.5 km.h⁻¹). Peak sprinting speed in each set also increased across testing sessions (p = 0.008, ηp2 = 0.382), with Session 8 (26.5 ± 1.1 km.h⁻¹) higher than Session 5 (25.8 ± 1.0 km.h⁻¹, +1 ± 4%, p = 0.06) and Session 1 (25.7 ± 1.5 km.h⁻¹, +4 ± 4%, p = 0.034). Fatigue index differed between sessions (p = 0.04, ηp2 = 0.331, Session 1; −6.8 ± 4.8%, Session 5; −3.8 ± 2%, Session 8; −5.3 ± 2.6%). In international field hockey players, a 6-week in-season RSH program improved average and peak, repeated treadmill sprint speeds following eight, but not five sessions.

High-Intensity Acceleration and Deceleration Demands in Elite Team Sports Competitive Match Play: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies

BACKGROUND

The external movement loads imposed on players during competitive team sports are commonly measured using global positioning system devices. Information gleaned from analyses is employed to calibrate physical conditioning and injury prevention strategies with the external loads imposed during match play. Intense accelerations and decelerations are considered particularly important indicators of external load. However, to date, no prior meta-analysis has compared high and very high intensity acceleration and deceleration demands in elite team sports during competitive match play.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to quantify and compare high and very high intensity acceleration vs. deceleration demands occurring during competitive match play in elite team sport contexts.

METHODS

A systematic review of four electronic databases (CINAHL, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science) was conducted to identify peer-reviewed articles published between January 2010 and April 2018 that had reported higher intensity (> 2.5 m·s-2) accelerations and decelerations concurrently in elite team sports competitive match play. A Boolean search phrase was developed using key words synonymous to team sports (population), acceleration and deceleration (comparators) and match play (outcome). Articles only eligible for meta-analysis were those that reported either or both high (> 2.5 m·s-2) and very high (> 3.5 m·s-2) intensity accelerations and decelerations concurrently using global positioning system devices (sampling rate: ≥ 5 Hz) during elite able-bodied (mean age: ≥ 18 years) team sports competitive match play (match time: ≥ 75%). Separate inverse random-effects meta-analyses were conducted to compare: (1) standardised mean differences (SMDs) in the frequency of high and very high intensity accelerations and decelerations occurring during match play, and (2) SMDs of temporal changes in high and very high intensity accelerations and decelerations across first and second half periods of match play. Using recent guidelines recommended for the collection, processing and reporting of global positioning system data, a checklist was produced to help inform a judgement about the methodological limitations (risk of detection bias) aligned to 'data collection', 'data processing' and 'normative profile' for each eligible study. For each study, each outcome was rated as either 'low', 'unclear' or 'high' risk of bias.

RESULTS

A total of 19 studies met the eligibility criteria, comprising seven team sports including American Football (n = 1), Australian Football (n = 2), hockey (n = 1), rugby league (n = 4), rugby sevens (n = 3), rugby union (n = 2) and soccer (n = 6) with a total of 469 male participants (mean age: 18-29 years). Analysis showed only American Football reported a greater frequency of high (SMD = 1.26; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.06-1.43) and very high (SMD = 0.19; 95% CI - 0.42 to 0.80) intensity accelerations compared to decelerations. All other sports had a greater frequency of high and very high intensity decelerations compared to accelerations, with soccer demonstrating the greatest difference for both the high (SMD = - 1.74; 95% CI - 1.28 to - 2.21) and very high (SMD = - 3.19; 95% CI - 2.05 to - 4.33) intensity categories. When examining the temporal changes from the first to the second half periods of match play, there was a small decrease in both the frequency of high and very high intensity accelerations (SMD = 0.50 and 0.49, respectively) and decelerations (SMD = 0.42 and 0.46, respectively). The greatest risk of bias (40% 'high' risk of bias) observed across studies was in the 'data collection' procedures. The lowest risk of bias (35% 'low' risk of bias) was found in the development of a 'normative profile'.

CONCLUSIONS

To ensure that elite players are optimally prepared for the high-intensity accelerations and decelerations imposed during competitive match play, it is imperative that players are exposed to comparable demands under controlled training conditions. The results of this meta-analysis, accordingly, can inform practical training designs. Finally, guidelines and recommendations for conducting future research, using global positioning system devices, are suggested.