Power-Related Determinants of Modified Agility T-test Performance in Male Adolescent Basketball Players

Kinetic and Kinematic Characteristics Underpinning Change of Direction Performance in Basketball: A Comparative Study Between Sexes and Tests

ABSTRACT

Baena-Raya, A, Díez-Fernández, DM, Martínez-Rubio, C, Conceição, F, and López-Sagarra, A. Kinetic and kinematic characteristics underpinning change of direction performance in basketball: A comparative study between sexes and tests. J Strength Cond Res 38(4): e182-e188, 2024-This study (a) evaluated the sex-specific kinetic and kinematic outcomes underpinning change of direction (COD) performance, (b) compared these outcomes across 3 different COD tests, and (c) examined the sex-specific and test-specific outcome most strongly related to COD performance in basketball players. Thirty young basketball players (17 males and 13 females) competing at the national level were assessed for the modified 505 test, modified T test, and V-cut test. The Local Positioning System technology (WIMU PRO, Realtrack Systems S.L., Almería, Spain) was used to measure the maximum values of acceleration (ACC max ), deceleration (DEC max ), velocity (VEL max ), and centripetal force (CentF max ) in each COD test. Male players displayed greater ACC max , VEL max , DEC max , and CentF max outputs for each section of the 505 test, T test, and V-cut test (all p < 0.05), resulting in a faster COD performance than females across tests (all ES > -1.42; 95% CI = -3.45 to -0.57). The 505 test demanded significantly greater kinematic outputs than T test and V-cut test for both sexes ( p < 0.01). The ACC max explained ∼26-58% of the variability in COD time for males across tests ( p < 0.05) and 40% in females' modified 505-test time ( p < 0.05). Likewise, in females, DEC max explained 38% of the modified T -test time variability, whereas VEL max explained 53% in the V-cut test time (both p < 0.05). These findings suggest that (a) COD data should not be used interchangeably across sexes, (b) test specificities should be considered for designing COD training, and (c) the kinematic outcomes explaining COD performance might vary across sexes.

Association between Lower Body Qualities and Change-of-Direction Performance: A Meta-Analysis

The aim of the present study is to determine the associations between lower body muscle strength qualities and change of direction (CoD) performance. Three databases were used to perform a systematic literature search up to September 30, 2022. Based on the studies that met the inclusion criteria, we calculated Pearson's r correlation coefficient to examine the relationships between muscle strength qualities and CoD performance. The quality of the studies included was evaluated by the modified version of the Downs and Black Quality Index Tool. Heterogeneity was determined via the Q statistic and I 2, and Egger's test was used to assess small study bias. The results revealed that lower body maximal strength (pooled: r=- 0.54, dynamic: r=- 0.60, static: r=- 0.41), joint strength (pooled: r=- 0.59, EXT-ecc: r=- 0.63, FLEX-ecc: r=- 0.59), reactive strength (r=- 0.42) and power (pooled: r=- 0.45, jump height: r=- 0.41, jump distance: r=- 0.60, peak power: r=- 0.41) were negatively and moderately related to CoD performance. To conclude, the results highlight that a number of muscle strength qualities are associated with CoD performance and are pertinent to specific phases of a directional change. It should be noted that the conclusions of this study do not establish causality, and further research is needed to better understand their training effects and underlying mechanisms.

Effects of Different Recovery Modalities on Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness, Recovery Perceptions, and Performance Following a Bout of High-Intensity Functional Training

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the foam rolling technique and static stretching on perceptual and neuromuscular parameters following a bout of high-intensity functional training (HIFT), which consisted of 100 pull-ups, 100 push-ups, 100 sit-ups, and 100 air squats (Angie benchmark) in recreationally trained men (n = 39). Following baseline measurements (Feeling Scale, Visual Analogue Scale, Total Quality Recovery, Sit-and-Reach, Countermovement Jump, and Change-of-Direction t-test), the volunteers performed a single bout of HIFT. At the end of the session, participants were randomly assigned to one of three distinct groups: control (CONT), foam rolling (FR), or static stretching (SS). At the 24 h time-point, a second experimental session was conducted to obtain the post-test values. The level of significance was set at p < 0.05. Regarding power performance, none of the three groups reached pretest levels at 24 h point of the intervention. However, the CONT group still showed a greater magnitude of effect at the 24 h time-point (ES = 0.51, p ≥ 0.05). Flexibility presented the same recovery pattern as power performance (post × 24 h CONT = ES = 0.28, FR = ES = 0.21, SS = ES = 0.19). At 24 h, all groups presented an impaired performance in the COD t-test (CONT = ES = 0.24, FR = ES = 0.65, SS = ES = 0.56 p ≥ 0.05). The FR protocol resulted in superior recovery perceptions (pre × 24 h TQR = ES = 0.32 p ≥ 0.05). The results of the present study indicate that the use of FR and SS exercises may not be indicated when aiming to restore neuromuscular performance following a single bout of HIFT. The use of the FR technique during the cooldown phase of a HIFT session may be helpful in improving an individual's perception of recovery.

Change of Direction Performance and its Physical Determinants Among Young Basketball Male Players

The main aim of the present study was to examine the effects of the age group (U-15, U-17 and U-19) on change of direction (COD) performance and its specific physical determinants among young basketball male players. Thirty-one young male basketball players (13-18 years) volunteered to participate in this study. The sample was divided into 3 age groups (U-15, U-17, U-19). All the evaluations were carried out in the same order in 3 sessions as follows: 1) body composition, self-reported sexual maturation, COD performance, and intermittent endurance capacity; 2) reactive strength index (RSI), 15-m sprint, and repeated sprint ability (RSA) test; 3) vertical and horizontal jumps and lower-limb strength. The results showed significant differences between groups for age, sexual maturation, endurance capacity, horizontal and vertical jump performances, RSI, COD, RSA, and lower-limb strength (p < 0.05). Significant correlations were identified between COD performances and some physical determinants such as jumping ability and RSA performance (-0.43 < r < 0.85; p ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, there are age effects on COD performance and its specific physical determinants among young basketball male players. The associations between COD performance and its determinants should be considered by practitioners when programing athletic talent development for this population.

Relationship Among the Change of Direction Ability, Sprinting, Jumping Performance, Aerobic Power and Anaerobic Speed Reserve: A Cross-Sectional Study in Elite 3x3 Basketball Players

The main purpose of this study was to determine the relationships among sprinting performance, change of direction ability (COD), change of direction deficit (CODD), and aerobic power expressed by maximal oxygen velocity (V_maxIFT), anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) as well as jumping performance (countermovement jump with (CMJa) and without an arm swing (CMJ)) in elite 3x3 basketball players. A total of 15 Polish Olympic 3x3 team players (age: 26.86 ± 8.28 years; body height: 191 ± 5.33 cm; body mass: 90.68 ± 10.03 kg, basketball experience: 15.53 ± 5.8 years) participated in the study. Athletes were tested for the following measures: the linear speed at the first section (5 m), the second section (9 m), the third section (10 m) and total distance (24 m), two sets; the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test (first session); COD speed by the Change of Direction and Acceleration Test (CODAT) (the same sections and total distance as in the linear speed test), five repetitions, two sets; and jumping performance by the CMJ with and without an arm swing (second session). CODD was calculated by subtracting the COD speed time from linear speed time at adequate sections and total distance. Maximal sprinting speed (MSS), maximal aerobic velocity (V_maxIFT), and anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) were also considered. Anaerobic Speed Reserve (ASR) was calculated as the difference between MSS and V_maxIFT. A Pearson's correlation test was used to determine the relationship between power-speed-related variables and CODD, final velocity attained at the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test (V_maxIFT), ASR, and COD performance. Moderate to strong correlations were registered between COD and linear speed at 5, 10, and 24 m, while moderate to strong negative correlations were detected between COD, CODD, and CMJ, CMJa. Moreover, moderate to strong correlations were observed between COD, CODD, and V_maxIFT, MSS at 9, 10, and 24 m sprints. No relationship was detected between COD, CODD, LS, and ASR in any measured sector. Finally, statistically significant differences were registered in COD and CODD between trial 1 and trial 2.

Reliability and Effectiveness of a Lateral Countermovement Jump for Stratifying Shuffling Performance Amongst Elite Basketball Players

Though research suggests that basketball players spend approximately 31% of game actions shuffling laterally, limited data are available on the kinetic factors that separate fast and slow shufflers. The purpose of this study was twofold: (1.) Examine the reliability of kinetic metrics from a single-leg Lateral Countermovement Jump (LCMJ) (2.) Determine if kinetic metrics from the LCMJ can stratify above (i.e., “fast”) or below (i.e., “slow”) median shuffling performance. Twenty professional basketball players participated in the reliability study (21.7 ± 3.5 years, 1.98 ± 0.1 m; 89.9 ± 10.9 kg). One hundred seven professional and thirty-three collegiate basketball players (N = 140) (22.7 ± 3.5 years, 2.0 ± 0.1 m; 98.4 ± 11.9 kg) participated in the experimental study examining the ability of LCMJ kinetics to stratify shuffling performance. Reliability was assessed using Bland−Altman plots, coefficients of variation (CVs), typical errors (TEs), and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). Anthropometric and LCMJ kinetic differences between fast and slow shufflers were assessed with an independent t-test. Four kinetic metrics (peak vertical force, peak lateral force, relative lateral force, and lateral impulse) met within- and between-session reliability thresholds (CV < 10% and ICC > 0.70). Faster shufflers generated significantly more relative lateral force than their slower counterparts (9.51 ± 0.8 Nx/kg vs. 8.9 ± 0.9 Nx/kg, %Diff 6.3, p < 0.00007, ES = 0.70). Basketball practitioners who have access to triaxial force plates may consider adding the LCMJ into their testing battery, as relative lateral force is a reliable metric that can stratify fast and slow shufflers.

Alternatives to common approaches for training change of direction performance: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Research focuses heavily upon the effect of strength and power training on change of direction performance. The objective of this scoping review is to highlight alternative approaches to training change of direction.

METHODS

Four databases (Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science and SPORTDiscus) were searched with no date restrictions. To be included studies must (i) investigate change of direction performance following an intervention or investigate the relationships between variables of interest and change of direction performance; (ii) recruit participants > 18 years old; (iii) recruit participants involved in competitive sport. The majority of included studies investigated the effect of strength and/or power training, or, relationships between strength and/or power variables with change of direction performance.

RESULTS

Despite fewer studies, alternative training methods resulted in greater improvements (compared with strength and/or power) in change of direction performance, with smaller training durations. Few studies included reactive agility as an outcome measure.

CONCLUSION

Despite much of the literature focusing on strength and/or power, there are alternative training modalities that demonstrate merit for improving change of direction performance. Future studies should investigate the effect of alternative training interventions on reactive agility performance, to provide a more valid indication of transfer to competition.

Effects of Walking Football During Ramadan Fasting on Heart Rate Variability and Physical Fitness in Healthy Middle-Aged Males

This study aimed to investigate the effect of a walking football (WF) program during Ramadan fasting (RF) on heart rate variability (HRV) indices, body composition, and physical fitness in middle-aged males. Thirty-one healthy sedentary men were randomized to WF (n = 18) and control (n = 13) groups. Both groups participated in RF. The WF group were involved in a training program (small-sided games) of three sessions a week during RF. The time and frequency domains of HRV, body composition, handgrip, lumbar strength, Modified Agility Test (MAT), and 6-minute walk test (6MWT) were measured before Ramadan (BR), during Ramadan (DR), and after Ramadan (AR). We reported that RF has significantly altered some parameters of HRV DR; the mean HR decreased while the mean RR, LF, and HF increased. WF had a significant effect on HRV and mean HR DR compared with BR and AR decreased while mean RR, HF and LF increased. DR, body mass decreased in both groups, while body mass index (BMI) decreased and lean mass increased only in WF group. Lower body mass and BMI levels were reported AR only in WF group. Physical capacity improved AR, compared with BR, only in the WF group with longer distance in 6MWT, shorter time(s) in MAT, and higher lumbar strength levels. We conclude that RF increases parasympathetic system activity. WF practice during RF is safe and might improve body composition, physical fitness, autonomic cardiac function, and physical fitness in middle-aged males.

Anthropometric and Power-Related Attributes Differ Between Competition Levels in Age-Matched Under-19-Year-Old Male Basketball Players

PURPOSE

To compare anthropometric and power-related attributes between competition levels in under-19-year-old (U19) male basketball players.

METHODS

National-level (n = 7; age: 17.7 [0.5] y), first-division state-level (n = 8; 17.4 [0.4] y), and second-division state-level (n = 8; 17.1 [0.4] y) players from Australian basketball programs participated in this pilot study. Players had various anthropometric attributes (height, standing reach height, wingspan, and body mass) and power-related attributes (isometric midthigh pull, linear sprint, countermovement jump, 1-step vertical jump, standing long jump, repeated lateral bound, and Modified Agility T Test) measured in the preseason. Differences between groups were assessed using 1-way analyses of variance with Tukey post hoc tests and effect sizes (ES) interpreted as trivial, <0.20; small, 0.20 to 0.59; moderate, 0.60 to 1.19; large, 1.20 to 1.99; and very large, ≥2.00.

RESULTS

Regarding anthropometric attributes, national-level players possessed greater (P < .05, large-very large) height (ES = 2.09), standing reach height (ES = 1.54), wingspan (ES = 1.45), and body mass (ES = 1.77) than second-division state-level players. For power-related attributes, national-level players possessed greater (P < .05, large-very large) isometric midthigh-pull peak force (ES = 1.46-2.57), sprint momentum (ES = 1.17-2.18), and countermovement jump peak force (ES = 1.73-2.01) than state-level players. Moreover, national-level players demonstrated greater (P < .05) 1-step vertical jump height (ES = 1.95, large) than second division state-level players.

CONCLUSIONS

Specific anthropometric and power-related attributes clearly differ between competition levels in U19 male basketball players. This information can inform development of testing protocols, reference ranges, and training programs in practice. Further research is encouraged on this topic to confirm our findings across larger samples of basketball players.

Change of Direction Speed Tests in Basketball Players: A Brief Review of Test Varieties and Recent Trends

Change of direction speed (CODS) is essential for basketball performance, extensively assessed by various tests. This review aimed to summarize the CODS test varieties for basketball players on publications until 2019 and identify recent trends regarding what types of tests have gained attention in the 2010s. Electronic literature searches were conducted using three databases with relevant keywords. 104 studies were found eligible, conducting CODS tests 159 times in total with 48 test varieties. To facilitate distinctions between the tests, each test was categorized into one of three types based on the distinctive movement characteristics and changing angles as follows: Defensive (involving lateral shuffling), 180°-turn (exerting only 180°-turns), and Cutting (performing diagonal- or side-cut). We then counted the number of publications and adopted times reported per year for each test, and calculated the adoption rate for each categorized test type. The first CODS test performed in basketball players was the T-Test, reported in 1991, and this was the most commonly adopted test (44/159 times). The 2010s saw abrupt increases in the number of publications (1990s-2000s-2010s: 5-9-90) and test varieties (4-7-44). The adoption rates in the 2010s were similar among the three types (i.e., Defensive/180°-turn/Cutting: 37%/30%/33%), with the Cutting type gradually increasing over the last three decades (1990s-2000s-2010s: 0%-9%-33%). These results suggest that while CODS performances in basketball players are increasingly studied with various tests, recent studies give equal weight to all of the three categorized test types, with increasing adoption of the Cutting type, to assess specific CODS performances.

The effect of silicone ankle sleeves and lace-up ankle braces on neuromuscular control, joint torque, and cutting agility

Objective

To evaluate the effects of silicone ankle sleeves (SASs) and lace-up ankle braces (LABs) on neuromuscular control, net joint torques, and cutting agility in healthy, active individuals.

Design

Markerless motion-capture technology tracked subjects fitted with SASs, LABs, or no brace while they performed the movements: Y-excursion, left cutting, right cutting, single-leg drop vertical jump (SLDVJ), 45-degree bound, and single-leg squat (SLS).

Setting

University Laboratory.

Participants

Ten healthy, active individuals (5 males and 5 females, mean ± SD 23.60 ± 1.43 years of age).

Main outcome measures

Degrees of joint range of motion (ROM), Newton-meters of joint torque, time to perform a cutting maneuver.

Results

SASs and LABs resulted in significantly different knee and ankle ROM and hip internal rotation in the SLDVJ, SLS, Y-excursion, cutting maneuver, and 45-degree bound when compared to control (p < .05). Both ankle and knee torque were significantly reduced in the 45-degree bound and cutting movements with both types of PABs (p < .05). There were minimal differences between the SASs and LABs for all conditions. There were no statistically significant differences in cutting times for any of the 3 conditions.

Conclusion

Both SAS and LAB positively impacted neuromuscular control, reduced net joint torque, and neither impaired cutting agility when compared to control.

Importance of Agility Performance in Professional Futsal Players; Reliability and Applicability of Newly Developed Testing Protocols

The purpose of this study was to determine the inter- and intra-testing reliability of newly developed tests of the change of direction speed (CODS) and reactive agility (RAG) in competitive futsal players. Additionally, the developed tests were evaluated for their validity with regard to the differentiation of two performance-levels. Thirty-two professional male futsal players (age = 26.22 ± 5.22 years; body height = 182.13 ± 5.99 cm, body mass = 77.43 ± 8.00 kg) participated in the study. The sample was divided into two groups based on their level of futsal performance: A top-level-group (n = 12) and a team-level-group (n = 20). The variables included body height, mass, body mass index, a sprint over a 10-m distance (S10M), and eight newly developed futsal specific CODS and RAG tests. The CODS and RAG tests were performed by dribbling the balls (CODS_D and RAG_D) and without dribbling (CODS_T and RAG_T), and the performances on the dominant and non-dominant sides were observed separately. All CODS, and RAG tests performed on dominant side and RAG_T tests performed on the non-dominant side had good inter-testing (CV = 5–8%; ICC = 0.76–0.89) and intra-testing (CV = 4–9%; ICC = 0.77–0.91) reliability. However, RAG_D performed on the non-dominant side was not reliable (ICC = 0.60, CV = 10%). The top-level-players outperformed the team-level-players in the CODS and RAG tests that involved dribbling (t-test: 4.28 and 2.40, p < 0.05; effect sizes (ES): 0.81 and 1.5, respectively), while the team-level players achieved better results in the CODS_T (t-test: 2.08, p < 0.05; ES: 0.60). The proposed CODS and RAG tests that involved dribbling over a 3.2-m distance, especially on the dominant side, appeared to be reliable, as well as valid for distinguishing the performance level in futsal players.