Positional role and competitive-level differences in elite-level men's basketball players

Changes in Countermovement Vertical Jump Force-Time Metrics During a Game in Professional Male Basketball Players

ABSTRACT

Cabarkapa, D, Johnson, QR, Cabarkapa, DV, Philipp, NM, Eserhaut, DA, and Fry, AC. Changes in countermovement vertical jump force-time metrics during a game in professional male basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 38(7): 1326-1329, 2024-As technology within elite basketball advances and is more available to sporting organizations, novel approaches for assessing and addressing athletic performance during practice or competition are being continuously explored. The aim of this investigation was to examine changes in neuromuscular performance during live basketball play. Eight professional male basketball players volunteered to participate in this study. The testing procedures were conducted during a pre-tournament camp over a span of 2 days. During the first day, the athletes were familiarized with the testing procedures, and baseline measurements were obtained. Using a uni-axial force plate system sampling at 1,000 Hz, each athlete performed 3 countermovement vertical jumps (CVJ) without an arm swing before proceeding with their regular training activities. During the second day of the pre-tournament camp, the athletes repeated identical CVJ testing procedures before the start of the first quarter and post-first, second, third, and fourth quarter of a simulated 5-on-5 basketball game. Repeated-measures testing design was used to examine statistically significant differences in various force-time metrics of interest in comparison to the baseline levels (p < 0.05). Besides a trivial decrease in eccentric mean force, the findings of this study revealed no statistically significant changes in any force-time metrics of interest within both eccentric and concentric phases of the CVJ (i.e., mean and peak force and power, jump height, impulse, velocity, and contraction time). Thus, we can conclude that these variables were not sensitive to acute fatigue, suggesting that the neuromuscular performances of professional male basketball players tend to remain unchanged throughout a 5-on-5 simulated game.

The influence of physical fitness qualities, individual characteristics and contextual factors on youth basketball players' perceived exertion and recovery responses to official games

BACKGROUND

This study examined the influence of physical fitness qualities, individual characteristics, and contextual factors on perceived exertion and recovery responses to official games in youth basketball players.

METHODS

Twenty-six males (age: 15.8±1.2 years; 12 guards, 9 forwards, and 5 centers) and 7 females (age: 16.1±0.9 years; 3 guards, 4 forwards) were monitored for an entire basketball season (N.=635 observations). Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery (level 1) and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests were administered, with players categorized as high and low Yo-Yo and CMJ groups according to test results. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were collected after each official game. Before the game and the day after, the Total Quality of Recovery (scores) were collected, and the difference between post- and pregame TQR was calculated (TQRΔ). Separate linear mixed models evaluated the effects of sex (M; F), fitness qualities (high Yo-Yo; low Yo-Yo) (high CMJ; low CMJ), playing position (guard; forward; center), game outcome (won; loss) and game location (home; away).

RESULTS

Male players reported higher RPE (7.0±0.3) than females (5.5±0.4) (P=0.003, effect size [ES]: moderate). Players with high Yo-Yo performance also reported higher RPE (6.7±0.4) than low Yo-Yo (5.8±0.3) (P=0.049, ES: small). TQRΔ was higher in guards (-1.3±0.2) than forwards (-0.8±0.2) (P=0.041, ES: trivial), and lower after lost games (-0.8±0.2) compared to won games (-1.2±0.2) (P=0.002, ES: small).

CONCLUSIONS

In youth basketball, postgame perceived exertion and recovery responses are influenced by players' sex, intermittent endurance capacity, and game outcome. Current findings can help youth basketball practitioners to better understand their players' performances and perceptual responses.

Effects of Four Weeks of In-Season Pre-Workout Supplementation on Performance, Body Composition, Muscle Damage, and Health-Related Markers in Basketball Players: A Randomized Controlled Study

This randomized, double-blinded, experimental study investigated the effects of a four-week daily pre-workout supplementation (200 mg caffeine, 3.3 g creatine monohydrate, 3.2 g β-alanine, 6 g citrulline malate, and 5 g BCAA) vs. placebo (isocaloric maltodextrin) on anaerobic (jumping, sprinting, agility, and the running-based anaerobic sprint test: RAST) and aerobic (Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1) performance, as well as on body composition and selective muscle damage/health-related blood markers in well-trained basketball players during the in-season period. Eighteen basketball players (age: 24.4 ± 6.3 years, height: 185.7 ± 8.0 cm, weight: 85.7 ± 12.8 kg, body fat: 16.5 ± 4.2%) were randomly assigned into two groups: pre-workout supplement (PWS, n = 10) or placebo (PL, n = 8). PWS consumption increased aerobic performance (PWS: 8 ± 6%; PL: -2 ± 6%; p = 0.004) compared to PL. A significant decrease was observed in peak (F = 7.0; p = 0.017), average (F = 10.7; p = 0.005), and minimum power (F = 5.1; p = 0.039) following 4 weeks of supplementation in both groups. No other significant changes were observed between groups (p > 0.05). In conclusion, the consumption of the current PWS over a four-week period appears to positively influence the aerobic performance of well-trained basketball players during the in-season period. However, it does not appear to mitigate the observed decline in anaerobic power, nor does it affect performance in jumping, sprinting, and agility, or alter body composition or selective muscle damage/health-related blood markers.

HIIT serves as an efficient training strategy for basketball players by improving blood fluidity and decreasing oxidative stress

BACKGROUND

A challenge for coaches and athletes is to find the best combination of exercises during training. Considering its favorable effects, HIIT has been very popular recently.

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this study was to investigate anthropometric features, performance, erythrocyte deformability, plasma viscosity (PV) and oxidative stress in response to acute and long-term (6 weeks) HIIT in adolescent basketball players.

METHODS

22 sportsmen between the ages of 14-16 were included. Tabata protocol was applied to the HIIT group in addition to their routine training program 3 days/week, for 6 weeks. Erythrocyte deformability was determined using an ectacytometer (LORCA), PV with a rotational viscometer. Total oxidant status (TOS), total antioxidant status (TAS) were measured by kits.

RESULTS

HIIT for 6 weeks induced an improvement in performance tests and waist circumference. 6 weeks of HIIT resulted in a decrement, while the last exercise session yielded an increment in RBC deformability. PV and TOS of HIIT groups were decreased on the 6th week.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that, HIIT in addition to the routine exercise program is beneficial for improving performance and blood fluidity as well as decreasing oxidative stress in basketball players. Therefore, HIIT seems as an efficient training strategy for highly-trained individuals.

Differences in countermovement vertical jump force-time metrics between starting and non-starting professional male basketball players

With force plates being widely implemented for neuromuscular performance assessment in sport-specific settings and various force-time metrics being able to differentiate athletes based on their performance capabilities, the purpose of the present study was to examine the differences in countermovement vertical jump (CVJ) characteristics between starting and non-starting professional male basketball players (e.g., ABA League). Twenty-three athletes (height = 199.2 ± 7.7 kg, body mass = 94.2 ± 8.2 kg, age = 23.8 ± 4.9 years) volunteered to participate in the present investigation. Upon completion of a standardized warm-up protocol, each athlete performed three maximal-effort CVJs without an arm swing while standing on a uni-axial force plate system sampling at 1,000 Hz. Independent t-tests were used to examine statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in each force-time metric between starters (n = 10) and non-starters (n = 13). No significant differences in any of the CVJ force-time metrics of interest were observed between the two groups, during both the eccentric and concentric phases of the movement (i.e., impulse, duration, peak velocity, and mean and peak force and power). Moreover, starters and non-starters demonstrated similar performance on CVJ outcome (e.g., jump height) and strategy metrics (e.g., countermovement depth). Overall, these findings suggest that at the professional level of play, the ability to secure a spot in the starting lineup is not primarily determined by the players' CVJ performance characteristics.

Effect of individualised strength and plyometric training on the physical performance of basketball players

The aims of this study were to examine the effects of eight weeks of individualised force-velocity imbalance (F-Vimb) training on physical performance in basketball players and to analyse the differences in physical performance between two periods of time (four to eight weeks) with this training. Thirty male players (age, 22.8 ± 5.68 years; height, 1.87 ± 0.07 m; body mass, 86.3 ± 11.1 kg) were divided into an intervention group (INT, n = 15), who performed an individualised training based on individual F-Vimb; and a control group (CON, n = 15), who underwent a non-individualised training programme; both groups performed two days/week of intervention and the same pre-season basketball training. At baseline, at four weeks, and at eight weeks of intervention, an assessment was performed including countermovement-jumps, unilateral drop jumps, triple hop test, force-velocity profile, sprint and change of direction (COD). At four weeks, the INT showed improvements in sprint and vertical jumping actions (≥3.76%, ES ≥0.44, p ≤ 0.02). At eight weeks, the INT continued to improve vertical jumping actions (p < 0.05) and showed improvements in horizontal jumping (6.80%, ES = 0.45, p < 0.01) and COD (≥2.99%, ES ≥0.96, p < 0.01). A significant reduction in F-Vimb was observed for INT (ES = 0.77, p = 0.01). In contrast, none of these changes were observed in CON. Thus, an individualised F-Vimb training intervention improved physical performance after eight weeks, with changes in sprint and vertical jump after first four weeks. Basketball coaches should optimise the force-velocity profile and improve the performance in sport-related actions as jumping and changing direction.

Network Meta-analysis of Combined Strength and Power Training for Countermovement Jump Height

Combined strength and power training in a training program is considered to improve the vertical jump, which is frequently quantified using the countermovement jump height. It is not yet clear whether one of the different training set structures, such as complex training, contrast training, compound training and traditional training, is superior to another. The aim of this review is to describe and assess the comparative effects of the set structures on countermovement jump height in healthy subjects. A systematic review and network meta-analysis (NMA) was conducted in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for Network Meta-Analyses. Three databases were systematically searched. Risk of bias was assessed using the Risk of Bias 2 tool. NMAs were performed using a random-effects model. Twenty-four studies were included. All interventions were superior to control (no intervention) with mean differences ranging from 2.87 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.99 to 3.74] for complex training to 3.43 (95% CI: 2.61 to 4.26) for traditional training. None of the training interventions were superior compared to each other in strength and/or power trained subjects, as well as in non-strength and/or power trained subjects. The findings support the combination of strength and power training to improve countermovement jump height.

Quality of lean body mass and jump capacity in high performance young basketball players lean body mass and jump capacity

The lean body mass (LBM) components have been suggested as important predictors of anaerobic performance, which is highly involved in basketball. We explored with descriptive cross-sectional design the relationship between anaerobic performance and full molecular and cellular body composition profile in young male basketball players. Twenty-one players (age = 16.8 ± 1.6 years; body mass = 76.3 ± 15.7 kg, height = 189.3 ± 12.6 cm) were recruited, 11 elite and 10 local level. Participants were evaluated on multicomponent body composition [LBM, appendicular lean soft tissue (ALST), bone mineral content (BMC), total body water (TBW), intracellular water (ICW) and extracellular water (ECW)] and field-based anaerobic performance (vertical jump, linear sprint, and handgrip strength). The stepwise regression analyses adjusted for confounders showed significant relationships of whole-body and regional body composition components with handgrip and jump performance (P ≤ 0.03). Prediction models combining body composition variables assessed by bioimpedance analysis (BIA) and double-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) revealed that lean mass and hydration ratios (ICW/ECW and ECW/TBW) were strongly associated with jump performance (CMJ and CMJ25kg), independently of the competition level (P < 0.01). The novel finding in this study was that water quality (ICW/ECW) and water distribution (ECW/TBW, ICW) of total and regional LBM were the main predictors of vertical jump capacity in young basketball players.

The Effect of Acute Pre-Workout Supplement Ingestion on Basketball-Specific Performance of Well-Trained Athletes

A pre-workout supplement's (PWS; 200 mg caffeine, 3.3 g creatine monohydrate, 3.2 g β-alanine, 6 g citrulline malate and 5 g branched chained amino acid (BCAA) per dose) acute effects on the alactic (jumping, sprinting, agility), lactic (Running-Based Anaerobic Sprint Test, RAST) and aerobic performance (Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1, Yo-Yo IRL1 VO_2max) of well-trained basketball players was investigated in this double-blind placebo-controlled study. Thirty players (age 18-31 years, height 166-195 cm, weight 70.2-116.7 kg, body fat 10.6-26.4%) were allocated to pre-workout (PWS, n = 15) or placebo (PL, n = 15) groups. Half of the participants in each group performed the evaluations without PWS or PL, while the rest consumed PWS or PL 30 min before the assessments (1st trial) and vice versa (2nd trial). Significant improvements in counter-movement jump (CMJ) (PWS: 4.3 ± 2.1%; PL: 1.2 ± 1.0%), agility (PWS: -2.9 ± 1.8%; PL: 1.8 ± 1.7%), RAST average (PWS: 18.3 ± 9.1%; PL: -2.2 ± 2.0%), minimum power (PWS: 13.7 ± 8.9%; PL: -7.5 ± 5.9%), and fatigue index (PWS: -25.0 ± 0.9%; PL: -4.6 ± 0.6%) were observed in the PWS group vs. the PL group (p < 0.05). No differences were found regarding sprinting, aerobic performance, and blood lactate concentrations. Thus, although players' alactic and lactic anaerobic performance could be improved, peak power, sprinting and aerobic performance are not.

Association between basketball playing position and ACTN3 R577X polymorphism in athletes of first division Brazilian Basketball League

INTRODUCTION

Genetic-association studies have shown that some polymorphisms are associated with different aspects of athletic performance, including very specific features, such as players' position in team sports, like soccer, rugby, and Australian football. However, this type of association has not been investigated in Basketball yet. The present study analyzed the association of ACTN3 R577X, AGT M268T, ACE I/D and BDKRB2+9/-9 polymorphisms with the position of basketball players.

METHODS

One hundred fifty-two male athletes from 11 teams of the first division of Brazilian Basketball League and 154 male Brazilian controls were genotyped. The analyses of the ACTN3 R577X and AGT M268T were performed by the allelic discrimination method, while ACE I/D and BDKRB2+9/-9 by conventional PCR followed by electrophorese in agarose gel.

RESULTS

The results showed a significant effect of height on all positions and an association between the genetic polymorphisms analyzed and basketball positions. In addition, a significantly higher frequency of ACTN3 577XX genotype was observed in Point Guards. Also, compared to Point Guard, ACTN3 RR and RX were more prevalent in the Shooting Guard and Small Forward group and RR genotype was also more prevalent in the Power Forward and Center group.

CONCLUSION

The main finding of our study was the positive association of ACTN3 R577X polymorphism and basketball playing position, and a suggestion of genotypes related to strength/power performance with post players and genotypes related to endurance performance with point guard players.

The Influence of Acute Sprint Interval Training on the Cognitive Performance of Male Basketball Players: An Investigation of Expertise-Related Differences

Highly developed cognitive abilities are an important prerequisite for reaching elite athletic levels. This study aimed to investigate the effect of an acute sprint interval training (SIT) session on the cognitive performance of amateur and elite players. Eighteen amateur and ten elite male basketball players were included in this study. They were asked to perform an acute SIT consisting of the Wingate Test (i.e., four bouts of 30 s all-out sprints) on a cycle ergometer, interspersed with 4 min of active recovery. Before and after the acute SIT, three cognitive tests (i.e., Change Detection Test, Timewall Test, Mackworth Clock Test) were performed. Exercise-induced changes in cognitive performance and between-group differences were analyzed. We did not observe significant between-group differences in the performance of any cognitive test at the pretest, but elite basketball players outperformed the amateur players in specific measures of the Change Detection Test and Timewall Test after the acute SIT (p < 0.05). In addition, for the Clock Test, only the elite basketball players' performance improved from pre- to posttest. The current study's findings suggest that male elite basketball players, compared to amateur basketball players, can preserve their cognitive performance after an acute bout of SIT.

Change of Direction Performance and its Physical Determinants Among Young Basketball Male Players

The main aim of the present study was to examine the effects of the age group (U-15, U-17 and U-19) on change of direction (COD) performance and its specific physical determinants among young basketball male players. Thirty-one young male basketball players (13-18 years) volunteered to participate in this study. The sample was divided into 3 age groups (U-15, U-17, U-19). All the evaluations were carried out in the same order in 3 sessions as follows: 1) body composition, self-reported sexual maturation, COD performance, and intermittent endurance capacity; 2) reactive strength index (RSI), 15-m sprint, and repeated sprint ability (RSA) test; 3) vertical and horizontal jumps and lower-limb strength. The results showed significant differences between groups for age, sexual maturation, endurance capacity, horizontal and vertical jump performances, RSI, COD, RSA, and lower-limb strength (p < 0.05). Significant correlations were identified between COD performances and some physical determinants such as jumping ability and RSA performance (-0.43 < r < 0.85; p ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, there are age effects on COD performance and its specific physical determinants among young basketball male players. The associations between COD performance and its determinants should be considered by practitioners when programing athletic talent development for this population.

LOWER EXTREMITY RESISTANCE TRAINING IN BASKETBALL PLAYERS

ABSTRACT Introduction: Chinese basketball players have poor lower limb strength, and their movements may be distorted due to insufficient explosive strength in hostile environments. This will cause basketball players to make mistakes. Objective: Evaluate the effect of resistance training on lower extremity explosive strength in basketball players. Methods: 18 basketball players were selected by random sampling. The volunteers were randomly divided into the experimental and the control group. The experimental group used the resistance and routine training protocol for 12 weeks. The data were analyzed employing mathematical statistics. Results: There was no significant difference between the experimental and control groups regarding age, height, weight, and years of training (P>0.05). After explosive training, the standing jump performance of both groups of athletes improved, but the experimental group’s performance improved significantly (P<0.05). After explosive training, both groups significantly improved the vertical jump in situ, with higher intensity in the experimental group (P<0.05). The performance of the 30-meter start improved in both groups after explosive training. Conclusion: The presented protocol for resistance training on the lower extremity has a very significant effect in improving the performance of basketball players. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes.

Analysis of the associations between salivary cortisol-, alpha-amylase-, and testosterone-responsiveness with the physical contact nature of team handball: a preliminary analysis

BACKGROUND

This study evaluated endocrine responsiveness (ER) to physical stress (contact vs. non-contact nature of play) during team handball matches, according to the playing positions, thereby contextualizing the contact nature of the handball match.

METHODS

The participants were ten male team handball players (24.1±3.17 years, 188.2±6.42 cm, 94.6±9.6 kg) divided into two groups: contact playing positions (CPP) and non-contact playing positions (NCPP). To evaluate the ER, the salivary cortisol (C), testosterone (T), and alpha-amylase (AA) concentrations were assessed before the game, during the halftime break, and after the match. Moreover, playing time (PT) and the number of contacts (NC) were counted post-match by video analysis. To determine possible differences between PT and the NC in the first and second halves of the match, a paired-sample t-test was used. The differences among ER-measures were calculated by the magnitude-based Cohen's effect size. Possible associations between NC and ER were analyzed by comparing CPP and NCPP in C, T, and AA.

RESULTS

The CPP group performed significantly more physical contacts, while there was no difference in playing time between the groups. A stronger C response was evidenced in players with a longer playing time. During the game, the C response was directly determined by physical contact, with CPP players showing a stronger C response than NCPP players.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provided evidence of the importance of contact actions during matches and training sessions, as a parameter of calculating training loads and preparing strategies for recovery and injury prevention. Further studies examining larger samples are warranted.

Ball Screens in the Men's 2019 Basketball World Cup

BACKGROUND

The objective of this research was to analyse the effectiveness and search for successful patterns in ball screens in the men's 2019 Basketball World Cup.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 515 ball screens obtained in critical moments. LINCE software was used as a registration instrument by means of an observational instrument designed ad hoc. A descriptive analysis and chi-square tests (χ2) were performed with SPSS 25.0 and a T-patterns analysis with Theme 5 software.

RESULTS

The results indicate that the criteria that have the most influence on this type of action are the result of the team executing the screen (winning, losing or tying), the type of offense and the defence used on the ball screen. The most representative patterns of success tend to take place between 9-16 s of possession, with the screeners being inside players and the screened players being outside players, and it is performed in the upper areas of the court against an individual type of defence and ending with the screened player advancing towards the basket or passing to an open teammate.

CONCLUSIONS

The data obtained will enable the coaching staff to train ball screens in accordance with specific game situations.

Body Fat of Basketball Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

This study aimed to provide reference values for body fat (BF) of basketball players considering sex, measurement method, and competitive level.

Methods

A systematic literature research was conducted using five electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, Scopus). BF values were extracted, with analyses conducted using random-effects models and data reported as percentages with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

Results

After screening, 80 articles representing 4335 basketball players were selected. Pooled mean BF was 13.1% (95% CI 12.4–13.8%) for male players and 20.7% (95% CI 19.9–21.5%) for female players. Pooled mean BF was 21.4% (95% CI 18.4–24.3%) measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), 15.2% (95% CI 12.8–17.6%) via bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), 12.4% (95% CI 10.6–14.2%) via skinfolds and 20.0% (95% CI 13.4–26.6%) via air displacement plethysmography. Pooled mean BF across competitive levels were 13.5% (95% CI 11.6–15.3%) for international, 15.7% (95% CI 14.2–17.2%) for national and 15.1% (95% CI 13.5–16.7%) for regional-level players. As the meta-regression revealed significant effects of sex, measurement method and competitive level on BF, the meta-analysis was adjusted for these moderators. The final model revealed significant differences in BF between male and female players (p < 0.001). BF measured by DXA was significantly higher than that measured by BIA or skinfolds (p < 0.001). International-level players had significantly lower BF than national and regional-level players (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Despite the limitations of published data, this meta-analysis provides reference values for BF of basketball players. Sex, measurement method and competitive level influence BF values, and therefore must be taken into account when interpreting results.

The prevalence of chronic ankle instability in basketball athletes: a cross-sectional study

Background

Ankle sprain is the most common injury in basketball. Chronic ankle instability develops from an acute ankle sprain may cause negative effects on quality of life, ankle functionality or on increasing risk for recurrent ankle sprains and post-traumatic osteoarthritis. To facilitate a preventative strategy of chronic ankle instability (CAI) in the basketball population, gathering epidemiological data is essential. However, the epidemiological data of CAI in basketball is limited. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the prevalence of CAI in basketball athletes and to determine whether gender, competitive level, and basketball playing position influence this prevalence.

Methods

In a cross-sectional study, in total 391 Taiwanese basketball athletes from universities and sports clubs participated. Besides non-standardized questions about demographics and their history of ankle sprains, participants further filled out the standard Cumberland Ankle Instability Tool applied to determine the presence of ankle instability. Questionnaires from 255 collegiate and 133 semi-professional basketball athletes (male = 243, female = 145, 22.3 ± 3.8 years, 23.3 ± 2.2 kg/m²) were analyzed. Differences in prevalence between gender, competitive level and playing position were determined using the Chi-square test.

Results

In the surveyed cohort, 26% had unilateral CAI while 50% of them had bilateral CAI. Women had a higher prevalence than men in the whole surveyed cohort (X²(1) = 0.515, p = 0.003). This gender disparity also showed from sub-analyses, that the collegiate female athletes had a higher prevalence than collegiate men athletes (X²(1) = 0.203, p = 0.001). Prevalence showed no difference between competitive levels (p > 0.05) and among playing positions (p > 0.05).

Conclusions

CAI is highly prevalent in the basketball population. Gender affects the prevalence of CAI. Regardless of the competitive level and playing position the prevalence of CAI is similar. The characteristic of basketball contributes to the high prevalence. Prevention of CAI should be a focus in basketball. When applying the CAI prevention measures, gender should be taken into consideration.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13102-022-00418-0.

A Systematic Review on Fitness Testing in Adult Male Basketball Players: Tests Adopted, Characteristics Reported and Recommendations for Practice

Background

As basketball match-play requires players to possess a wide range of physical characteristics, many tests have been introduced in the literature to identify talent and quantify fitness in various samples of players. However, a synthesis of the literature to identify the most frequently used tests, outcome variables, and normative values for basketball-related physical characteristics in adult male basketball players is yet to be conducted.

Objective

The primary objectives of this systematic review are to (1) identify tests and outcome variables used to assess physical characteristics in adult male basketball players across all competition levels, (2) report a summary of anthropometric, muscular power, linear speed, change-of-direction speed, agility, strength, anaerobic capacity, and aerobic capacity in adult male basketball players based on playing position and competition level, and (3) introduce a framework outlining recommended testing approaches to quantify physical characteristics in adult male basketball players.

Methods

A systematic review of MEDLINE, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and Web of Science was performed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines to identify relevant studies. To be eligible for inclusion, studies were required to: (1) be original research articles; (2) be published in a peer-reviewed journal; (3) have full-text versions available in the English language; and (4) include the primary aim of reporting tests used and/or the physical characteristics of adult (i.e., ≥ 18 years of age) male basketball players. Additionally, data from the top 10 draft picks who participated in the National Basketball Association combined from 2011–12 to 2020–21 were extracted from the official league website to highlight the physical characteristics of elite 19- to 24-year-old basketball players.

Results

A total of 1684 studies were identified, with 375 being duplicates. Consequently, the titles and abstracts of 1309 studies were screened and 231 studies were eligible for full-text review. The reference list of each study was searched, with a further 59 studies identified as eligible for review. After full-text screening, 137 studies identified tests, while 114 studies reported physical characteristics in adult male basketball players.

Conclusions

Physical characteristics reported indicate a wide range of abilities are present across playing competitions. The tests and outcome variables reported in the literature highlight the multitude of tests currently being used. Because there are no accepted international standards for physical assessment of basketball players, establishing normative data is challenging. Therefore, future testing should involve repeatable protocols that are standardised and provide outcomes that can be monitored across time. Recommendations for testing batteries in adult male basketball players are provided so improved interpretation of data can occur.

Clinical Trial Registration

This review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews and allocated registration number CRD42020187151 on 28 April, 2020.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01626-3.

Anthropometric and Power-Related Attributes Differ Between Competition Levels in Age-Matched Under-19-Year-Old Male Basketball Players

PURPOSE

To compare anthropometric and power-related attributes between competition levels in under-19-year-old (U19) male basketball players.

METHODS

National-level (n = 7; age: 17.7 [0.5] y), first-division state-level (n = 8; 17.4 [0.4] y), and second-division state-level (n = 8; 17.1 [0.4] y) players from Australian basketball programs participated in this pilot study. Players had various anthropometric attributes (height, standing reach height, wingspan, and body mass) and power-related attributes (isometric midthigh pull, linear sprint, countermovement jump, 1-step vertical jump, standing long jump, repeated lateral bound, and Modified Agility T Test) measured in the preseason. Differences between groups were assessed using 1-way analyses of variance with Tukey post hoc tests and effect sizes (ES) interpreted as trivial, <0.20; small, 0.20 to 0.59; moderate, 0.60 to 1.19; large, 1.20 to 1.99; and very large, ≥2.00.

RESULTS

Regarding anthropometric attributes, national-level players possessed greater (P < .05, large-very large) height (ES = 2.09), standing reach height (ES = 1.54), wingspan (ES = 1.45), and body mass (ES = 1.77) than second-division state-level players. For power-related attributes, national-level players possessed greater (P < .05, large-very large) isometric midthigh-pull peak force (ES = 1.46-2.57), sprint momentum (ES = 1.17-2.18), and countermovement jump peak force (ES = 1.73-2.01) than state-level players. Moreover, national-level players demonstrated greater (P < .05) 1-step vertical jump height (ES = 1.95, large) than second division state-level players.

CONCLUSIONS

Specific anthropometric and power-related attributes clearly differ between competition levels in U19 male basketball players. This information can inform development of testing protocols, reference ranges, and training programs in practice. Further research is encouraged on this topic to confirm our findings across larger samples of basketball players.

Specific Physical Ability Prediction in Youth Basketball Players According to Playing Position

This study investigated the hierarchical structure of physical characteristics in elite young (i.e., U17-U19) basketball players according to playing positions. In addition, their predictive value of physical characteristics was determined for the evaluation of players’ physical preparedness. Sixty elite male basketball players performed 13 standardized specific field tests in order to assess the explosive power of lower limbs, speed, and change-of-direction speed. They were divided into three groups according to playing positions (guard [n = 28], forward [n = 22], center [n = 10]). The basic characteristics of the tested sample were: age = 17.36 ± 1.04 years, body height = 192.80 ± 4.49 cm, body mass = 79.83 ± 6.94 kg, and basketball experience = 9.38 ± 2.10 years for guards; age = 18.00 ± 1.00 years, body height = 201.48 ± 3.14 cm, body mass = 90.93 ± 9.85 kg, and basketball experience = 9.93 ± 2.28 years for forwards; and age = 17.60 ± 1.43 years; body height = 207.20 ± 3.29 cm, body mass = 104.00 ± 9.64 kg, and basketball experience = 9.20 ± 1.62 years for centers. For all playing positions factor analysis extracted three factors, which cumulatively explained 76.87, 88.12 and 87.63% of variance, respectively. The assessed performance measures were defined as significant (p < 0.001), with regression models of physical performance index (PP_INDEX). PP_INDEX of guards = −6.860 + (0.932 × t-test) − (1.656 × Acceleration 15 m) − (0.020 × Countermovement jump); PP_INDEX of forwards = −3.436 − (0.046 × Countermovement jump with arm swing) − (1.295 × Acceleration 15 m) + (0.582 × Control of dribbling); PP_INDEX of centers = −4.126 + (0.604 × Control of dribbling) − (1.315 × Acceleration 15 m) − (0.037 × Sargent jump). A model for the evaluation of physical performance of young basketball players has been defined. In addition, this model could be used as a reference model for selection procedures, as well as to monitor the efficacy of applied training programmes within the short, medium and long-term periodization.

How Fit Are Special Operations Police Officers? A Comparison With Elite Athletes From Olympic Disciplines

The diverse tasks of special operations police (SOP) units place high physical demands on every officer. Being fit for duty requires a wide range of motor abilities which must be trained regularly and in a structured manner. But SOP operators have to plan and manage large proportions of their training alone, which makes it difficult to control. Therefore, this study aimed to highlight strengths and deficits of the SOP operators' fitness by comparing them to elite athletes, and to define future training goals. Retrospective data of 189 male SOP operators were used, who completed several isometric strength tests, a graded exercise test to determine maximal oxygen uptake, and countermovement jumps to determine leg muscle power. On the basis of a literature search, performance data were then compared to a total of 3,028 elite male athletes from 36 Summer Olympic disciplines. Pooled means and standard deviations were calculated for each discipline and effect sizes were used to analyze their similarities and differences to the SOP unit. On average, SOP operators were taller, heavier, and stronger than elite athletes. But both the ability to convert this strength into explosive movement and aerobic power was significantly less developed. From this point of view, SOP operators should consider polarized endurance training to work efficiently on improving aerobic performance. In addition, regular plyometric training seems necessary to improve leg muscle power and agility.

Impact of Match Type on Exercise Volume and Intensity of Semi-Professional Basketball Referees During a Competitive Season

Identification of the exercise volume and intensity of basketball referees, across competitive match types based on competition sex and level, would assist in developing appropriate training regimes. Purpose: The aims of this study were to quantify and compare the exercise volume and intensity encountered by semiprofessional basketball referees during different match types across a competitive season. Method: Sixteen referees participated and were monitored for absolute and relative PlayerLoad (PL) using microsensors during 25 semiprofessional matches (12 men's, 13 women's, 17 regular season, eight playoff). Comparisons between match types (men's vs. women's; regular season vs. playoff) were examined via independent t-tests or Mann-Whitney U tests, and repeated measures ANOVA with the magnitude of differences calculated via effect size. Results: Referees experienced an absolute PL of ~365 arbitrary units (AU) per match that was similar for men's, women's, regular season, and playoff matches during a competitive season. Relative PL was significantly greater (5.35 ± 0.82 vs. 4.26 ± 0.59 AU.min^-1, p < .001, effect size = 1.57) during women's matches with a greater proportion of each quarter and match spent within PL band 2 compared to men's matches (11.6 ± 2.2 vs. 8.8 ± 1.4%, p < .001, effect size = 1.53), likely due to a reduced number of referees officiating. Minimal differences existed between the regular season and playoff matches for absolute PL, relative PL, and proportion of quarter/match time within PL bands. Conclusion: The current study confirmed that referees experienced considerable exercise volume and intensity per match during a competitive season with these influenced primarily by referee configuration. The current results provide crucial information to develop effective training regimes for referees during a competitive season.

Player Profiling and Monitoring in Basketball: A Delphi Study of the Most Important Non-Game Performance Indicators from the Perspective of Elite Athlete Coaches

BACKGROUND

Little is known about which indicators of performance elite athlete coaches (i.e., professional coaches who coach at the national or international levels) consider to be important for basketball.

OBJECTIVE

Using a Delphi procedure, the aim of this study was to identify the non-game performance indicators elite athlete coaches consider to be important for the recruitment/selection of basketball players.

METHODS

Ninety elite athlete coaches (basketball coaches (n = 71) and strength/conditioning coaches (n = 19) who coached men (n = 60), women (n = 23), or both (n = 7)), employed in 23 countries across six continents, participated in a three-round online Delphi survey. Round 1 asked coaches to identify the non-game performance indicators (i.e., measures other than game statistics) they currently used (or would like to use) for player recruitment/selection, with common indicators combined into single indicators. Round 2 asked coaches to rate the importance of each performance indicator using a Likert scale (range: 0 = no importance whatsoever to 10 = extremely important). Round 3 asked coaches to identify the single best test measure for each indicator rated ≥ 6 (i.e., important to extremely important) in Round 2. Results were reported descriptively.

RESULTS

A total of 608 responses (344 after removal of duplicates) were reported in Round 1, which were collapsed into 35 indicators, all of which were rated as 'important' in Round 2. Psychological and game intelligence indicators were typically rated as very important to extremely important (i.e., median = 9), with physical fitness and movement skills typically rated as very important (i.e., median = 8). For most indicators, coach observation was identified as the best test measure, with unique objective performance/anthropometric tests identified for all physical fitness indicators.

CONCLUSION

This study identified a range of psychological, game intelligence, physical fitness, and movement skill indicators that were considered by elite athlete coaches to be important to extremely important for the recruitment/selection of basketball players. These findings may inform the development of a basketball-specific test battery for recruiting/selecting and monitoring players.

The Effect of Simulation-based Training on Athletic Performances among Female Basketball Players

Background:

The effectiveness of simulation-based training has been examined in various sports. However, considering the effect of gender and sport on training, it would be interesting to evaluate simulation-based training in female basketball.

Objective:

The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of simulation-based training on physical fitness and performance indices in female basketball players.

Methods:

Sixteen female semi-professional basketball players were randomly assigned to experimental (n=8; age, 25±2 years; weight, 62±9 kg; height, 167±8 cm) or control (n=8; age, 24±1 years; weight, 57±9 kg; height, 170±8 cm) groups. The experimental group participated in a six week basketball simulation training program including running with different speeds (jogging to sprinting), agility, jumping, and shuffling. Both groups performed the Cooper 12 min run, line drill, an adjusted T-test, 20 ms print, the Sargent vertical jump and basketball exercise simulation test before and after six weeks of the study period. Control and experimental groups performed typical basketball training, three times weekly. The overall training volume was similar for both groups.

Results:

The perceived exertion was higher in the simulation-based training than control (p<0.05) group. The findings of this study indicated a significant increase in VO2 max (p=0.001), anaerobic power (p=0.009), explosive leg strength (p=0.036), and total distance covered in basketball exercise simulation test (p=0.001) and decrease of the meantime of one round of basketball exercise simulation test (p=0.001) in the simulation training compared to the control group.

Conclusion:

Generally incorporation of the simulation-based training in conditioning programs is recommended for improving aerobic, anaerobic and leg explosive strength of basketball players.

External, Internal, Perceived Training Loads and Their Relationships in Youth Basketball Players Across Different Positions

PURPOSE

To quantify external, internal, and perceived training loads and their relationships in youth basketball players across different playing positions.

METHODS

Fourteen regional-level youth male players (age: 15.2 [0.3] y) were monitored during team-based training sessions across 10 in-season weeks. The players were monitored with BioHarness-3 devices, to measure external (Impulse Load, in Newtons per second) and internal (summated-heart-rate zones [SHRZ], in arbitrary units [AU]) loads, and with the session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE, in AU) method to quantify perceived training load. Multiple linear mixed models were performed to compare training loads between playing positions (backcourt and frontcourt). Repeated-measures correlations were performed to assess the relationships between the load models, for all players and within playing positions.

RESULTS

External load (backcourt: 13,599 [2260] N·s; frontcourt: 14,934 [2173] N·s) and sRPE (backcourt: 345 [132] AU; frontcourt: 505 [158] AU) were higher in the frontcourt (P < .05, effect size: moderate), while SHRZ was similar between positions (backcourt: 239 [45] AU; frontcourt: 247 [43] AU) (P > .05; effect size: trivial). The correlations were as follows: large between the external load and SHRZ (r = .57, P < .001), moderate between SHRZ and sRPE (r = .45, P < .001), and small between the external load and sRPE (r = .26, P = .02). The correlation magnitudes were equivalent for external load-SHRZ (large) and SHRZ-sRPE (moderate) across positions, but different for the external load-sRPE correlation (small in backcourt; moderate in frontcourt).

CONCLUSIONS

In youth basketball, small-large commonalities were found between the training dose (external load) and players' responses (internal and perceived loads). Practitioners should carefully manage frontcourt players' training loads because they accumulate greater external and perceived loads than backcourt  players do.

Power-Related Determinants of Modified Agility T-test Performance in Male Adolescent Basketball Players

ABSTRACT

Scanlan, AT, Wen, N, Pyne, DB, Stojanović, E, Milanović, Z, Conte, D, Vaquera, A, and Dalbo, VJ. Power-related determinants of Modified Agility T-test performance in male adolescent basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 35(8): 2248-2254, 2021-Although the Modified Agility T-test (MAT) has been advocated for assessing change-of-direction performance in basketball, the power-related attributes emphasized during the test are unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify the power-related determinants of the MAT in basketball players. A cross-sectional, descriptive research design was used whereby national- and state-level male adolescent basketball players (n = 24; 17.3 ± 0.5 years) completed a battery of power-related performance tests. The tests administered included the MAT, isometric midthigh pull, 10-m sprint, countermovement jump, 1-step vertical jump, standing long jump, and repeated lateral bound. Associations between performance during the MAT and other tests were quantified, and performance in each test was compared between faster (>50th percentile) and slower (<50th percentile) players in the MAT. The MAT exhibited large correlations (p < 0.05) with standing long jump distance (r = -0.67, R2 = 45%), countermovement jump relative peak force (r = -0.63, R2 = 39%), isometric midthigh pull relative peak force (r = -0.55, R2 = 30%), and 10-m sprint time (r = 0.53, R2 = 28%). The faster group performed better (p < 0.05) during the standing long jump (mean difference; ±90% confidence limits: 0.16; ±0.12 m) and produced greater (p < 0.05) relative peak force during the isometric midthigh pull (2.5; ±2.3 N·kg-1) and countermovement jump (2.1; ±1.8 N·kg-1) than the slower group. The MAT complements other power-related tests used in basketball and stresses basketball-specific, power-related attributes in various movement planes. These data can inform training and testing approaches to optimize change-of-direction performance in basketball.

A comparison of multidimensional qualities discriminant of selection in elite adolescent Australian basketball athletes

Purpose

The aims of this study were to (1) quantify the multidimensional attributes of male and female basketball athletes under 16 years of age (U16) and under 18 years of age (U18), and (2) identify attributes that distinguish selection into a talent pathway according to sex and age group.

Methods

67 male and 71 female athletes competing in U16 and U18 selection trials for a state based Australian basketball talent pathway completed a multidimensional testing battery. The test battery consisted of anthropometric, physical (20- linear sprint, countermovement jump height, Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 2), technical (Basketball Jump Shooting Accuracy Test), tactical (video decision making), and psychological (Sports Orientation Questionnaire, Psychological Performance Inventory-Alternative) assessments. Mean differences and independent t-tests were used to assess comparative differences between selected and non-selected athletes within each age and sex cohort. Stepwise discriminant analyses were used to identify attributes that were the strongest discriminators of selection in each group (male U16, male U18, female U16, and female U18).

Results

The discrimminant models showed for male U16 athletes smaller height (ES = -0.18) and greater shooting accuracy (ES = 0.52) was most discriminant of selection. Results were largely homogenous for male U18 athletes with lower visualisation score (ES = -0.62) most discriminant of selection. In female cohorts, faster 20-m sprint time (ES = -0.66) and taller height (ES = 0.58) was most discriminant of selection in U16 athletes while greater shooting accuracy (ES = 0.67), countermovement jump height (ES = 1.04), and height (ES = 0.65) was most discriminant of selection in U18 athletes.

Conclusions

These results emphasise the differing selection priorities within adolescent basketball cohorts according to sex and age group. The testing of anthropometric, physical and technical attributes may hold particular utility in adolescent female basketball given their identified importance to selection across U16 and U18 cohorts.

External Load and Muscle Activation Monitoring of NCAA Division I Basketball Team Using Smart Compression Shorts

There is scarce research into the use of Strive Sense3 smart compression shorts to measure external load with accelerometry and muscle load (i.e., muscle activations) with surface electromyography in basketball. Sixteen external load and muscle load variables were measured from 15 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I men's basketball players with 1137 session records. The data were analyzed for player positions of Centers (n = 4), Forwards (n = 4), and Guards (n = 7). Nonparametric bootstrapping was used to find significant differences between training and game sessions. Significant differences were found in all variables except Number of Jumps and all muscle load variables for Guards, and all variables except Muscle Load for Forwards. For Centers, the Average Speed, Average Max Speed, and Total Hamstring, Glute, Left, and Right Muscle variables were significantly different (p < 0.05). Principal component analysis was conducted on the external load variables. Most of the variance was explained within two principal components (70.4% in the worst case). Variable loadings of principal components for each position were similar during training but differed during games, especially for the Forward position. Measuring muscle activation provides additional information in which the demands of each playing position can be differentiated during training and competition.

Bilateral Symmetry of Jumping and Agility in Professional Basketball Players: Differentiating Performance Levels and Playing Positions

Although functional asymmetry is very common and normal in professional athletes, the better interlimb symmetry between dominant and nondominant sides (bilateral symmetry) could contribute to successful performance in basketball. The aim of this study was to evaluate the importance of bilateral symmetry of the one-leg jumping and agility performances in differentiating basketball players according to their (i) playing position (guards, forwards, and centers) and (ii) performance levels (first division vs. second division). The participants were 102 professional male basketball players, with all members of the teams competing in the two highest national divisions at the moment of testing (height: 194.92 ± 8.09 cm; body mass: 89.33 ± 10.91 kg; 21.58 ± 3.92 years of age). Performance levels (first division, N = 58 vs. second division, N = 44) and playing positions (guards, N = 48; forwards, N = 22; centers, N = 32) were observed as dependent variables. We measured one-leg jumping capacities (running vertical jump and lay-up vertical jump), basketball-specific preplanned agility (CODS), and basketball-specific reactive agility (RAG), all executed on dominant and nondominant sides. Accordingly, the bilateral symmetry of jumping and agility was calculated by calculating the ratio of the corresponding performances on the dominant and nondominant sides. Factorial analysis of variance (performance levels × positions) indicated that the bilateral symmetry of one-leg jumping differentiated players according to their playing position, with better bilateral symmetry among guards (F-test = 6.11 (medium effect size) and 5.81 (small effect size), p < 0.05 for lay-up and running-jump symmetry, respectively). Performance levels significantly differed in the bilateral symmetry of lay-up jump, with better symmetry for first-division players (F-test = 10.11 (medium effect size), p < 0.001), which was mostly influenced by significant differences among guards. Playing positions and performance levels did not differ in bilateral symmetry of the CODS and RAG. The study reveals the importance of bilateral symmetry of the sport-specific performance in differentiating playing positions and performance levels in basketball. Further studies in other multidirectional sports and other sport-specific performances are warranted.

Flywheel or free weight training for improvement of lower limbs strength?

BACKROUND

New training methods are constantly used to improve the ability of skeletal muscles to develop strength.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of half-squat training with free weights and flywheel device on isokinetic knee muscle strength for well-trained amateur soccer players.

METHODS

Forty eight players were randomly divided into three groups (n= 16 each): Desmotech Training group (DT), Free Weight Training group (WT) and one Control Group (CON). DT and WT performed an eight-week half-squat training program, with two sessions per week. The DT group performed training with a flywheel device. Isokinetic concentric-eccentric strength assessments of the knee extensors-flexors muscle groups were performed at different angular velocities (60, 180 and 240∘/s).

RESULTS

The eight-week training program improved all the isokinetic joint moment indicators examined in the DT and WT groups (p< 0.01). The DT group achieved higher performances at all the isokinetic parameters examined, however, without statistically significant differences to the WT group.

CONCLUSIONS

Flywheel-based exercise is an effective training method and is suggested to be used to strengthen the lower limbs of soccer players.

Training Experience and Maturational, Morphological, and Fitness Attributes as Individual Performance Predictors in Male and Female Under-14 Portuguese Elite Basketball Players

ABSTRACT

Ramos, S, Volossovitch, A, Ferreira, AP, Fragoso, I, and Massuça, LM. Training experience and maturational, morphological, and fitness attributes as individual performance predictors in male and female under-14 Portuguese elite basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 35(7): 2025-2032, 2021-The association of the biological maturation, morphological attributes, and fitness attributes of 13- to 14-year-old players selected to regional basketball teams, which participated in the Portuguese Festival of Youth Basketball, was analyzed in the study. A total of 416 under-14 Portuguese elite basketball players (male, n = 224; female, n = 192) were evaluated in this cross-sectional study. Maturational parameters (maturity offset and predicted age at peak height velocity), morphological attributes (body mass, stature, skinfolds, and lengths), and fitness (sprint, agility, jump, and upper-body strength) attributes were measured. In addition, basketball game performance was assessed using technical statistics (rebounds and point averages) and the performance index rating (PIR). Correlation analyses indicated that male players with better PIR/minute were taller, had a longer hand span, had more free-fat mass, and demonstrated better results in all jumping tests, upper-body strength tests, 20-m speed test, and agility T-test. Female players with better PIR/minute were significantly older, more matured, heavier, taller, and had longer arm and hand span. They also demonstrated better results in jumping tests, medicine ball throw, had greater practice experience, and were subjected to higher training loads. Multiple regression analysis showed that combined stature, handgrip strength, agility, and countermovement jump (with arm swing power) can be considered strong predictors of PIR per time played for male players. The prediction model for female players indicated that maturity offset, practice experience, and agility were the strongest predictors of basketball performance. In conclusion, the results of this study indicate that around puberty, physical fitness attributes of elite basketball players of both sexes are associated with game performance parameters. Two regression models have been estimated to predict the performance of youth basketball players of both genders.

Dribble Deficit Enables Measurement of Dribbling Speed Independent of Sprinting Speed in Collegiate, Male, Basketball Players

ABSTRACT

Ramirez-Campillo, R, Gentil, P, Moran, J, Dalbo, VJ, and Scanlan, AT. Dribble Deficit enables measurement of dribbling speed independent of sprinting speed in collegiate, male, basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 35(7): 2040-2045, 2021-The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between sprinting and dribbling speed in basketball during linear and change-of-direction (COD) sprints using total dribbling time and Dribble Deficit. Collegiate, male, basketball players (n = 10; 21.0 ± 1.6 years) performed linear and COD sprints with and without dribbling a ball. Linear dribbling sprints were measured for the dominant and nondominant hands, whereas COD dribbling sprints involved bilateral use of hands. Dribble Deficit was determined as the difference between total time (second) during each dribbling trial and the equivalent nondribbling trial for linear and COD sprints. Simple linear regression analyses were performed during linear and COD sprints to determine the relationship (R) and shared variance (R2) between (a) sprinting times and total dribbling times and (b) sprinting times and Dribble Deficit. Large to very large, significant relationships were evident between linear sprinting and dribbling time for dominant (R = 0.86; R2 = 0.74, p = 0.001) and nondominant hands (R = 0.80; R2 = 0.65, p = 0.005). Trivial relationships were apparent between linear sprinting time and Dribble Deficit with dominant (R = 0.10; R2 = 0.01, p = 0.778) and nondominant hands (R = 0.03; R2 = 0.00, p = 0.940). A very large relationship was evident between COD sprinting and dribbling time (R = 0.91; R2 = 0.82, p < 0.001), whereas a trivial relationship was observed between COD sprinting time and COD Dribble Deficit (R = -0.23; R2 = 0.05, p = 0.530). Dribble Deficit eliminates the strong influence of sprinting speed on outcome measures typically seen when using tests predicated on total dribbling time. Consequently, Dribble Deficit may be of added use in basketball test batteries to measure dribbling speed across linear and multidirectional movement paths.

Change of Direction Speed Tests in Basketball Players: A Brief Review of Test Varieties and Recent Trends

Change of direction speed (CODS) is essential for basketball performance, extensively assessed by various tests. This review aimed to summarize the CODS test varieties for basketball players on publications until 2019 and identify recent trends regarding what types of tests have gained attention in the 2010s. Electronic literature searches were conducted using three databases with relevant keywords. 104 studies were found eligible, conducting CODS tests 159 times in total with 48 test varieties. To facilitate distinctions between the tests, each test was categorized into one of three types based on the distinctive movement characteristics and changing angles as follows: Defensive (involving lateral shuffling), 180°-turn (exerting only 180°-turns), and Cutting (performing diagonal- or side-cut). We then counted the number of publications and adopted times reported per year for each test, and calculated the adoption rate for each categorized test type. The first CODS test performed in basketball players was the T-Test, reported in 1991, and this was the most commonly adopted test (44/159 times). The 2010s saw abrupt increases in the number of publications (1990s-2000s-2010s: 5-9-90) and test varieties (4-7-44). The adoption rates in the 2010s were similar among the three types (i.e., Defensive/180°-turn/Cutting: 37%/30%/33%), with the Cutting type gradually increasing over the last three decades (1990s-2000s-2010s: 0%-9%-33%). These results suggest that while CODS performances in basketball players are increasingly studied with various tests, recent studies give equal weight to all of the three categorized test types, with increasing adoption of the Cutting type, to assess specific CODS performances.

The importance of pacing in basketball players with intellectual impairment: Input for evidence-based classification

Pacing places a high demand on intellectual functioning and has been found useful for classification of athletes with intellectual impairments (II). This may also be true in open-loop sports like basketball. The current study aimed to investigate the pacing behaviour of basketball players with and without II. Using time-motion analysis, the activity of elite basketball players with II (n = 37) and amateur players without II (n = 34) was coded into four movement categories over eight periods of each game: standing, walking, running and jumping. Following two-way ANOVA, an effect of group showed differences between groups in duration and frequency of the movement categories within each period of the games. Additionally, an effect of time suggested that players in both groups paced their performances. However, no interaction was found, indicating that pacing may not be different between groups. In conclusion, the results suggest that due to the dynamic nature of basketball, the included players paced more intuitively by responding to environmental cues and using less deliberate planning. The players with II demonstrated slower games, which may be due to an impaired ability to make quick moment-to-moment deliberate decisions. These skills should be further studied in the context of evidence-based classification.

Comparative study of cardiorespiratory adaptations in elite basketball players of different age groups

BACKGROUND

Systematic training of basketball causes morphological cardiac and cardiorespiratory adaptations. Previous studies have mainly focused either on only cardiac or respiratory changes. However, the extent of these cardiac adaptations and their relationship with aerobic capacity remain unclear in basketball athletes of different ages.

METHODS

Eighty male basketball players participated in the experimental group and 80 healthy and sedentary male individuals served as controls. All participants underwent to athletic history, anthropometric measurements, 12-lead resting electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiography, resting spirometry and cardiopulmonary exercise stress test.

RESULTS

Left ventricular mass (LVM), left ventricular mass index (LVMI), left ventricular end-diastolic internal dimension (LVIDd), end-diastolic volume (EDV), stroke volume (SV) and interventricular septal thickness at diastole (IVSd) were significantly higher in all groups of athletes compared to controls (P<0.05). End-diastolic volume index (EDVI) was significantly higher only in adult players compared to controls (P<0.05). Posterior wall thickness at diastole (PWd) was significantly greater in groups of children and adult players compared to controls (P<0.05). Maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O<inf>2max</inf>) in relative values was higher in all groups of athletes compared to controls (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The increased LVM is attributed to concentric hypertrophy. This is further supported by the finding that there was no relationship between V̇O<inf>2max</inf> and echo parameters. The results of the present study indicate that the cardiorespiratory adaptations caused by basketball training are mainly formed at the early age stages without further increase throughout the years of action.

Seasonal Variations in Game Activity Profiles and Players' Neuromuscular Performance in Collegiate Division I Basketball: Non-conference vs. Conference Tournament

Basketball has a high demand on a player's neuromuscular system due to a high volume of explosive high-intensity actions. This study aimed to examine the seasonal variations on game demands and players' neuromuscular performance during the Non-Conference (NON-CONF) and Conference (CONF) seasons in NCAA Division I Men's Basketball. Seven NCAA Division I Basketball players' (20 ± 1.2 years, 1.95 ± 0.1 m, and 94 ± 15 kg) match activity profiles were tracked in 17 home games (7 NON-CONF; 10 CONF); furthermore, players performed a repeat hop test on a force platform the day before competition to assess neuromuscular performance. A t-test for paired samples was used to analyze the differences between NON-CONF and CONF. Results indicated no significant differences in Total Distance, Peak Speed, Acceleration, and Deceleration loads when comparing NON-CONF and CONF match-play. Regarding neuromuscular performance, Jump Height (p = 0.03; ES = 0.43) was negatively affected during CONF. Moreover, a trend toward a decline in Peak Force (p = 0.06; ES = 0.38) was found in CONF. Conversely, no differences were obtained regarding Reactive Strength Index and Contact Time. In conclusion, match-play demands remained constant across the season whilst neuromuscular outputs were inhibited during the CONF season.

Differences in Maturity, Morphological, and Fitness Attributes Between the Better- and Lower-Ranked Male and Female U-14 Portuguese Elite Regional Basketball Teams

Ramos, S, Volossovitch, A, Ferreira, AP, Barrigas, C, Fragoso, I, and Massuça, L. Differences in maturity, morphological and fitness attributes between the better- and lower-ranked male and female U-14 Portuguese elite regional basketball teams. J Strength Cond Res 34(3): 878-887, 2020-During a national championship, the anthropometric, physiological, and maturation attributes of 13-14-year-old players of regional selection basketball teams and their association with team's final classification were analyzed. Body parameters (body mass, height, skinfolds, and lengths) were measured and physiological capacities assessed by sprint (20 m), agility, jump, and upper-body strength tests. Chronological age, maturity offset (years from age at peak height velocity; YAPHV), and predicted age at peak height velocity were calculated. In both sexes, no significant differences were found for maturity. Anthropometric and physiological analysis indicated that male players from finalist's teams were significantly faster, were more agile, threw the medicine ball longer, and showed lower percentages of body fat than players from lower-ranked teams. Further, semifinalists were faster than lower-ranked players. In the same sense, female players from semifinalist teams demonstrated to be significantly faster, more agile, and threw the medicine ball longer than female players from lower-ranked teams. In addition, discriminant analysis showed that speed (in boys) and the combination of speed and upper limb strength (in girls) could successfully discriminate players with different performances in a championship. In conclusion, speed and upper limb strength appear to be the physical attributes associated with better team performance in youth basketball. Coaches should be aware of the relationship between the improvement of these physical attributes and the teaching-learning process of the basketball game.

A 4-Year Profile of Game Demands in Elite Women's Division I College Basketball

Ransdell, LB, Murray, T, Gao, Y, Jones, P, and Bycura, D. A 4-year profile of game demands in elite women's Division I college basketball. J Strength Cond Res 34(3): 632-638, 2020-Workload for a Division I women's collegiate basketball team (0.817 win percentage) was examined by: (a) season, (b) player position, and (c) game outcome (wins vs. losses). Female athletes (n = 6, mean 19.7 ± 1.5 years, at beginning of study) wore Catapult S5 units during 91.8% of games over a 4-year period. Average PlayerLoad, PlayerLoad per minute (PL·min), high inertial movement analysis (high-IMA), and jumps were quantified using Catapult Openfield software (version 1.14.1+). Data were checked for normality and log- or square-root-transformed when they were non-normal. A series of linear mixed model analyses were conducted to detect differences in PlayerLoad, PL·min, high-IMA, and jumps by season, position, and game outcome. PL·min and jumps data were not normal, so they were transformed, analyses were run; because there were no differences in findings, data are reported in original units to allow for comparisons with other studies. Cohen's d and confidence intervals were provided as additional information about the strength of reported differences. The 3 most consistent findings were that across a 4-year period, jumps increased, PL·min was higher in guards compared with posts, and high-IMA was higher in losses compared with wins. Other workload patterns were inconsistent, and inappropriate for making conclusive statements. Therefore, comparing jumps across multiple seasons, PL·min by player position and high-IMA in losses are important; in addition, all data can be used to profile National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I women's basketball players and set game workload expectations.

Decisive Factors for a Greater Performance in the Change of Direction and Its Angulation in Male Basketball Players

A study was made to initially evaluate whether the age category directly could influence anthropometric measurements, functional movement tests, linear sprint (30 m) and strength. Moreover, and as the main purpose, this study aimed to examine the relationship between the time execution and angles in different changes of direction (COD) test with the analyzed sport performance variables. A total sample of 23 basketball players (age: 17.5 ± 2.42 years; height: 184.6 ± 6.68 cm; body weight: 78.09 ± 11.9 kg). Between-groups’ comparison explored the differences between basketball categories (Junior, n = 12; Senior, n = 11). The COD variables were divided by the time execution into low responders (LR) and high responders (HR) to establish comparisons between groups related to COD time execution. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to establish correlations between different CODs and sport performance variables. The results showed a greater influence of age category upon COD performance, especially when the cutting angle was sharper (7.05% [Confidence limits (CL) 90%: 2.33; 11.99]; Quantitative chances (QC) 0/2/98), in which athletes need greater application of strength. Moreover, the sharper the angle or the larger the number of cuts made, the greater the relationship with the vertical force–velocity profile (−42.39 [CL 90%: −57.37; −22.16]; QC 100/0/0%). Thus, the usefulness of the f–v profile to implement training programs that optimize the f–v imbalance and the improvement of the COD performance in basketball players is suggested.

Training load, recovery and game performance in semiprofessional male basketball: influence of individual characteristics and contextual factors

This study examined the effects of individual characteristics and contextual factors on training load, pre-game recovery and game performance in adult male semi-professional basketball. Fourteen players were monitored, across a whole competitive season, with the session-RPE method to calculate weekly training load, and the Total Quality Recovery Scale to obtain pre-game recovery scores. Additionally, game-related statistics were gathered during official games to calculate the Performance Index Rating (PIR). Individual characteristics and contextual factors were grouped using k-means cluster analyses. Separate mixed linear models for repeated measures were performed to evaluate the single and combined (interaction) effects of individual characteristics (playing experience; playing position; playing time) and contextual factors (season phase; recovery cycle; previous game outcome; previous and upcoming opponent level) on weekly training load, pre-game recovery and PIR. Weekly load was higher in guards and medium minute-per-game (MPG) players, and lower for medium-experienced players, before facing high-level opponents, during later season phases and short recovery cycles (all p < 0.05). Pre-game recovery was lower in centers and high-experience players (p < 0.05). Game performance was better in high-MPG players (p < 0.05) and when facing low and medium-level opponents (p < 0.001). Interestingly, players performed better in games when the previous week's training load was low (p = 0.042). This study suggests that several individual characteristics and contextual factors need to be considered when monitoring training load (playing experience, playing position, playing time, recovery cycle, upcoming opponent level), recovery (playing experience, playing position) and game performance (opponent level, weekly training load, pre-game recovery) in basketball players during the competitive season.

Influence of ball possession and playing position on the physical demands encountered during professional basketball games

Understanding the game demands encountered in basketball provides useful insight for developing specific, individualized and team-based training sessions. This study quantified and compared the game activity demands encountered by basketball players of different playing positions: i) strictly when in possession of the ball and ii) overall during live playing time (irrespective of ball possession). The activity demands encountered by 44 (22 guards, 14 forwards, 8 centres) adult, professional, male basketball players were assessed across 10 official games. Time-motion analysis was used to determine the frequency and proportion (%) of playing time performing recovery (REC), low- (LIA), moderate- (MIA), and high- (HIA) intensity activities. Linear mixed models were constructed to examine differences in dependent variables between playing positions, accounting for repeated measures. Guards, forwards, and centres spent 11.9±5.9%, 3.5±1.3%, and 2.9±1.1% of live playing time in possession of the ball, respectively. Guards performed more activities at all intensities (total movements, REC, LIA, MIA, and HIA) than forwards (P < 0.05) and centres (P < 0.05) when in possession of the ball. The proportion of time spent performing HIA in possession of the ball was greater for forwards (P = 0.001) and centres (P = 0.001) than guards. During live playing time overall across games, centres performed more HIA per minute (P = 0.049) and spent a greater proportion of time performing HIA (P = 0.047) than guards. Activities performed when in possession of the ball and during live playing time across basketball games are affected by playing position. These data highlight the need to develop position-specific training drills, particularly with ball possession.

Bilateral Deficit and Bilateral Performance: Relationship with Sprinting and Change of Direction in Elite Youth Soccer Players

The purpose of the study was to examine the differences in bilateral deficit (BLD) at different loadings during the half-squat jump (SJ) and horizontal countermovement jump (HCMJ) to determine if there is a relationship with linear sprint or change of direction (COD). The second goal was to check if fast players were more powerful in SJ and HCMJ than slow players in bilateral performance (BP). Twenty-seven male youth soccer players participated in the study. Players were divided in two groups, faster and slower, according to their sprint performance (10 and 40 m). BLD average power with body weight (BW) and 25%BW were significantly higher than 50%BW (p < 0.01). BLD during HCMJ was significantly higher than BLD during SJ with BW, 25%BW and 50%BW (p < 0.01). There were no statistical relationships between BLD and sprint or COD performance (p > 0.05). Fast players showed significantly higher SJ power with all the different loads and HCMJ than slow players (p < 0.01), and fast players lost more time executing COD-90° than slow players (p < 0.01). There were no statistical differences between fast and slow players in BLD. BLD seems to be dependent on motor task, contraction type and load and could not be a proper measure to estimate sprint and COD performance. Faster players are confirmed to be more powerful players than slow players, and decrements in COD could be a key benchmark to identify deficit between linear and COD performance.

The Most Demanding Scenarios of Play in Basketball Competition From Elite Under-18 Teams

The main purpose of this study was to describe the most demanding scenarios of match play in basketball through a number of physical demand measures (high-intensity accelerations and decelerations, relative distance covered, and relative distance covered in established speed zones) for four different rolling average time epochs (30, 60, 180, and 300 s) during an official international tournament. A secondary purpose was to identify whether there were significant differences in physical demand measures among playing positions (centers, guards, and forwards) and levels (two best classified teams in the tournament and remaining teams), match scoring (winning, losing, and drawing), and playing periods (match quarter) at the moment of the most demanding scenarios. Data were collected from 94 male under 18 (U18) elite basketball players (age: 17.4 ± 0.7 years; stature: 199.0 ± 11.9 cm; body mass: 87.1 ± 13.1 kg) competing in a Euroleague Basketball Tournament. Measures were compared via a Bayesian inference analysis. The results revealed the presence of position-related differences [Bayesian factor (BF) > 10 (at least strong evidence) and standardized effect size (δ) > 0.6 (at least moderate)] so that centers covered a lower relative distance at speed zone 1 and had lower high-intensity accelerations and decelerations than guards. However, the Bayesian analysis did not demonstrate the existence of significant differences in any physical demand measure in relation to the playing level, match scoring, and playing periods at the moment of the most demanding scenarios. Therefore, this study provides coaches and strength and conditioning specialists with a most demanding scenario reference on physical demands that can be used as an upper limit threshold in the training and rehabilitation monitoring processes.

Match Activities in Basketball Games: Comparison Between Different Competitive Levels

Ferioli, D, Schelling, X, Bosio, A, La Torre, A, Rucco, D, and Rampinini, E. Match activities in basketball games: comparison between different competitive levels. J Strength Cond Res 34(1): 172-182, 2020-This study examined the (a) differences in the activity demands of official basketball games between different competitive levels (from elite to amateur levels) among a large cohort of adult male players and (b) match-to-match variations of basketball physical demands. Video-based time-motion analysis (TMA) was performed to assess the players' physical activity among 136 players. Match-to-match variations were determined analyzing 2 consecutive matches of the same level on 35 players. The frequency of occurrence (n per minutes) and the duration in percentage of playing time were calculated for high-intensity activity (HIA), moderate-intensity activity (MIA), low-intensity activity (LIA), and recovery (REC). Division I performed an almost certain greater number of HIA, MIA, and total actions per minutes of playing time compared with Division II that performed similarly to Division III. Division VI performed a likely-to-very likely lower number of LIA, MIA, and total actions per minute compared with Division III. Division I spent almost certain greater playing time competing in HIA and MIA compared with lower divisions. Time spent at REC was very likely greater in Division VI compared with all other Divisions. The frequency of occurrence was less reliable than percentage duration of game activities. Matches of different competitive levels are characterized by different physical activities. The ability to sustain greater intermittent workloads and HIA, and the ability to quickly recover from high-intensity phases during competitions should be considered as key components of basketball. The match-to-match variations values observed in this study might be useful to correctly interpret individual TMA data.

Seasonal changes in physical capacities of basketball players according to competitive levels and individual responses

Purpose

The aim of this study was to quantify changes in physical capacities of thirty-eight basketball players selected from different teams, as well as from varying competitive levels (i.e. Division I, Division II and Division III) during the preparation and in-season periods.

Methods

Pre (T1) and post (T2) preparation period and during regular season (T3), the players completed a Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test—level 1. Following a 3 to 8 days-break, players performed a 6-min continuous running test (Mognoni’s test), a counter-movement jump test and a 5-min high-intensity intermittent running test.

Results

Blood lactate concentration measured after the Mognoni’s test was significantly reduced from T1 to T2, and from T2 to T3 (P<0.001, ƞ² = 0.424). The distance covered during the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test was significantly increased only from T1 to T2 in Division II and III (P<0.001, ƞ² = 0.789). Similarly, the physiological responses to high-intensity intermittent running test were improved only from T1 to T2 (all P<0.001, ƞ² = 0.495 to 0.652). Despite significant changes observed in running tests from T1 to T2, at individual level 35–55% of players did not show a very likely improvement. Relative peak power produced during vertical jumps at T3 by Division I players was increased compared to T1 (ANOVA interaction, P = 0.037, ƞ² = 0.134).

Conclusions

The main improvements in physical capacities occurred during the preparation period, when the aerobic fitness and the ability to sustain high-intensity intermittent efforts were moderately-to-largely improved. However, it appears that the preparation period does not consistently impact on vertical jump variables. Aerobic fitness and force/power production during vertical jumps appear to improve across the competitive season (slightly-to-moderately). Physical tests should be used to identify weaknesses in physical performance of players and to monitor their fatigue status, with the aim to develop individualized training programs.

Training load and match-play demands in basketball based on competition level: A systematic review

Basketball is a court-based team-sport that requires a broad array of demands (physiological, mechanical, technical, tactical) in training and competition which makes it important for practitioners to understand the stress imposed on the basketball player during practice and match-play. Therefore, the main aim of the present systematic review is to investigate the training and match-play demands of basketball in elite, sub-elite, and youth competition. A search of five electronic databases (PubMed, SportDiscus, Web of Science, SCOPUS, and Cochrane) was conducted until December 20^th, 2019. Articles were included if the study: (i) was published in English; (ii) contained internal or external load variables from basketball training and/or competition; and (iii) reported physiological or metabolic demands of competition or practice. Additionally, studies were classified according to the type of study participants into elite (20), sub-elite (9), and youth (6). A total of 35 articles were included in the systematic review. Results indicate that higher-level players seem to be more efficient while moving on-court. When compared to sub-elite and youth, elite players cover less distance at lower average velocities and with lower maximal and average heart rate during competition. However, elite-level players have a greater bandwidth to express higher velocity movements. From the present systematic review, it seems that additional investigation on this topic is warranted before a “clear picture” can be drawn concerning the acceleration and deceleration demands of training and competition. It is necessary to accurately and systematically assess competition demands to provide appropriate training strategies that resemble match-play.

The Isometric Midthigh Pull in Basketball: An Effective Predictor of Sprint and Jump Performance in Male, Adolescent Players

PURPOSE

To examine correlations between peak force and impulse measures attained during the isometric midthigh pull (IMTP) and basketball-specific sprint and jump tests.

METHODS

Male, adolescent basketball players (N = 24) completed a battery of basketball-specific performance tests. Testing consisted of the IMTP (absolute and normalized peak force and impulse at 100 and 250 ms); 20-m sprint (time across 5, 10, and 20 m); countermovement jump (CMJ; absolute and normalized peak force and jump height); standing long jump (distance); and repeated lateral bound (distance). Correlation and regression analyses were conducted between IMTP measures and other attributes.

RESULTS

An almost perfect correlation was evident between absolute peak force attained during the IMTP and CMJ (r = .94, R2 = 56%, P < .05). Moderate to very large correlations (P < .05) were observed between IMTP normalized peak force and 5-m sprint time (r = -.44, R2 = 19%), 10-m sprint time (r = -.45, R2 = 20%), absolute (r = .57, R2 = 33%), normalized (r = .86, R2 = 73%) CMJ peak force, and standing long-jump distance (r = .51, R2 = 26%). Moderate to very large correlations were evident between impulse measures during the IMTP and 5-m sprint time (100 ms, r = -.40, R2 = 16%, P > .05) and CMJ absolute peak force (100 ms, r = .73, R2 = 54%; 250 ms, r = .68, R2 = 47%; P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

The IMTP may be used to assess maximal and rapid force expression important across a range of basketball-specific movements.

Reliability, Usefulness, and Factorial Validity of Change-of-direction Speed Tests in Adolescent Basketball Players

Stojanović, E, Aksović, N, Stojiljković, N, Stanković, R, Scanlan, AT, and Milanović, Z. Reliability, usefulness, and factorial validity of change-of-direction speed tests in adolescent basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 33(11): 3162-3173, 2019-The purposes of this study were to (1) determine the reliability, usefulness, and factorial validity of change-of-direction speed (CODS) tests in adolescent basketball players and (2) evaluate positional differences in test performances. Elite, adolescent male basketball players (n = 53; 17.3 ± 1.0 years) completed 6 CODS tests: "Lane Arrow Closeout," "Lane Agility Drill," "Reactive Shuttle Test," "Run-Shuffle-Run," "Compass Drill," and "Modified 505 Test." Players completed 3 trials of each test. All tests demonstrated acceptable reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient: 0.50-0.88; coefficient of variation: 5.1-7.9%). The typical error (TE) calculated for each test was above the smallest worthwhile change, rating the usefulness of all tests as marginal. The principal component factor analysis in all tests resulted in the extraction of one significant component that explained 74% of the total variance across tests. Positional comparisons showed that backcourt (guards) players performed better (small to moderate differences) in all CODS tests compared with frontcourt (forwards and centers) players. All tests were deemed reliable and valid in adolescent basketball players. The "Lane Agility Drill" and "Run-Shuffle-Run" tests seem the most appropriate to quantify changes in CODS possessing the lowest TE, whereas the "Lane Arrow Closeout" and "Lane Agility Drill" tests are the most sensitive in detecting positional differences.