1
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Meyer-Baese L, Morrissette AE, Wang Y, Le Chatelier B, Borden PY, Keilholz SD, Stanley GB, Jaeger D. Cortical Networks Relating to Arousal Are Differentially Coupled to Neural Activity and Hemodynamics. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e0298232024. [PMID: 38769007 PMCID: PMC11209646 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0298-23.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Even in the absence of specific sensory input or a behavioral task, the brain produces structured patterns of activity. This organized activity is modulated by changes in arousal. Here, we use wide-field voltage imaging to establish how arousal relates to cortical network voltage and hemodynamic activity in spontaneously behaving head-fixed male and female mice expressing the voltage-sensitive fluorescent FRET sensor Butterfly 1.2. We find that global voltage and hemodynamic signals are both positively correlated with changes in arousal with a maximum correlation of 0.5 and 0.25, respectively, at a time lag of 0 s. We next show that arousal influences distinct cortical regions for both voltage and hemodynamic signals. These include a broad positive correlation across most sensory-motor cortices extending posteriorly to the primary visual cortex observed in both signals. In contrast, activity in the prefrontal cortex is positively correlated to changes in arousal for the voltage signal while it is a slight net negative correlation observed in the hemodynamic signal. Additionally, we show that coherence between voltage and hemodynamic signals relative to arousal is strongest for slow frequencies below 0.15 Hz and is near zero for frequencies >1 Hz. We finally show that coupling patterns are dependent on the behavioral state of the animal with correlations being driven by periods of increased orofacial movement. Our results indicate that while hemodynamic signals show strong relations to behavior and arousal, these relations are distinct from those observed by voltage activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Meyer-Baese
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory and Georgia Tech, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | | | - Yunmiao Wang
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | | | - Peter Y Borden
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory and Georgia Tech, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Shella D Keilholz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory and Georgia Tech, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Garrett B Stanley
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory and Georgia Tech, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Dieter Jaeger
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
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2
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Manley J, Lu S, Barber K, Demas J, Kim H, Meyer D, Traub FM, Vaziri A. Simultaneous, cortex-wide dynamics of up to 1 million neurons reveal unbounded scaling of dimensionality with neuron number. Neuron 2024; 112:1694-1709.e5. [PMID: 38452763 PMCID: PMC11098699 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
The brain's remarkable properties arise from the collective activity of millions of neurons. Widespread application of dimensionality reduction to multi-neuron recordings implies that neural dynamics can be approximated by low-dimensional "latent" signals reflecting neural computations. However, can such low-dimensional representations truly explain the vast range of brain activity, and if not, what is the appropriate resolution and scale of recording to capture them? Imaging neural activity at cellular resolution and near-simultaneously across the mouse cortex, we demonstrate an unbounded scaling of dimensionality with neuron number in populations up to 1 million neurons. Although half of the neural variance is contained within sixteen dimensions correlated with behavior, our discovered scaling of dimensionality corresponds to an ever-increasing number of neuronal ensembles without immediate behavioral or sensory correlates. The activity patterns underlying these higher dimensions are fine grained and cortex wide, highlighting that large-scale, cellular-resolution recording is required to uncover the full substrates of neuronal computations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Manley
- Laboratory of Neurotechnology and Biophysics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA; The Kavli Neural Systems Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Sihao Lu
- Laboratory of Neurotechnology and Biophysics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Kevin Barber
- Laboratory of Neurotechnology and Biophysics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Jeffrey Demas
- Laboratory of Neurotechnology and Biophysics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA; The Kavli Neural Systems Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Hyewon Kim
- Laboratory of Neurotechnology and Biophysics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - David Meyer
- Laboratory of Neurotechnology and Biophysics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Francisca Martínez Traub
- Laboratory of Neurotechnology and Biophysics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Alipasha Vaziri
- Laboratory of Neurotechnology and Biophysics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA; The Kavli Neural Systems Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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3
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Gau YTA, Hsu ET, Cha RJ, Pak RW, Looger LL, Kang JU, Bergles DE. Multicore fiber optic imaging reveals that astrocyte calcium activity in the mouse cerebral cortex is modulated by internal motivational state. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3039. [PMID: 38589390 PMCID: PMC11002016 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47345-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are a direct target of neuromodulators and can influence neuronal activity on broad spatial and temporal scales in response to a rise in cytosolic calcium. However, our knowledge about how astrocytes are recruited during different animal behaviors remains limited. To measure astrocyte activity calcium in vivo during normative behaviors, we utilize a high-resolution, long working distance multicore fiber optic imaging system that allows visualization of individual astrocyte calcium transients in the cerebral cortex of freely moving mice. We define the spatiotemporal dynamics of astrocyte calcium changes during diverse behaviors, ranging from sleep-wake cycles to the exploration of novel objects, showing that their activity is more variable and less synchronous than apparent in head-immobilized imaging conditions. In accordance with their molecular diversity, individual astrocytes often exhibit distinct thresholds and activity patterns during explorative behaviors, allowing temporal encoding across the astrocyte network. Astrocyte calcium events were induced by noradrenergic and cholinergic systems and modulated by internal state. The distinct activity patterns exhibited by astrocytes provides a means to vary their neuromodulatory influence in different behavioral contexts and internal states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yung-Tian A Gau
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Eric T Hsu
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Richard J Cha
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Rebecca W Pak
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Loren L Looger
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Jin U Kang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
- Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Dwight E Bergles
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
- Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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4
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Jackson AD, Cohen JL, Phensy AJ, Chang EF, Dawes HE, Sohal VS. Amygdala-hippocampus somatostatin interneuron beta-synchrony underlies a cross-species biomarker of emotional state. Neuron 2024; 112:1182-1195.e5. [PMID: 38266646 PMCID: PMC10994747 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Emotional responses arise from limbic circuits including the hippocampus and amygdala. In the human brain, beta-frequency communication between these structures correlates with self-reported mood and anxiety. However, both the mechanism and significance of this biomarker as a readout vs. driver of emotional state remain unknown. Here, we show that beta-frequency communication between ventral hippocampus and basolateral amygdala also predicts anxiety-related behavior in mice, both on long timescales (∼30 min) and immediately preceding behavioral choices. Genetically encoded voltage indicators reveal that this biomarker reflects synchronization between somatostatin interneurons across both structures. Indeed, synchrony between these neurons dynamically predicts approach-avoidance decisions, and optogenetically shifting the phase of synchronization by just 25 ms is sufficient to bidirectionally modulate anxiety-related behaviors. Thus, back-translation establishes a human biomarker as a causal determinant (not just predictor) of emotional state, revealing a novel mechanism whereby interregional synchronization that is frequency, phase, and cell type specific controls emotional processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Jackson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA; Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA
| | - Joshua L Cohen
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA; Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA
| | - Aarron J Phensy
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA; Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA
| | - Edward F Chang
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA; Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA
| | - Heather E Dawes
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA; Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA
| | - Vikaas S Sohal
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA; Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA.
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5
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Tlaie A, Shapcott K, van der Plas TL, Rowland J, Lees R, Keeling J, Packer A, Tiesinga P, Schölvinck ML, Havenith MN. What does the mean mean? A simple test for neuroscience. PLoS Comput Biol 2024; 20:e1012000. [PMID: 38640119 PMCID: PMC11062559 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Trial-averaged metrics, e.g. tuning curves or population response vectors, are a ubiquitous way of characterizing neuronal activity. But how relevant are such trial-averaged responses to neuronal computation itself? Here we present a simple test to estimate whether average responses reflect aspects of neuronal activity that contribute to neuronal processing. The test probes two assumptions implicitly made whenever average metrics are treated as meaningful representations of neuronal activity: Reliability: Neuronal responses repeat consistently enough across trials that they convey a recognizable reflection of the average response to downstream regions.Behavioural relevance: If a single-trial response is more similar to the average template, it is more likely to evoke correct behavioural responses. We apply this test to two data sets: (1) Two-photon recordings in primary somatosensory cortices (S1 and S2) of mice trained to detect optogenetic stimulation in S1; and (2) Electrophysiological recordings from 71 brain areas in mice performing a contrast discrimination task. Under the highly controlled settings of Data set 1, both assumptions were largely fulfilled. In contrast, the less restrictive paradigm of Data set 2 met neither assumption. Simulations predict that the larger diversity of neuronal response preferences, rather than higher cross-trial reliability, drives the better performance of Data set 1. We conclude that when behaviour is less tightly restricted, average responses do not seem particularly relevant to neuronal computation, potentially because information is encoded more dynamically. Most importantly, we encourage researchers to apply this simple test of computational relevance whenever using trial-averaged neuronal metrics, in order to gauge how representative cross-trial averages are in a given context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Tlaie
- Ernst Strüngmann Institute for Neuroscience, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Laboratory for Clinical Neuroscience, Centre for Biomedical Technology, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Thijs L. van der Plas
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - James Rowland
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Lees
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Joshua Keeling
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Packer
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Tiesinga
- Department of Neuroinformatics, Donders Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Martha N. Havenith
- Ernst Strüngmann Institute for Neuroscience, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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6
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Lu X, Wang Y, Liu Z, Gou Y, Jaeger D, St-Pierre F. Widefield imaging of rapid pan-cortical voltage dynamics with an indicator evolved for one-photon microscopy. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6423. [PMID: 37828037 PMCID: PMC10570354 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41975-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Widefield imaging with genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) is a promising approach for understanding the role of large cortical networks in the neural coding of behavior. However, the limited performance of current GEVIs restricts their deployment for single-trial imaging of rapid neuronal voltage dynamics. Here, we developed a high-throughput platform to screen for GEVIs that combine fast kinetics with high brightness, sensitivity, and photostability under widefield one-photon illumination. Rounds of directed evolution produced JEDI-1P, a green-emitting fluorescent indicator with enhanced performance across all metrics. Next, we optimized a neonatal intracerebroventricular delivery method to achieve cost-effective and wide-spread JEDI-1P expression in mice. We also developed an approach to correct optical measurements from hemodynamic and motion artifacts effectively. Finally, we achieved stable brain-wide voltage imaging and successfully tracked gamma-frequency whisker and visual stimulations in awake mice in single trials, opening the door to investigating the role of high-frequency signals in brain computations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Lu
- Systems, Synthetic, and Physical Biology Program, Rice University, Houston, TX, 77005, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Yunmiao Wang
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- Biology Department, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Zhuohe Liu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, 77005, USA
- Department of Translational Molecular Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Yueyang Gou
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Dieter Jaeger
- Biology Department, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
| | - François St-Pierre
- Systems, Synthetic, and Physical Biology Program, Rice University, Houston, TX, 77005, USA.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, 77005, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
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7
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Aseyev N, Ivanova V, Balaban P, Nikitin E. Current Practice in Using Voltage Imaging to Record Fast Neuronal Activity: Successful Examples from Invertebrate to Mammalian Studies. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:648. [PMID: 37367013 DOI: 10.3390/bios13060648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
The optical imaging of neuronal activity with potentiometric probes has been credited with being able to address key questions in neuroscience via the simultaneous recording of many neurons. This technique, which was pioneered 50 years ago, has allowed researchers to study the dynamics of neural activity, from tiny subthreshold synaptic events in the axon and dendrites at the subcellular level to the fluctuation of field potentials and how they spread across large areas of the brain. Initially, synthetic voltage-sensitive dyes (VSDs) were applied directly to brain tissue via staining, but recent advances in transgenic methods now allow the expression of genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs), specifically in selected neuron types. However, voltage imaging is technically difficult and limited by several methodological constraints that determine its applicability in a given type of experiment. The prevalence of this method is far from being comparable to patch clamp voltage recording or similar routine methods in neuroscience research. There are more than twice as many studies on VSDs as there are on GEVIs. As can be seen from the majority of the papers, most of them are either methodological ones or reviews. However, potentiometric imaging is able to address key questions in neuroscience by recording most or many neurons simultaneously, thus providing unique information that cannot be obtained via other methods. Different types of optical voltage indicators have their advantages and limitations, which we focus on in detail. Here, we summarize the experience of the scientific community in the application of voltage imaging and try to evaluate the contribution of this method to neuroscience research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay Aseyev
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova 5A, Moscow 117485, Russia
| | - Violetta Ivanova
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova 5A, Moscow 117485, Russia
| | - Pavel Balaban
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova 5A, Moscow 117485, Russia
| | - Evgeny Nikitin
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova 5A, Moscow 117485, Russia
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8
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Gau YTA, Hsu E, Cha J, Pak RW, Looger LL, Kang JU, Bergles DE. Multicore fiber optic imaging reveals that astrocyte calcium activity in the cerebral cortex is modulated by internal motivational state. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.18.541390. [PMID: 37292710 PMCID: PMC10245653 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.18.541390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Astrocytes are a direct target of neuromodulators and can influence neuronal activity on broad spatial and temporal scales through their close proximity to synapses. However, our knowledge about how astrocytes are functionally recruited during different animal behaviors and their diverse effects on the CNS remains limited. To enable measurement of astrocyte activity patterns in vivo during normative behaviors, we developed a high-resolution, long working distance, multi-core fiber optic imaging platform that allows visualization of cortical astrocyte calcium transients through a cranial window in freely moving mice. Using this platform, we defined the spatiotemporal dynamics of astrocytes during diverse behaviors, ranging from circadian fluctuations to novelty exploration, showing that astrocyte activity patterns are more variable and less synchronous than apparent in head-immobilized imaging conditions. Although the activity of astrocytes in visual cortex was highly synchronized during quiescence to arousal transitions, individual astrocytes often exhibited distinct thresholds and activity patterns during explorative behaviors, in accordance with their molecular diversity, allowing temporal sequencing across the astrocyte network. Imaging astrocyte activity during self-initiated behaviors revealed that noradrenergic and cholinergic systems act synergistically to recruit astrocytes during state transitions associated with arousal and attention, which was profoundly modulated by internal state. The distinct activity patterns exhibited by astrocytes in the cerebral cortex may provide a means to vary their neuromodulatory influence in response to different behaviors and internal states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yung-Tian A. Gau
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
| | - Eric Hsu
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
| | - Jaepyeong Cha
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, United States
| | - Rebecca W. Pak
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
| | - Loren L. Looger
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Jin U. Kang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, United States
- Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
| | - Dwight E. Bergles
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
- Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
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9
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Day-Cooney J, Dalangin R, Zhong H, Mao T. Genetically encoded fluorescent sensors for imaging neuronal dynamics in vivo. J Neurochem 2023; 164:284-308. [PMID: 35285522 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The brain relies on many forms of dynamic activities in individual neurons, from synaptic transmission to electrical activity and intracellular signaling events. Monitoring these neuronal activities with high spatiotemporal resolution in the context of animal behavior is a necessary step to achieve a mechanistic understanding of brain function. With the rapid development and dissemination of highly optimized genetically encoded fluorescent sensors, a growing number of brain activities can now be visualized in vivo. To date, cellular calcium imaging, which has been largely used as a proxy for electrical activity, has become a mainstay in systems neuroscience. While challenges remain, voltage imaging of neural populations is now possible. In addition, it is becoming increasingly practical to image over half a dozen neurotransmitters, as well as certain intracellular signaling and metabolic activities. These new capabilities enable neuroscientists to test previously unattainable hypotheses and questions. This review summarizes recent progress in the development and delivery of genetically encoded fluorescent sensors, and highlights example applications in the context of in vivo imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Day-Cooney
- Vollum Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Rochelin Dalangin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Haining Zhong
- Vollum Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Tianyi Mao
- Vollum Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
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10
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Karimi Abadchi J, Rezaei Z, Knöpfel T, McNaughton BL, Mohajerani MH. Inhibition is a prevalent mode of activity in the neocortex around awake hippocampal ripples in mice. eLife 2023; 12:79513. [PMID: 36645126 PMCID: PMC9876570 DOI: 10.7554/elife.79513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Coordinated peri-ripple activity in the hippocampal-neocortical network is essential for mnemonic information processing in the brain. Hippocampal ripples likely serve different functions in sleep and awake states. Thus, the corresponding neocortical activity patterns may differ in important ways. We addressed this possibility by conducting voltage and glutamate wide-field imaging of the neocortex with concurrent hippocampal electrophysiology in awake mice. Contrary to our previously published sleep results, deactivation and activation were dominant in post-ripple neocortical voltage and glutamate activity, respectively, especially in the agranular retrosplenial cortex (aRSC). Additionally, the spiking activity of aRSC neurons, estimated by two-photon calcium imaging, revealed the existence of two subpopulations of excitatory neurons with opposite peri-ripple modulation patterns: one increases and the other decreases firing rate. These differences in peri-ripple spatiotemporal patterns of neocortical activity in sleep versus awake states might underlie the reported differences in the function of sleep versus awake ripples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javad Karimi Abadchi
- Canadian Centre for Behavioral Neuroscience, University of LethbridgeLethbridgeCanada
| | - Zahra Rezaei
- Canadian Centre for Behavioral Neuroscience, University of LethbridgeLethbridgeCanada
| | - Thomas Knöpfel
- Laboratory for Neuronal Circuit Dynamics, Imperial College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
- Department of Physics, Hong Kong Baptist UniversityKowloon TongHong Kong
| | - Bruce L McNaughton
- Canadian Centre for Behavioral Neuroscience, University of LethbridgeLethbridgeCanada
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of CaliforniaIrvineUnited States
| | - Majid H Mohajerani
- Canadian Centre for Behavioral Neuroscience, University of LethbridgeLethbridgeCanada
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11
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Brondi M, Lodovichi C. Cranial Window for Acute and Chronic Optical Access to Record Neuronal Network Dynamics in the Olfactory Bulb. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2710:131-148. [PMID: 37688730 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3425-7_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
Cranial window implant is the preparation of choice for acute and chronic optical access to a given brain area. The cranial window provides a stable preparation, which can last for months. This window allows to follow the activity of distinct population of neurons expressing genetically encoded fluorescent reporters of activity in awake, behaving, head-fixed animals. The optical access can also be exploited for acute imaging, in anesthetized animals. Here we provide a detailed protocol for acute and chronic cranial window implantations in the olfactory bulb. We also provide the procedure to perform injections of adeno-associated viruses expressing genetically encoded fluorescent sensors in the same area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Brondi
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Fondazione per la Ricerca Biomedica Avanzata, Padova, Italy
- IN-CNR, Padova, Italy
| | - Claudia Lodovichi
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Fondazione per la Ricerca Biomedica Avanzata, Padova, Italy
- IN-CNR, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, Padova, Italy
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12
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Yamada S, Wang Y, Monai H. Transcranial cortex-wide Ca 2+ imaging for the functional mapping of cortical dynamics. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1119793. [PMID: 36875638 PMCID: PMC9975744 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1119793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Visualization and tracking of the information flow in the broader brain area are essential because nerve cells make a vast network in the brain. Fluorescence Ca2+ imaging is a simultaneous visualization of brain cell activities in a wide area. Instead of classical chemical indicators, developing various types of transgenic animals that express Ca2+-sensitive fluorescent proteins enables us to observe brain activities in living animals at a larger scale for a long time. Multiple kinds of literature have reported that transcranial imaging of such transgenic animals is practical for monitoring the wide-field information flow across the broad brain regions, although it has a lower spatial resolution. Notably, this technique is helpful for the initial evaluation of cortical function in disease models. This review will introduce fully intact transcranial macroscopic imaging and cortex-wide Ca2+ imaging as practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serika Yamada
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yan Wang
- Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiromu Monai
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo, Japan.,Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo, Japan
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13
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Yu Q, Bi Z, Jiang S, Yan B, Chen H, Wang Y, Miao Y, Li K, Wei Z, Xie Y, Tan X, Liu X, Fu H, Cui L, Xing L, Weng S, Wang X, Yuan Y, Zhou C, Wang G, Li L, Ma L, Mao Y, Chen L, Zhang J. Visual cortex encodes timing information in humans and mice. Neuron 2022; 110:4194-4211.e10. [PMID: 36195097 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Despite the importance of timing in our daily lives, our understanding of how the human brain mediates second-scale time perception is limited. Here, we combined intracranial stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG) recordings in epileptic patients and circuit dissection in mice to show that visual cortex (VC) encodes timing information. We first asked human participants to perform an interval-timing task and found VC to be a key timing brain area. We then conducted optogenetic experiments in mice and showed that VC plays an important role in the interval-timing behavior. We further found that VC neurons fired in a time-keeping sequential manner and exhibited increased excitability in a timed manner. Finally, we used a computational model to illustrate a self-correcting learning process that generates interval-timed activities with scalar-timing property. Our work reveals how localized oscillations in VC occurring in the seconds to deca-seconds range relate timing information from the external world to guide behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingpeng Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Zedong Bi
- Lingang Laboratory, Shanghai 200031, China; Institute for Future, School of Automation, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China; Department of Physics, Centre for Nonlinear Studies and Institute of Computational and Theoretical Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong; Research Centre, HKBU Institute of Research and Continuing Education, Shenzhen, China
| | - Shize Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Biao Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Heming Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yiting Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yizhan Miao
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Kexin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Zixuan Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yuanting Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xinrong Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xiaodi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Hang Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Liyuan Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Lu Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Shijun Weng
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yuanzhi Yuan
- Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Changsong Zhou
- Department of Physics, Centre for Nonlinear Studies and Institute of Computational and Theoretical Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong; Research Centre, HKBU Institute of Research and Continuing Education, Shenzhen, China
| | - Gang Wang
- Center of Brain Sciences, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing 100850, China
| | - Liang Li
- Center of Brain Sciences, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing 100850, China
| | - Lan Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Ying Mao
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
| | - Liang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute Clinical Translational Research Center, Shanghai 200040, China.
| | - Jiayi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science and Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Institute for Medical and Engineering Innovation, Eye & ENT Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200031, China.
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14
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Hippocampal gamma and sharp wave/ripples mediate bidirectional interactions with cortical networks during sleep. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2204959119. [PMID: 36279469 PMCID: PMC9636925 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2204959119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During sleep, brain is bustling with activity: Different brain structures such as the hippocampus and the cortex interact, and this interplay is thought to be important to stabilize and reprocess memories, in the so-called systems consolidation. We show that during nonrapid eye movement sleep, cortical activity organizes in transient bursts of widely varying size, with a dynamic that may help remote areas communicate with one another. With a data-driven analysis of activity transients we identified three functional networks, one of which, namely the default mode network, most actively interacts with the hippocampus. This interaction is bidirectional and involves multiple patterns of hippocampal activity. We speculate that this information exchange loop subserves complex computational operations that are key to memory functionality. Hippocampus–neocortex interactions during sleep are critical for memory processes: Hippocampally initiated replay contributes to memory consolidation in the neocortex and hippocampal sharp wave/ripples modulate cortical activity. Yet, the spatial and temporal patterns of this interaction are unknown. With voltage imaging, electrocorticography, and laminarly resolved hippocampal potentials, we characterized cortico-hippocampal signaling during anesthesia and nonrapid eye movement sleep. We observed neocortical activation transients, with statistics suggesting a quasi-critical regime, may be helpful for communication across remote brain areas. From activity transients, we identified, in a data-driven fashion, three functional networks. A network overlapping with the default mode network and centered on retrosplenial cortex was the most associated with hippocampal activity. Hippocampal slow gamma rhythms were strongly associated to neocortical transients, even more than ripples. In fact, neocortical activity predicted hippocampal slow gamma and followed ripples, suggesting that consolidation processes rely on bidirectional signaling between hippocampus and neocortex.
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15
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Machado TA, Kauvar IV, Deisseroth K. Multiregion neuronal activity: the forest and the trees. Nat Rev Neurosci 2022; 23:683-704. [PMID: 36192596 PMCID: PMC10327445 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-022-00634-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The past decade has witnessed remarkable advances in the simultaneous measurement of neuronal activity across many brain regions, enabling fundamentally new explorations of the brain-spanning cellular dynamics that underlie sensation, cognition and action. These recently developed multiregion recording techniques have provided many experimental opportunities, but thoughtful consideration of methodological trade-offs is necessary, especially regarding field of view, temporal acquisition rate and ability to guarantee cellular resolution. When applied in concert with modern optogenetic and computational tools, multiregion recording has already made possible fundamental biological discoveries - in part via the unprecedented ability to perform unbiased neural activity screens for principles of brain function, spanning dozens of brain areas and from local to global scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy A Machado
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Isaac V Kauvar
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Karl Deisseroth
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
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16
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Pedrosa R, Song C, Knöpfel T, Battaglia F. Combining Cortical Voltage Imaging and Hippocampal Electrophysiology for Investigating Global, Multi-Timescale Activity Interactions in the Brain. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126814. [PMID: 35743257 PMCID: PMC9224488 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A new generation of optogenetic tools for analyzing neural activity has been contributing to the elucidation of classical open questions in neuroscience. Specifically, voltage imaging technologies using enhanced genetically encoded voltage indicators have been increasingly used to observe the dynamics of large circuits at the mesoscale. Here, we describe how to combine cortical wide-field voltage imaging with hippocampal electrophysiology in awake, behaving mice. Furthermore, we highlight how this method can be useful for different possible investigations, using the characterization of hippocampal–neocortical interactions as a case study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Pedrosa
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, 6525AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands;
- Correspondence: (R.P.); (T.K.)
| | - Chenchen Song
- Laboratory for Neuronal Circuit Dynamics, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK;
| | - Thomas Knöpfel
- Laboratory for Neuronal Circuit Dynamics, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK;
- Correspondence: (R.P.); (T.K.)
| | - Francesco Battaglia
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, 6525AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands;
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17
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Sepehri Rad M, Cohen LB, Baker BJ. Conserved Amino Acids Residing Outside the Voltage Field Can Shift the Voltage Sensitivity and Increase the Signal Speed and Size of Ciona Based GEVIs. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:868143. [PMID: 35784472 PMCID: PMC9243531 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.868143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To identify potential regions of the voltage-sensing domain that could shift the voltage sensitivity of Ciona intestinalis based Genetically Encoded Voltage Indicators (GEVIs), we aligned the amino acid sequences of voltage-gated sodium channels from different organisms. Conserved polar residues were identified at multiple transmembrane/loop junctions in the voltage sensing domain. Similar conservation of polar amino acids was found in the voltage-sensing domain of the voltage-sensing phosphatase gene family. These conserved residues were mutated to nonpolar or oppositely charged amino acids in a GEVI that utilizes the voltage sensing domain of the voltage sensing phosphatase from Ciona fused to the fluorescent protein, super ecliptic pHluorin (A227D). Different mutations shifted the voltage sensitivity to more positive or more negative membrane potentials. Double mutants were then created by selecting constructs that shifted the optical signal to a more physiologically relevant voltage range. Introduction of these mutations into previously developed GEVIs resulted in Plos6-v2 which improved the dynamic range to 40% ΔF/F/100 mV, a 25% increase over the parent, ArcLight. The onset time constant of Plos6-v2 is also 50% faster than ArcLight. Thus, Plos6-v2 appears to be the GEVI of choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masoud Sepehri Rad
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, South Korea
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Lawrence B. Cohen
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, South Korea
- Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
- *Correspondence: Lawrence B. Cohen, ; Bradley J. Baker,
| | - Bradley J. Baker
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, South Korea
- Division of Bio-Medical Science and Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Seoul, South Korea
- *Correspondence: Lawrence B. Cohen, ; Bradley J. Baker,
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18
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Tjahjono N, Jin Y, Hsu A, Roukes M, Tian L. Letting the little light of mind shine: Advances and future directions in neurochemical detection. Neurosci Res 2022; 179:65-78. [PMID: 34861294 PMCID: PMC9508992 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2021.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Synaptic transmission via neurochemical release is the fundamental process that integrates and relays encoded information in the brain to regulate physiological function, cognition, and emotion. To unravel the biochemical, biophysical, and computational mechanisms of signal processing, one needs to precisely measure the neurochemical release dynamics with molecular and cell-type specificity and high resolution. Here we reviewed the development of analytical, electrochemical, and fluorescence imaging approaches to detect neurotransmitter and neuromodulator release. We discussed the advantages and practicality in implementation of each technology for ease-of-use, flexibility for multimodal studies, and challenges for future optimization. We hope this review will provide a versatile guide for tool engineering and applications for recording neurochemical release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikki Tjahjono
- Biomedical Engineering Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Yihan Jin
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95618, USA
| | - Alice Hsu
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Michael Roukes
- Department of Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Lin Tian
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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19
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Ogawa M, Jiang JX, Xia S, Yang D, Ding A, Laselva O, Hernandez M, Cui C, Higuchi Y, Suemizu H, Dorrell C, Grompe M, Bear CE, Ogawa S. Generation of functional ciliated cholangiocytes from human pluripotent stem cells. Nat Commun 2021; 12:6504. [PMID: 34764255 PMCID: PMC8586142 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26764-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The derivation of mature functional cholangiocytes from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) provides a model for studying the pathogenesis of cholangiopathies and for developing therapies to treat them. Current differentiation protocols are not efficient and give rise to cholangiocytes that are not fully mature, limiting their therapeutic applications. Here, we generate functional hPSC-derived cholangiocytes that display many characteristics of mature bile duct cells including high levels of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and the presence of primary cilia capable of sensing flow. With this level of maturation, these cholangiocytes are amenable for testing the efficacy of cystic fibrosis drugs and for studying the role of cilia in cholangiocyte development and function. Transplantation studies show that the mature cholangiocytes generate ductal structures in the liver of immunocompromised mice indicating that it may be possible to develop cell-based therapies to restore bile duct function in patients with biliary disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Ogawa
- grid.231844.80000 0004 0474 0428McEwen Stem Cell Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Jia-Xin Jiang
- grid.42327.300000 0004 0473 9646Programme in Molecular Medicine, Research Institute, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Sunny Xia
- grid.42327.300000 0004 0473 9646Programme in Molecular Medicine, Research Institute, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Donghe Yang
- grid.231844.80000 0004 0474 0428McEwen Stem Cell Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Avrilynn Ding
- grid.231844.80000 0004 0474 0428McEwen Stem Cell Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Onofrio Laselva
- grid.42327.300000 0004 0473 9646Programme in Molecular Medicine, Research Institute, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Marcela Hernandez
- grid.231844.80000 0004 0474 0428McEwen Stem Cell Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Changyi Cui
- grid.231844.80000 0004 0474 0428McEwen Stem Cell Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Yuichiro Higuchi
- grid.452212.20000 0004 0376 978XCentral Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Hiroshi Suemizu
- grid.452212.20000 0004 0376 978XCentral Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Craig Dorrell
- grid.5288.70000 0000 9758 5690Oregon Stem Cell Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR USA
| | - Markus Grompe
- grid.5288.70000 0000 9758 5690Oregon Stem Cell Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR USA
| | - Christine E. Bear
- grid.42327.300000 0004 0473 9646Programme in Molecular Medicine, Research Institute, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON Canada ,grid.17063.330000 0001 2157 2938Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON Canada ,grid.17063.330000 0001 2157 2938Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Shinichiro Ogawa
- McEwen Stem Cell Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada. .,Ajmera Transplant Centre, Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada. .,Department of Surgery, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Nagano, Japan. .,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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20
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Cholinergic modulation of sensory processing in awake mouse cortex. Sci Rep 2021; 11:17525. [PMID: 34471145 PMCID: PMC8410938 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96696-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholinergic modulation of brain activity is fundamental for awareness and conscious sensorimotor behaviours, but deciphering the timing and significance of acetylcholine actions for these behaviours is challenging. The widespread nature of cholinergic projections to the cortex means that new insights require access to specific neuronal populations, and on a time-scale that matches behaviourally relevant cholinergic actions. Here, we use fast, voltage imaging of L2/3 cortical pyramidal neurons exclusively expressing the genetically-encoded voltage indicator Butterfly 1.2, in awake, head-fixed mice, receiving sensory stimulation, whilst manipulating the cholinergic system. Altering muscarinic acetylcholine function re-shaped sensory-evoked fast depolarisation and subsequent slow hyperpolarisation of L2/3 pyramidal neurons. A consequence of this re-shaping was disrupted adaptation of the sensory-evoked responses, suggesting a critical role for acetylcholine during sensory discrimination behaviour. Our findings provide new insights into how the cortex processes sensory information and how loss of acetylcholine, for example in Alzheimer's Disease, disrupts sensory behaviours.
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21
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Visual stimulation with blue wavelength light drives V1 effectively eliminating stray light contamination during two-photon calcium imaging. J Neurosci Methods 2021; 362:109287. [PMID: 34256082 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2021.109287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Brain visual circuits are often studied in vivo by imaging Ca2+ indicators with green-shifted emission spectra. Polychromatic white visual stimuli have a spectrum that partially overlaps indicators´ emission spectra, resulting in significant contamination of calcium signals. NEW METHOD To overcome light contamination problems we choose blue visual stimuli, having a spectral composition not overlapping with Ca2+ indicator´s emission spectrum. To compare visual responsiveness to blue and white stimuli we used electrophysiology (visual evoked potentials -VEPs) and 3D acousto-optic two-photon (2P) population Ca2+ imaging in mouse primary visual cortex (V1). RESULTS VEPs in response to blue and white stimuli had comparable peak amplitudes and latencies. Ca2+ imaging in a Thy1 GP4.3 line revealed that the populations of neurons responding to blue and white stimuli were largely overlapping, that their responses had similar amplitudes, and that functional response properties such as orientation and direction selectivities were also comparable. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS Masking or shielding the microscope are often used to minimize the contamination of Ca2+ signal by white light, but they are time consuming, bulky and thus can limit experimental design, particularly in the more and more frequently used awake set-up. Blue stimuli not interfering with imaging allow to omit shielding. CONCLUSIONS Together, our results show that the selected blue light stimuli evoke responses comparable to those evoked by white stimuli in mouse V1. This will make complex designs of imaging experiments in behavioral set-ups easier, and facilitate the combination of Ca2+ imaging with electrophysiology and optogenetics.
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22
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Cecchini G, Scaglione A, Allegra Mascaro AL, Checcucci C, Conti E, Adam I, Fanelli D, Livi R, Pavone FS, Kreuz T. Cortical propagation tracks functional recovery after stroke. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008963. [PMID: 33999967 PMCID: PMC8159272 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a debilitating condition affecting millions of people worldwide. The development of improved rehabilitation therapies rests on finding biomarkers suitable for tracking functional damage and recovery. To achieve this goal, we perform a spatiotemporal analysis of cortical activity obtained by wide-field calcium images in mice before and after stroke. We compare spontaneous recovery with three different post-stroke rehabilitation paradigms, motor training alone, pharmacological contralesional inactivation and both combined. We identify three novel indicators that are able to track how movement-evoked global activation patterns are impaired by stroke and evolve during rehabilitation: the duration, the smoothness, and the angle of individual propagation events. Results show that, compared to pre-stroke conditions, propagation of cortical activity in the subacute phase right after stroke is slowed down and more irregular. When comparing rehabilitation paradigms, we find that mice treated with both motor training and pharmacological intervention, the only group associated with generalized recovery, manifest new propagation patterns, that are even faster and smoother than before the stroke. In conclusion, our new spatiotemporal propagation indicators could represent promising biomarkers that are able to uncover neural correlates not only of motor deficits caused by stroke but also of functional recovery during rehabilitation. In turn, these insights could pave the way towards more targeted post-stroke therapies. Millions of people worldwide suffer from long-lasting motor deficits caused by stroke. Very recently, the two basic therapeutic approaches, motor training and pharmacological intervention, have been combined in order to achieve a more efficient functional recovery. In this study, we analyze the neurophysiological activity in the brain of mice observed with in vivo calcium imaging before and after the induction of a stroke. We use a newly developed universal approach based on the temporal sequence of local activation in different brain regions to quantify three properties of global propagation patterns: duration, smoothness and angle. These innovative spatiotemporal propagation indicators allow us to track damage and functional recovery following stroke and to quantify the relative success of motor training, pharmacological inactivation, and a combination of both, compared to spontaneous recovery. We show that all three treatments reverse the alterations observed during the subacute phase right after stroke. We also find that combining motor training and pharmacological intervention does not restore pre-stroke features but rather leads to the emergence of new propagation patterns that, surprisingly, are even faster and smoother than the pre-stroke patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Cecchini
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- CSDC, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- * E-mail:
| | - Alessandro Scaglione
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- European Laboratory for Non-linear Spectroscopy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Anna Letizia Allegra Mascaro
- European Laboratory for Non-linear Spectroscopy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council, Pisa, Italy
| | - Curzio Checcucci
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- European Laboratory for Non-linear Spectroscopy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Emilia Conti
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- European Laboratory for Non-linear Spectroscopy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council, Pisa, Italy
| | - Ihusan Adam
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- CSDC, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- Department of Information Engineering, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Duccio Fanelli
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- CSDC, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- INFN, Florence Section, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Roberto Livi
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- CSDC, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- INFN, Florence Section, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Francesco Saverio Pavone
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- European Laboratory for Non-linear Spectroscopy, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- National Institute of Optics (INO), National Research Council (CNR), Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Thomas Kreuz
- Institute for Complex Systems (ISC), National Research Council (CNR), Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
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23
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Cai C, Friedrich J, Singh A, Eybposh MH, Pnevmatikakis EA, Podgorski K, Giovannucci A. VolPy: Automated and scalable analysis pipelines for voltage imaging datasets. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008806. [PMID: 33852574 PMCID: PMC8075204 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Voltage imaging enables monitoring neural activity at sub-millisecond and sub-cellular scale, unlocking the study of subthreshold activity, synchrony, and network dynamics with unprecedented spatio-temporal resolution. However, high data rates (>800MB/s) and low signal-to-noise ratios create bottlenecks for analyzing such datasets. Here we present VolPy, an automated and scalable pipeline to pre-process voltage imaging datasets. VolPy features motion correction, memory mapping, automated segmentation, denoising and spike extraction, all built on a highly parallelizable, modular, and extensible framework optimized for memory and speed. To aid automated segmentation, we introduce a corpus of 24 manually annotated datasets from different preparations, brain areas and voltage indicators. We benchmark VolPy against ground truth segmentation, simulations and electrophysiology recordings, and we compare its performance with existing algorithms in detecting spikes. Our results indicate that VolPy's performance in spike extraction and scalability are state-of-the-art.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changjia Cai
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Johannes Friedrich
- Flatiron Institute, Simons Foundation, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Amrita Singh
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
| | - M. Hossein Eybposh
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | | | - Kaspar Podgorski
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Andrea Giovannucci
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
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24
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Population imaging discrepancies between a genetically-encoded calcium indicator (GECI) versus a genetically-encoded voltage indicator (GEVI). Sci Rep 2021; 11:5295. [PMID: 33674659 PMCID: PMC7935943 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84651-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetically-encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) are essential for studying brain function, while voltage indicators (GEVIs) are slowly permeating neuroscience. Fundamentally, GECI and GEVI measure different things, but both are advertised as reporters of “neuronal activity”. We quantified the similarities and differences between calcium and voltage imaging modalities, in the context of population activity (without single-cell resolution) in brain slices. GECI optical signals showed 8–20 times better SNR than GEVI signals, but GECI signals attenuated more with distance from the stimulation site. We show the exact temporal discrepancy between calcium and voltage imaging modalities, and discuss the misleading aspects of GECI imaging. For example, population voltage signals already repolarized to the baseline (~ disappeared), while the GECI signals were still near maximum. The region-to-region propagation latencies, easily captured by GEVI imaging, are blurred in GECI imaging. Temporal summation of GECI signals is highly exaggerated, causing uniform voltage events produced by neuronal populations to appear with highly variable amplitudes in GECI population traces. Relative signal amplitudes in GECI recordings are thus misleading. In simultaneous recordings from multiple sites, the compound EPSP signals in cortical neuropil (population signals) are less distorted by GEVIs than by GECIs.
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25
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Invernizzi A, Gravel N, Haak KV, Renken RJ, Cornelissen FW. Assessing Uncertainty and Reliability of Connective Field Estimations From Resting State fMRI Activity at 3T. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:625309. [PMID: 33692669 PMCID: PMC7937930 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.625309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Connective Field (CF) modeling estimates the local spatial integration between signals in distinct cortical visual field areas. As we have shown previously using 7T data, CF can reveal the visuotopic organization of visual cortical areas even when applied to BOLD activity recorded in the absence of external stimulation. This indicates that CF modeling can be used to evaluate cortical processing in participants in which the visual input may be compromised. Furthermore, by using Bayesian CF modeling it is possible to estimate the co-variability of the parameter estimates and therefore, apply CF modeling to single cases. However, no previous studies evaluated the (Bayesian) CF model using 3T resting-state fMRI data. This is important since 3T scanners are much more abundant and more often used in clinical research compared to 7T scanners. Therefore in this study, we investigate whether it is possible to obtain meaningful CF estimates from 3T resting state (RS) fMRI data. To do so, we applied the standard and Bayesian CF modeling approaches on two RS scans, which were separated by the acquisition of visual field mapping data in 12 healthy participants. Our results show good agreement between RS- and visual field (VF)- based maps using either the standard or Bayesian CF approach. In addition to quantify the uncertainty associated with each estimate in both RS and VF data, we applied our Bayesian CF framework to provide the underlying marginal distribution of the CF parameters. Finally, we show how an additional CF parameter, beta, can be used as a data-driven threshold on the RS data to further improve CF estimates. We conclude that Bayesian CF modeling can characterize local functional connectivity between visual cortical areas from RS data at 3T. Moreover, observations obtained using 3T scanners were qualitatively similar to those reported for 7T. In particular, we expect the ability to assess parameter uncertainty in individual participants will be important for future clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azzurra Invernizzi
- Laboratory for Experimental Ophthalmology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Nicolas Gravel
- Laboratory for Experimental Ophthalmology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
- Neural Dynamics of Visual Cognition Group, Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Koen V. Haak
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Remco J. Renken
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Frans W. Cornelissen
- Laboratory for Experimental Ophthalmology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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26
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Diamanti EM, Reddy CB, Schröder S, Muzzu T, Harris KD, Saleem AB, Carandini M. Spatial modulation of visual responses arises in cortex with active navigation. eLife 2021; 10:e63705. [PMID: 33538692 PMCID: PMC7861612 DOI: 10.7554/elife.63705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
During navigation, the visual responses of neurons in mouse primary visual cortex (V1) are modulated by the animal's spatial position. Here we show that this spatial modulation is similarly present across multiple higher visual areas but negligible in the main thalamic pathway into V1. Similar to hippocampus, spatial modulation in visual cortex strengthens with experience and with active behavior. Active navigation in a familiar environment, therefore, enhances the spatial modulation of visual signals starting in the cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Mika Diamanti
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
- CoMPLEX, Department of Computer Science, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Charu Bai Reddy
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Sylvia Schröder
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Tomaso Muzzu
- UCL Institute of Behavioural Neuroscience, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Kenneth D Harris
- UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Aman B Saleem
- UCL Institute of Behavioural Neuroscience, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Matteo Carandini
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
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27
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Daria VR, Castañares ML, Bachor HA. Spatio-temporal parameters for optical probing of neuronal activity. Biophys Rev 2021; 13:13-33. [PMID: 33747244 PMCID: PMC7930150 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-021-00780-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The challenge to understand the complex neuronal circuit functions in the mammalian brain has brought about a revolution in light-based neurotechnologies and optogenetic tools. However, while recent seminal works have shown excellent insights on the processing of basic functions such as sensory perception, memory, and navigation, understanding more complex brain functions is still unattainable with current technologies. We are just scratching the surface, both literally and figuratively. Yet, the path towards fully understanding the brain is not totally uncertain. Recent rapid technological advancements have allowed us to analyze the processing of signals within dendritic arborizations of single neurons and within neuronal circuits. Understanding the circuit dynamics in the brain requires a good appreciation of the spatial and temporal properties of neuronal activity. Here, we assess the spatio-temporal parameters of neuronal responses and match them with suitable light-based neurotechnologies as well as photochemical and optogenetic tools. We focus on the spatial range that includes dendrites and certain brain regions (e.g., cortex and hippocampus) that constitute neuronal circuits. We also review some temporal characteristics of some proteins and ion channels responsible for certain neuronal functions. With the aid of the photochemical and optogenetic markers, we can use light to visualize the circuit dynamics of a functioning brain. The challenge to understand how the brain works continue to excite scientists as research questions begin to link macroscopic and microscopic units of brain circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent R. Daria
- Research School of Physics, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
- John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | | | - Hans-A. Bachor
- Research School of Physics, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
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28
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Mollinedo-Gajate I, Song C, Knöpfel T. Genetically Encoded Voltage Indicators. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1293:209-224. [PMID: 33398815 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-15-8763-4_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Optogenetic approaches combine the power to allocate optogenetic tools (proteins) to specific cell populations (defined genetically or functionally) and the use of light-based interfaces between biological wetware (cells and tissues) and hardware (controllers and recorders). The optogenetic toolbox contains two main compartments: tools to interfere with cellular processes and tools to monitor cellular events. Among the latter are genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs). This chapter outlines the development, current state of the art and prospects of emerging optical GEVI imaging technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chenchen Song
- Laboratory for Neuronal Circuit Dynamics, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Thomas Knöpfel
- Laboratory for Neuronal Circuit Dynamics, Imperial College London, London, UK.
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29
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Jacobs EAK, Steinmetz NA, Peters AJ, Carandini M, Harris KD. Cortical State Fluctuations during Sensory Decision Making. Curr Biol 2020; 30:4944-4955.e7. [PMID: 33096037 PMCID: PMC7758730 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.09.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In many behavioral tasks, cortex enters a desynchronized state where low-frequency fluctuations in population activity are suppressed. The precise behavioral correlates of desynchronization and its global organization are unclear. One hypothesis holds that desynchronization enhances stimulus coding in the relevant sensory cortex. Another hypothesis holds that desynchronization reflects global arousal, such as task engagement. Here, we trained mice on tasks where task engagement could be distinguished from sensory accuracy. Using widefield calcium imaging, we found that performance-related desynchronization was global and correlated better with engagement than with accuracy. Consistent with this link between desynchronization and engagement, rewards had a long-lasting desynchronizing effect. To determine whether engagement-related state changes depended on the relevant sensory modality, we trained mice on visual and auditory tasks and found that in both cases desynchronization was global, including regions such as somatomotor cortex. We conclude that variations in low-frequency fluctuations are predominately global and related to task engagement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina A K Jacobs
- UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK.
| | - Nicholas A Steinmetz
- UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Andrew J Peters
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Matteo Carandini
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Kenneth D Harris
- UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK.
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30
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Sabatini BL, Tian L. Imaging Neurotransmitter and Neuromodulator Dynamics In Vivo with Genetically Encoded Indicators. Neuron 2020; 108:17-32. [PMID: 33058762 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2020.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The actions of neuromodulation are thought to mediate the ability of the mammalian brain to dynamically adjust its functional state in response to changes in the environment. Altered neurotransmitter (NT) and neuromodulator (NM) signaling is central to the pathogenesis or treatment of many human neurological and psychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, depression, and addiction. To reveal the precise mechanisms by which these neurochemicals regulate healthy and diseased neural circuitry, one needs to measure their spatiotemporal dynamics in the living brain with great precision. Here, we discuss recent development, optimization, and applications of optical approaches to measure the spatial and temporal profiles of NT and NM release in the brain using genetically encoded sensors for in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernardo L Sabatini
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Lin Tian
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
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31
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Monakhov MV, Matlashov ME, Colavita M, Song C, Shcherbakova DM, Antic SD, Verkhusha VV, Knöpfel T. Screening and Cellular Characterization of Genetically Encoded Voltage Indicators Based on Near-Infrared Fluorescent Proteins. ACS Chem Neurosci 2020; 11:3523-3531. [PMID: 33063984 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
We developed genetically encoded voltage indicators using a transmembrane voltage-sensing domain and bright near-infrared fluorescent proteins derived from bacterial phytochromes. These new voltage indicators are excited by 640 nm light and emission is measured at 670 nm, allowing imaging in the near-infrared tissue transparency window. The spectral properties of our new indicators permit seamless voltage imaging with simultaneous blue-green light optogenetic actuator activation as well as simultaneous voltage-calcium imaging when paired with green calcium indicators. Iterative optimizations led to a fluorescent probe, here termed nirButterfly, which reliably reports neuronal activities including subthreshold membrane potential depolarization and hyperpolarization as well as spontaneous spiking or electrically- and optogenetically evoked action potentials. This enables largely improved all-optical causal interrogations of physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail V Monakhov
- Institute for Systems Genomics, Stem Cell Institute, Department of Neuroscience, UConn Health, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, United States
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology and Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
| | - Mikhail E Matlashov
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology and Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
| | - Michelangelo Colavita
- Laboratory for Neuronal Circuit Dynamics, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, U.K
| | - Chenchen Song
- Laboratory for Neuronal Circuit Dynamics, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, U.K
| | - Daria M Shcherbakova
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology and Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
| | - Srdjan D Antic
- Institute for Systems Genomics, Stem Cell Institute, Department of Neuroscience, UConn Health, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, United States
| | - Vladislav V Verkhusha
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology and Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
| | - Thomas Knöpfel
- Laboratory for Neuronal Circuit Dynamics, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, U.K
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32
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Rhee JK, Leong LM, Mukim MSI, Kang BE, Lee S, Bilbao-Broch L, Baker BJ. Biophysical Parameters of GEVIs: Considerations for Imaging Voltage. Biophys J 2020; 119:1-8. [PMID: 32521239 PMCID: PMC7335909 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2020.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) continue to evolve, resulting in many different probes with varying strengths and weaknesses. Developers of new GEVIs tend to highlight their positive features. A recent article from an independent laboratory has compared the signal/noise ratios of a number of GEVIs. Such a comparison can be helpful to investigators eager to try to image the voltage of excitable cells. In this perspective, we will present examples of how the biophysical features of GEVIs affect the imaging of excitable cells in an effort to assist researchers when considering probes for their specific needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Kyu Rhee
- Center for Functional Connectomics, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Republic of Korea; Division of Bio-Medical Science and Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Lee Min Leong
- Center for Functional Connectomics, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Republic of Korea; Division of Bio-Medical Science and Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Md Sofequl Islam Mukim
- Center for Functional Connectomics, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Republic of Korea; Division of Bio-Medical Science and Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Bok Eum Kang
- Center for Functional Connectomics, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungmoo Lee
- Center for Functional Connectomics, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Laura Bilbao-Broch
- Center for Functional Connectomics, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Republic of Korea; Division of Bio-Medical Science and Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Bradley J Baker
- Center for Functional Connectomics, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Republic of Korea; Division of Bio-Medical Science and Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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33
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Gravel N, Renken RJ, Harvey BM, Deco G, Cornelissen FW, Gilson M. Propagation of BOLD Activity Reveals Task-dependent Directed Interactions Across Human Visual Cortex. Cereb Cortex 2020; 30:5899-5914. [PMID: 32577717 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhaa165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
It has recently been shown that large-scale propagation of blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) activity is constrained by anatomical connections and reflects transitions between behavioral states. It remains to be seen, however, if the propagation of BOLD activity can also relate to the brain's anatomical structure at a more local scale. Here, we hypothesized that BOLD propagation reflects structured neuronal activity across early visual field maps. To explore this hypothesis, we characterize the propagation of BOLD activity across V1, V2, and V3 using a modeling approach that aims to disentangle the contributions of local activity and directed interactions in shaping BOLD propagation. It does so by estimating the effective connectivity (EC) and the excitability of a noise-diffusion network to reproduce the spatiotemporal covariance structure of the data. We apply our approach to 7T fMRI recordings acquired during resting state (RS) and visual field mapping (VFM). Our results reveal different EC interactions and changes in cortical excitability in RS and VFM, and point to a reconfiguration of feedforward and feedback interactions across the visual system. We conclude that the propagation of BOLD activity has functional relevance, as it reveals directed interactions and changes in cortical excitability in a task-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás Gravel
- Neural Dynamics of Visual Cognition Group, Department of Education and Psychology, Freie University Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany.,Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Remco J Renken
- Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands.,Cognitive Neuroscience Center, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ben M Harvey
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gustavo Deco
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Computational Neuroscience Group, Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 08018 Barcelona, Spain.,Institució Catalana de la Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), 08010 Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.,School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, VIC 3800 Melbourne, Australia
| | - Frans W Cornelissen
- Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Matthieu Gilson
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Computational Neuroscience Group, Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 08018 Barcelona, Spain
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34
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Cho KKA, Davidson TJ, Bouvier G, Marshall JD, Schnitzer MJ, Sohal VS. Cross-hemispheric gamma synchrony between prefrontal parvalbumin interneurons supports behavioral adaptation during rule shift learning. Nat Neurosci 2020; 23:892-902. [PMID: 32451483 PMCID: PMC7347248 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-020-0647-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Organisms must learn novel strategies to adapt to changing environments. Activity in different neurons often exhibits synchronization that can dynamically enhance their communication and might create flexible brain states that facilitate changes in behavior. We studied the role of gamma-frequency (~40 Hz) synchrony between prefrontal parvalbumin interneurons, in mice learning multiple new cue-reward associations. Voltage indicators revealed cell type-specific increases of cross-hemispheric gamma synchrony between parvalbumin interneurons, when mice received feedback that previously learned associations were no longer valid. Disrupting this synchronization by delivering out-of-phase optogenetic stimulation caused mice to perseverate on outdated associations, an effect not reproduced by in-phase stimulation or out-of-phase stimulation at other frequencies. Gamma synchrony was specifically required when new associations utilized familiar cues that were previously irrelevant to behavioral outcomes, not when associations involved novel cues, or for reversing previously learned associations. Thus, gamma synchrony is indispensable for reappraising the behavioral salience of external cues. Further information on research design is available in the Life Sciences Reporting Summary linked to this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen K A Cho
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Weill Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Thomas J Davidson
- Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Guy Bouvier
- Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jesse D Marshall
- Department of Organismic & Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Mark J Schnitzer
- Departments of Biology and Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Vikaas S Sohal
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. .,Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. .,Weill Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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35
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Murphy TH, Michelson NJ, Boyd JD, Fong T, Bolanos LA, Bierbrauer D, Siu T, Balbi M, Bolanos F, Vanni M, LeDue JM. Automated task training and longitudinal monitoring of mouse mesoscale cortical circuits using home cages. eLife 2020; 9:55964. [PMID: 32412409 PMCID: PMC7332290 DOI: 10.7554/elife.55964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We report improved automated open-source methodology for head-fixed mesoscale cortical imaging and/or behavioral training of home cage mice using Raspberry Pi-based hardware. Staged partial and probabilistic restraint allows mice to adjust to self-initiated headfixation over 3 weeks' time with ~50% participation rate. We support a cue-based behavioral licking task monitored by a capacitive touch-sensor water spout. While automatically head-fixed, we acquire spontaneous, movement-triggered, or licking task-evoked GCaMP6 cortical signals. An analysis pipeline marked both behavioral events, as well as analyzed brain fluorescence signals as they relate to spontaneous and/or task-evoked behavioral activity. Mice were trained to suppress licking and wait for cues that marked the delivery of water. Correct rewarded go-trials were associated with widespread activation of midline and lateral barrel cortex areas following a vibration cue and delayed frontal and lateral motor cortex activation. Cortical GCaMP signals predicted trial success and correlated strongly with trial-outcome dependent body movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy H Murphy
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, Vancouver, Canada.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Nicholas J Michelson
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, Vancouver, Canada.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jamie D Boyd
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, Vancouver, Canada.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Tony Fong
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, Vancouver, Canada.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Luis A Bolanos
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, Vancouver, Canada.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - David Bierbrauer
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, Vancouver, Canada.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Teri Siu
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, Vancouver, Canada.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Matilde Balbi
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, Vancouver, Canada.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Federico Bolanos
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, Vancouver, Canada.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Matthieu Vanni
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, Vancouver, Canada.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jeff M LeDue
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, Vancouver, Canada.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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36
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Bando Y, Sakamoto M, Kim S, Ayzenshtat I, Yuste R. Comparative Evaluation of Genetically Encoded Voltage Indicators. Cell Rep 2020; 26:802-813.e4. [PMID: 30650368 PMCID: PMC7075032 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.12.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Imaging voltage using fluorescent-based sensors could be an ideal technique to probe neural circuits with high spatiotemporal resolution. However, due to insufficient signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), imaging membrane potential in mammalian preparations is still challenging. In recent years, many genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) have been developed. To compare them and guide decisions on which GEVI to use, we have characterized side by side the performance of eight GEVIs that represent different families of molecular constructs. We tested GEVIs in vitro with 1-photon imaging and in vivo with 1-photon wide-field imaging and 2-photon imaging. We find that QuasAr2 exhibited the best performance in vitro, whereas only ArcLight-MT could be used to reliably detect electrical activity in vivo with 2-photon excitation. No single GEVI was ideal for every experiment. These results provide a guide for choosing optimal GEVIs for specific applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Bando
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA.
| | - Masayuki Sakamoto
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA.
| | - Samuel Kim
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Inbal Ayzenshtat
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Rafael Yuste
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
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37
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Maternal Fluoxetine Exposure Alters Cortical Hemodynamic and Calcium Response of Offspring to Somatosensory Stimuli. eNeuro 2019; 6:ENEURO.0238-19.2019. [PMID: 31843753 PMCID: PMC6978917 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0238-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have found an increased incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders in populations prenatally exposed to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Optical imaging provides a minimally invasive way to determine if perinatal SSRI exposure has long-term effects on cortical function. Herein we probed the functional neuroimaging effects of perinatal SSRI exposure in a fluoxetine (FLX)-exposed mouse model. Epidemiological studies have found an increased incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders in populations prenatally exposed to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Optical imaging provides a minimally invasive way to determine if perinatal SSRI exposure has long-term effects on cortical function. Herein we probed the functional neuroimaging effects of perinatal SSRI exposure in a fluoxetine (FLX)-exposed mouse model. While resting-state homotopic contralateral functional connectivity was unperturbed, the evoked cortical response to forepaw stimulation was altered in FLX mice. The stimulated cortex showed decreased activity for FLX versus controls, by both hemodynamic responses [oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)] and neuronal calcium responses (Thy1-GCaMP6f fluorescence). Significant alterations in both cortical HbO2 and calcium response amplitude were seen in the cortex ipsilateral to the stimulated paw in FLX as compared to controls. The cortical regions of largest difference in activation between FLX and controls also were consistent between HbO2 and calcium contrasts at the end of stimulation. Taken together, these results suggest a global loss of response signal amplitude in FLX versus controls. These findings indicate that perinatal SSRI exposure has long-term consequences on somatosensory cortical responses.
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38
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Audio-visual experience strengthens multisensory assemblies in adult mouse visual cortex. Nat Commun 2019; 10:5684. [PMID: 31831751 PMCID: PMC6908602 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-13607-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We experience the world through multiple senses simultaneously. To better understand mechanisms of multisensory processing we ask whether inputs from two senses (auditory and visual) can interact and drive plasticity in neural-circuits of the primary visual cortex (V1). Using genetically-encoded voltage and calcium indicators, we find coincident audio-visual experience modifies both the supra and subthreshold response properties of neurons in L2/3 of mouse V1. Specifically, we find that after audio-visual pairing, a subset of multimodal neurons develops enhanced auditory responses to the paired auditory stimulus. This cross-modal plasticity persists over days and is reflected in the strengthening of small functional networks of L2/3 neurons. We find V1 processes coincident auditory and visual events by strengthening functional associations between feature specific assemblies of multimodal neurons during bouts of sensory driven co-activity, leaving a trace of multisensory experience in the cortical network.
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39
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Optical voltage imaging in neurons: moving from technology development to practical tool. Nat Rev Neurosci 2019; 20:719-727. [PMID: 31705060 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-019-0231-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A central goal in neuroscience is to determine how the brain's neuronal circuits generate perception, cognition and emotions and how these lead to appropriate behavioural actions. A methodological platform based on genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) that enables the monitoring of large-scale circuit dynamics has brought us closer to this ambitious goal. This Review provides an update on the current state of the art and the prospects of emerging optical GEVI imaging technologies.
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40
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Shimaoka D, Harris KD, Carandini M. Effects of Arousal on Mouse Sensory Cortex Depend on Modality. Cell Rep 2019; 22:3160-3167. [PMID: 29562173 PMCID: PMC5883328 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.02.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Changes in arousal modulate the activity of mouse sensory cortex, but studies in different mice and different sensory areas disagree on whether this modulation enhances or suppresses activity. We measured this modulation simultaneously in multiple cortical areas by imaging mice expressing voltage-sensitive fluorescent proteins (VSFP). VSFP imaging estimates local membrane potential across large portions of cortex. We used temporal filters to predict local potential from running speed or from pupil dilation, two measures of arousal. The filters provided good fits and revealed that the effects of arousal depend on modality. In the primary visual cortex (V1) and auditory cortex (Au), arousal caused depolarization followed by hyperpolarization. In the barrel cortex (S1b) and a secondary visual area (LM), it caused only hyperpolarization. In all areas, nonetheless, arousal reduced the phasic responses to trains of sensory stimuli. These results demonstrate diverse effects of arousal across sensory cortex but similar effects on sensory responses. Voltage-sensitive fluorescent proteins reveal effects of arousal across the cortex In auditory and primary visual areas, arousal depolarizes then hyperpolarizes In somatosensory and secondary visual areas, arousal only hyperpolarizes In all areas, arousal reduces phasic responses to trains of sensory stimuli
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Shimaoka
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6AE, UK.
| | - Kenneth D Harris
- UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6AE, UK; Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6AE, UK
| | - Matteo Carandini
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6AE, UK
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41
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Abstract
As a "holy grail" of neuroscience, optical imaging of membrane potential could enable high resolution measurements of spiking and synaptic activity in neuronal populations. This has been partly achieved using organic voltage-sensitive dyes in vitro, or in invertebrate preparations yet unspecific staining has prevented single-cell resolution measurements from mammalian preparations in vivo. The development of genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) and chemogenetic sensors has enabled targeting voltage indicators to plasma membranes and selective neuronal populations. Here, we review recent advances in the design and use of genetic voltage indicators and discuss advantages and disadvantages of three classes of them. Although genetic voltage indicators could revolutionize neuroscience, there are still significant challenges, particularly two-photon performance. To overcome them may require cross-disciplinary collaborations, team effort, and sustained support by large-scale research initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Bando
- Neurotechnology Center, Department Biological Sciences, Columbia University, 550 W 120th Street, New York, NY, 10027, USA
- Present address: Department Organ and Tissue Anatomy, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, 431-3192, Japan
| | - Christiane Grimm
- Neurotechnology Center, Department Biological Sciences, Columbia University, 550 W 120th Street, New York, NY, 10027, USA
| | - Victor H Cornejo
- Neurotechnology Center, Department Biological Sciences, Columbia University, 550 W 120th Street, New York, NY, 10027, USA
| | - Rafael Yuste
- Neurotechnology Center, Department Biological Sciences, Columbia University, 550 W 120th Street, New York, NY, 10027, USA.
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42
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Abstract
Multisensory integration (MSI) is a fundamental emergent property of the mammalian brain. During MSI, perceptual information encoded in patterned activity is processed in multimodal association cortex. The systems-level neuronal dynamics that coordinate MSI, however, are unknown. Here, we demonstrate intrinsic hub-like network activity in the association cortex that regulates MSI. We engineered calcium reporter mouse lines based on the fluorescence resonance energy transfer sensor yellow cameleon (YC2.60) expressed in excitatory or inhibitory neurons. In medial and parietal association cortex, we observed spontaneous slow waves that self-organized into hubs defined by long-range excitatory and local inhibitory circuits. Unlike directional source/sink-like flows in sensory areas, medial/parietal excitatory and inhibitory hubs had net-zero balanced inputs. Remarkably, multisensory stimulation triggered rapid phase-locking mainly of excitatory hub activity persisting for seconds after the stimulus offset. Therefore, association cortex tends to form balanced excitatory networks that configure slow-wave phase-locking for MSI. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
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43
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Imaging local brain activity of multiple freely moving mice sharing the same environment. Sci Rep 2019; 9:7460. [PMID: 31097780 PMCID: PMC6522513 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-43897-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrophysiological field potential dynamics have been widely used to investigate brain functions and related psychiatric disorders. Considering recent demand for its applicability to freely moving subjects, especially for animals in a group and socially interacting with each other, here we propose a new method based on a bioluminescent voltage indicator LOTUS-V. Using our fiber-free recording method based on the LOTUS-V, we succeeded in capturing dynamic change of brain activity in freely moving mice. Because LOTUS-V is the ratiometric indicator, motion and head-angle artifacts were not significantly detected. Taking advantage of our method as a fiber-free system, we further succeeded in simultaneously recording from multiple independently-locomotive mice that were freely interacting with one another. Importantly, this enabled us to find that the primary visual cortex, a center of visual processing, was activated during the interaction of mice. This methodology may further facilitate a wide range of studies in neurobiology and psychiatry.
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44
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Shimaoka D, Steinmetz NA, Harris KD, Carandini M. The impact of bilateral ongoing activity on evoked responses in mouse cortex. eLife 2019; 8:43533. [PMID: 31038456 PMCID: PMC6510533 DOI: 10.7554/elife.43533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
In the absence of external stimuli or overt behavior, the activity of the left and right cortical hemispheres shows fluctuations that are largely bilateral. Here, we show that these fluctuations are largely responsible for the variability observed in cortical responses to sensory stimuli. Using widefield imaging of voltage and calcium signals, we measured activity in the cortex of mice performing a visual detection task. Bilateral fluctuations invested all areas, particularly those closest to the midline. Activity was less bilateral in the monocular region of primary visual cortex and, especially during task engagement, in secondary motor cortex. Ongoing bilateral fluctuations dominated unilateral visual responses, and interacted additively with them, explaining much of the variance in trial-by-trial activity. Even though these fluctuations occurred in regions necessary for the task, they did not affect detection behavior. We conclude that bilateral ongoing activity continues during visual stimulation and has a powerful additive impact on visual responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Shimaoka
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas A Steinmetz
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, United Kingdom.,UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kenneth D Harris
- UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matteo Carandini
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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45
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Anderson HE, Weir RFF. On the development of optical peripheral nerve interfaces. Neural Regen Res 2019; 14:425-436. [PMID: 30539808 PMCID: PMC6334609 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.245461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Limb loss and spinal cord injury are two debilitating conditions that continue to grow in prevalence. Prosthetic limbs and limb reanimation present two ways of providing affected individuals with means to interact in the world. These techniques are both dependent on a robust interface with the peripheral nerve. Current methods for interfacing with the peripheral nerve tend to suffer from low specificity, high latency and insufficient robustness for a chronic implant. An optical peripheral nerve interface may solve some of these problems by decreasing invasiveness and providing single axon specificity. In order to implement such an interface three elements are required: (1) a transducer capable of translating light into a neural stimulus or translating neural activity into changes in fluorescence, (2) a means for delivering said transducer and (3) a microscope for providing the stimulus light and detecting the fluorescence change. There are continued improvements in both genetically encoded calcium and voltage indicators as well as new optogenetic actuators for stimulation. Similarly, improvements in specificity of viral vectors continue to improve expression in the axons of the peripheral nerve. Our work has recently shown that it is possible to virally transduce axons of the peripheral nerve for recording from small fibers. The improvements of these components make an optical peripheral nerve interface a rapidly approaching alternative to current methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans E. Anderson
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver | Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Richard F. ff. Weir
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver | Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
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46
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Kannan M, Vasan G, Pieribone VA. Optimizing Strategies for Developing Genetically Encoded Voltage Indicators. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:53. [PMID: 30863283 PMCID: PMC6399427 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetically encoded optical indicators of neuronal activity enable unambiguous recordings of input-output activity patterns from identified cells in intact circuits. Among them, genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) offer additional advantages over calcium indicators as they are direct sensors of membrane potential and can adeptly report subthreshold events and hyperpolarization. Here, we outline the major GEVI designs and give an account of properties that need to be carefully optimized during indicator engineering. While designing the ideal GEVI, one should keep in mind aspects such as membrane localization, signal size, signal-to-noise ratio, kinetics and voltage dependence of optical responses. Using ArcLight and derivatives as prototypes, we delineate how a probe should be optimized for the former properties and developed along other areas in a need-based manner. Finally, we present an overview of the GEVI engineering process and lend an insight into their discovery, delivery and diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhuvanthi Kannan
- The John B. Pierce Laboratory, New Haven, CT, United States.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Ganesh Vasan
- The John B. Pierce Laboratory, New Haven, CT, United States.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Vincent A Pieribone
- The John B. Pierce Laboratory, New Haven, CT, United States.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
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47
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Abstract
Fluorescent probes that indicate biologically important quantities are widely used for many different types of biological experiments across life sciences. During recent years, limitations of small molecule-based indicators have been overcome by the development of genetically encoded indicators. Here we focus on fluorescent calcium and voltage indicators and point to their applications mainly in neurosciences.
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48
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Abstract
Voltage sensitive dyes (VSDs) are used for in vitro drug screening and for imaging of patterns of electrical activity in tissue. Wide application of this technology depends on the availability of sensors with high sensitivity (percent change of fluorescence per 100 mV), high fluorescence quantum yield, and fast response kinetics. A promising approach uses a two-component system consisting of anionic membrane permeable quenchers with fluorophores labeling one side of the membrane; this produces voltage-dependent fluorescence quenching. However, the quencher must be kept at low concentrations to minimize pharmacological effects, thus limiting sensitivity. By developing tethered bichromophoric fluorophore quencher (TBFQ) dyes, where the fluorophore and quencher are covalently connected by a long hydrophobic chain, the sensitivity is maximized and is independent of VSD concentration. A series of 13 TBFQ dyes based on the aminonaphthylethenylpyridinium (ANEP) fluorophore and the dipicrylamine anion (DPA) quencher have been synthesized and tested in an artificial lipid bilayer apparatus. The best of these, TBFQ1, shows a 2.5-fold change in fluorescence per 100 mV change in membrane potential, and the response kinetics is in the 10-20 ms range. This sensitivity is an order of magnitude better than that of commonly used VSDs. However, the fluorescence quantum yield is only 1.6%, which may make this first generation of TBFQ VSDs impractical for in vivo electrical imaging. Nevertheless, the design principles established here can serve as foundation for improved TBFQ VSDs. We believe this approach promises to greatly enhance our ability to monitor electrical activity in cells and tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Yan
- Richard D. Berlin Center for Cell Analysis and Modeling, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, United States
| | - Corey D. Acker
- Richard D. Berlin Center for Cell Analysis and Modeling, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, United States
| | - Leslie M. Loew
- Richard D. Berlin Center for Cell Analysis and Modeling, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, United States
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49
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Nakajima R, Baker BJ. Mapping of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials of neuronal populations in hippocampal slices using the GEVI, ArcLight. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS D: APPLIED PHYSICS 2018; 51:504003. [PMID: 30739956 PMCID: PMC6366634 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6463/aae2e3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
To understand the circuitry of the brain, it is essential to clarify the functional connectivity among distinct neuronal populations. For this purpose, neuronal activity imaging using genetically-encoded calcium sensors such as GCaMP has been a powerful approach due to its cell-type specificity. However, calcium (Ca2+) is an indirect measure of neuronal activity. A more direct approach would be to use genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) to observe subthreshold, synaptic activities. The GEVI, ArcLight, which exhibits large fluorescence transients in response to voltage, was expressed in excitatory neurons of the mouse CA1 hippocampus. Fluorescent signals in response to the electrical stimulation of the Schaffer collateral axons were observed in brain slice preparations. ArcLight was able to map both excitatory and inhibitory inputs projected to excitatory neurons. In contrast, the Ca2+ signal detected by GCaMP6f, was only associated with excitatory inputs. ArcLight and similar voltage sensing probes are also becoming powerful paradigms for functional connectivity mapping of brain circuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuichi Nakajima
- Center for Functional Connectomics, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 136-791, Republic of Korea
| | - Bradley J. Baker
- Center for Functional Connectomics, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 136-791, Republic of Korea
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
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50
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Kulkarni R, Vandenberghe M, Thunemann M, James F, Andreassen OA, Djurovic S, Devor A, Miller EW. In Vivo Two-Photon Voltage Imaging with Sulfonated Rhodamine Dyes. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2018; 4:1371-1378. [PMID: 30410975 PMCID: PMC6202643 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.8b00422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Optical methods that rely on fluorescence for mapping changes in neuronal membrane potential in the brains of awake animals provide a powerful way to interrogate the activity of neurons that underlie neural computations ranging from sensation and perception to learning and memory. To achieve this goal, fluorescent indicators should be bright, highly sensitive to small changes in membrane potential, nontoxic, and excitable with infrared light. We report a new class of fluorescent, voltage-sensitive dyes: sulfonated rhodamine voltage reporters (sRhoVR), synthetic fluorophores with high voltage sensitivity, excellent two-photon performance, and compatibility in intact mouse brains. sRhoVR dyes are based on a tetramethyl rhodamine fluorophore coupled to a phenylenevinylene molecular wire/diethyl aniline voltage-sensitive domain. When applied to cells, sRhoVR dyes localize to the plasma membrane and respond to membrane depolarization with a fluorescence increase. The best of the new dyes, sRhoVR 1, displays a 44% ΔF/F increase in fluorescence per 100 mV change, emits at 570 nm, and possesses excellent two-photon absorption of approximately 200 GM at 840 nm. sRhoVR 1 can detect action potentials in cultured rat hippocampal neurons under both single- and two-photon illumination with sufficient speed and sensitivity to report on action potentials in single trials, without perturbing underlying physiology or membrane properties. The combination of speed, sensitivity, and brightness under two-photon illumination makes sRhoVR 1 a promising candidate for in vivo imaging in intact brains. We show sRhoVR powerfully complements electrode-based modes of neuronal activity recording in the mouse brain by recording neuronal transmembrane potentials from the neuropil of layer 2/3 of the mouse barrel cortex in concert with extracellularly recorded local field potentials (LFPs). sRhoVR imaging reveals robust depolarization in response to whisker stimulation; concurrent electrode recordings reveal negative deflections in the LFP recording, consistent with the canonical thalamocortical response. Importantly, sRhoVR 1 can be applied in mice with chronic optical windows, presaging its utility in dissecting and resolving voltage dynamics using two-photon functional imaging in awake, behaving animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rishikesh
U. Kulkarni
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, and Helen Wills Neuroscience
Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Matthieu Vandenberghe
- Department of Neurosciences and Department of Radiology, University of California, San
Diego, California 92093, United States
- NORMENT − KG Jebsen
Centre for Psychosis Research, Division
of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital
and University of Oslo and Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University
Hospital, 0407 Oslo, Norway
| | - Martin Thunemann
- Department of Neurosciences and Department of Radiology, University of California, San
Diego, California 92093, United States
| | - Feroz James
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, and Helen Wills Neuroscience
Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Ole A. Andreassen
- NORMENT − KG Jebsen
Centre for Psychosis Research, Division
of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital
and University of Oslo and Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University
Hospital, 0407 Oslo, Norway
| | - Srdjan Djurovic
- NORMENT − KG Jebsen
Centre for Psychosis Research, Division
of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital
and University of Oslo and Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University
Hospital, 0407 Oslo, Norway
| | - Anna Devor
- Department of Neurosciences and Department of Radiology, University of California, San
Diego, California 92093, United States
- Martinos
Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts
General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Evan W. Miller
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, and Helen Wills Neuroscience
Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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