TARP γ-2 and γ-8 Differentially Control AMPAR Density Across Schaffer Collateral/Commissural Synapses in the Hippocampal CA1 Area

α-Bungarotoxin labelling of AMPA receptor-associated TARPs in living neurons

In mammalian central neurons AMPARs are clustered at glutamatergic synapses where they mediate fast excitatory transmission. In addition to four pore-forming subunits (GluA1-4), AMPARs contain auxiliary transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (γ2, γ3, γ4, γ5, γ7 or γ8) whose incorporation can vary between neuron types, brain regions, and stages of development. As well as modulating the functional properties of AMPARs, these auxiliary subunits play a central role in AMPAR trafficking. Directly visualizing TARPs could therefore provide a valuable insight into mechanisms underlying these processes. Although antibodies are routinely used for the detection of surface proteins, our experience suggests anti-TARP antibodies are too bulky to access their target, possibly due to close interactions between the extracellular domains of TARP and AMPAR subunits. We therefore assessed the utility of a small monovalent probe - fluorescent α-bungarotoxin (α-Btx) - for TARP labelling in living neurons. We inserted the bungarotoxin binding site (BBS) within the extracellular domain of TARPs to enable their detection in cells exposed to fluorescent α-Btx. Focusing on the prototypical TARP γ2, we demonstrate that the small size of fluorescent α-Btx allows it to bind to the BBS-tagged TARP when associated with AMPARs. Importantly, labelled γ2 enhances AMPAR function in the same way as unmodified γ2. In living neurons, fluorescent α-Btx-labelled γ2 associates with AMPAR clusters at synapses. As a proof-of-principle, we employed our method to compare the surface trafficking of γ2 and γ7 in cerebellar stellate neurons. Our approach provides a simple way to visualize TARPs within AMPARs in living cells.

Inter and intralaminar excitation of parvalbumin interneurons in mouse barrel cortex

Parvalbumin (PV) interneurons are inhibitory fast-spiking cells with essential roles in directing the flow of information through cortical circuits. These neurons set the balance between excitation and inhibition and control rhythmic activity. PV interneurons differ between cortical layers in their morphology, circuitry, and function, but how their electrophysiological properties vary has received little attention. Here we investigate responses of PV interneurons in different layers of primary somatosensory barrel cortex (BC) to different excitatory inputs. With the genetically-encoded hybrid voltage sensor, hVOS, we recorded voltage changes in many L2/3 and L4 PV interneurons simultaneously, with stimulation applied to either L2/3 or L4. A semi-automated procedure was developed to identify small regions of interest corresponding to single responsive PV interneurons. Amplitude, half-width, and rise-time were greater for PV interneurons residing in L2/3 compared to L4. Stimulation in L2/3 elicited responses in both L2/3 and L4 with longer latency compared to stimulation in L4. These differences in latency between layers could influence their windows for temporal integration. Thus, PV interneurons in different cortical layers of BC respond in a layer specific and input specific manner, and these differences have potential roles in cortical computations.

Differential nanoscale organization of excitatory synapses onto excitatory vs. inhibitory neurons

A key feature of excitatory synapses is the existence of subsynaptic protein nanoclusters (NCs) whose precise alignment across the cleft in a transsynaptic nanocolumn influences the strength of synaptic transmission. However, whether nanocolumn properties vary between excitatory synapses functioning in different cellular contexts is unknown. We used a combination of confocal and DNA-PAINT super-resolution microscopy to directly compare the organization of shared scaffold proteins at two important excitatory synapses-those forming onto excitatory principal neurons (Ex→Ex synapses) and those forming onto parvalbumin-expressing interneurons (Ex→PV synapses). As in Ex→Ex synapses, we find that in Ex→PV synapses, presynaptic Munc13-1 and postsynaptic PSD-95 both form NCs that demonstrate alignment, underscoring synaptic nanostructure and the transsynaptic nanocolumn as conserved organizational principles of excitatory synapses. Despite the general conservation of these features, we observed specific differences in the characteristics of pre- and postsynaptic Ex→PV nanostructure. Ex→PV synapses contained larger PSDs with fewer PSD-95 NCs when accounting for size than Ex→Ex synapses. Furthermore, the PSD-95 NCs were larger and denser. The identity of the postsynaptic cell was also represented in Munc13-1 organization, as Ex→PV synapses hosted larger Munc13-1 puncta that contained less dense but larger and more numerous Munc13-1 NCs. Moreover, we measured the spatial variability of transsynaptic alignment in these synapse types, revealing protein alignment in Ex→PV synapses over a distinct range of distances compared to Ex→Ex synapses. We conclude that while general principles of nanostructure and alignment are shared, cell-specific elements of nanodomain organization likely contribute to functional diversity of excitatory synapses.

In vitro evaluation of PET radiotracers for imaging synaptic density, the acetylcholine transporter, AMPA-tarp-γ8 and muscarinic M4 receptors in Alzheimer's disease

Several therapeutics and biomarkers that target Alzheimer's disease (AD) are under development. Our clinical positron emission tomography (PET) research programs are interested in six radiopharmaceuticals to image patients with AD and related dementias, specifically [11C]UCB-J and [18F]SynVesT-1 for synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A as a marker of synaptic density, two vesicular acetylcholine transporter PET radiotracers: [18F]FEOBV and [18F]VAT, as well as the transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory protein (TARP)-γ8 tracer, [18F]JNJ-64511070, and the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) M4 tracer [11C]MK-6884. The goal of this study was to compare all six radiotracers (labeled with tritium or 18F) by measuring their density variability in pathologically diagnosed cases of AD, mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and normal healthy volunteer (NHV) human brains, using thin-section in vitro autoradiography (ARG). Region of interest analysis was used to quantify radioligand binding density and determine whether the radioligands provide a signal-to-noise ratio optimal for showing changes in binding. Our preliminary study confirmed that all six radiotracers show specific binding in MCI and AD. An expected decrease in their respective target density in human AD hippocampus tissues compared to NHV was observed with [3H]UCB-J, [3H]SynVesT-1, [3H]JNJ-64511070, and [3H]MK-6884. This preliminary study will be used to guide human PET imaging of SV2A, TARP-γ8 and the mAChR M4 subtype for imaging in AD and related dementias.

Enhanced TARP-γ8-PSD-95 coupling in excitatory neurons contributes to the rapid antidepressant-like action of ketamine in male mice

Ketamine produces rapid antidepressant effects at sub-anesthetic dosage through early and sustained activation of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors (AMPARs), however, the exact molecular mechanism still remains unclear. Transmembrane AMPAR regulatory protein-γ8 (TARP-γ8) is identified as one of AMPAR auxiliary subunits, which controls assemblies, surface trafficking and gating of AMPARs. Here, we show that ketamine rescues both depressive-like behaviors and the decreased AMPARs-mediated neurotransmission by recruitment of TARP-γ8 at the postsynaptic sites in the ventral hippocampus of stressed male mice. Furthermore, the rapid antidepressant effects of ketamine are abolished by selective blockade of TARP-γ8-containing AMPAR or uncoupling of TARP-γ8 from PSD-95. Overexpression of TARP-γ8 reverses chronic stress-induced depressive-like behaviors and attenuation of AMPARs-mediated neurotransmission. Conversely, knockdown of TARP-γ8 in excitatory neurons prevents the rapid antidepressant effects of ketamine.

Impact of NLRP3 Depletion on Aging-Related Metaflammation, Cognitive Function, and Social Behavior in Mice

Immunosenescence and chronic inflammation associated with old age accompany brain aging and the loss of complex behaviors. Neuroinflammation in the hippocampus plays a pivotal role in the development of cognitive impairment and anxiety. However, the underlying mechanisms have not been fully explained. In this study, we aimed to investigate the disruption of insulin signaling and the mechanisms underlying metabolic inflammation ("metaflammation") in the brains of wild-type (WT) and NLRP3 knockout (KO) mice of different ages. We found a significant upregulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the hippocampus during aging, leading to an increase in the expression of phosphorylated metaflammation proteinases and inflammatory markers, along with an increase in the number of senescent cells. Additionally, metaflammation causes anxiety and impairs social preference behavior in aged mice. On the other hand, deletion of NLRP3 improves some behavioral and biochemical characteristics associated with aging, such as signal memory, neuroinflammation, and metabolic inflammation, but not anxious behavior. These results are associated with reduced IL-18 signaling and the PKR/IKKβ/IRS1 pathway as well as the SASP phenotype. In NLRP3 gene deletion conditions, PKR is down-regulated. Therefore, it is likely that slowing aging through various NLRP3 inhibition mechanisms will lessen the corresponding cognitive decline with aging. Thus, the genetic knockout of the NLRP3 inflammasome can be seen as a new therapeutic strategy for slowing down central nervous system (CNS) aging.

Differential nanoscale organization of excitatory synapses onto excitatory vs inhibitory neurons

A key feature of excitatory synapses is the existence of subsynaptic protein nanoclusters whose precise alignment across the cleft in a trans-synaptic nanocolumn influences the strength of synaptic transmission. However, whether nanocolumn properties vary between excitatory synapses functioning in different cellular contexts is unknown. We used a combination of confocal and DNA-PAINT super-resolution microscopy to directly compare the organization of shared scaffold proteins at two important excitatory synapses - those forming onto excitatory principal neurons (Ex→Ex synapses) and those forming onto parvalbumin-expressing interneurons (Ex→PV synapses). As in Ex→Ex synapses, we find that in Ex→PV synapses presynaptic Munc13-1 and postsynaptic PSD-95 both form nanoclusters that demonstrate alignment, underscoring synaptic nanostructure and the trans-synaptic nanocolumn as conserved organizational principles of excitatory synapses. Despite the general conservation of these features, we observed specific differences in the characteristics of pre- and postsynaptic Ex→PV nanostructure. Ex→PV synapses contained larger PSDs with fewer PSD-95 NCs when accounting for size than Ex→Ex synapses. Furthermore, the PSD-95 NCs were larger and denser. The identity of the postsynaptic cell also had a retrograde impact on Munc13-1 organization, as Ex→PV synapses hosted larger Munc13-1 puncta that contained less dense but larger and more numerous Munc13-1 NCs. Moreover, we measured the spatial variability of transsynaptic alignment in these synapse types, revealing protein alignment in Ex→PV synapses over a distinct range of distances compared to Ex→Ex synapses. We conclude that while general principles of nanostructure and alignment are shared, cell-specific elements of nanodomain organization likely contribute to functional diversity of excitatory synapses. Understanding the rules of synapse nanodomain assembly, which themselves are cell-type specific, will be essential for illuminating brain network dynamics.

Glyoxal fixation: An approach to solve immunohistochemical problem in neuroscience research

The gold-standard fixative for immunohistochemistry is 4% formaldehyde; however, it limits antibody access to target molecules that are buried within specialized neuronal components, such as ionotropic receptors at the postsynapse and voltage-gated ion channels at the axon initial segment, often requiring additional antigen-exposing techniques to detect their authentic signals. To solve this problem, we used glyoxal, a two-carbon atom di-aldehyde. We found that glyoxal fixation greatly improved antibody penetration and immunoreactivity, uncovering signals for buried molecules by conventional immunohistochemical procedures at light and electron microscopic levels. It also enhanced immunosignals of most other molecules, which are known to be detectable in formaldehyde-fixed sections. Furthermore, we unearthed several specific primary antibodies that were once judged to be unusable in formaldehyde-fixed tissues, allowing us to successfully localize so far controversial synaptic adhesion molecule Neuroligin 1. Thus, glyoxal is a highly effective fixative for immunostaining, and a side-by-side comparison of glyoxal and formaldehyde fixation is recommended for routine immunostaining in neuroscience research.

Inter and Intralaminar Excitation of Parvalbumin Interneurons in Mouse Barrel Cortex

Parvalbumin (PV) interneurons are inhibitory fast-spiking cells with essential roles in directing the flow of information through cortical circuits. These neurons set the balance between excitation and inhibition, control rhythmic activity, and have been linked to disorders including autism spectrum and schizophrenia. PV interneurons differ between cortical layers in their morphology, circuitry, and function, but how their electrophysiological properties vary has received little attention. Here we investigate responses of PV interneurons in different layers of primary somatosensory barrel cortex (BC) to different excitatory inputs. With the genetically-encoded hybrid voltage sensor, hVOS, we recorded voltage changes simultaneously in many L2/3 and L4 PV interneurons to stimulation in either L2/3 or L4. Decay-times were consistent across L2/3 and L4. Amplitude, half-width, and rise-time were greater for PV interneurons residing in L2/3 compared to L4. Stimulation in L2/3 elicited responses in both L2/3 and L4 with longer latency compared to stimulation in L4. These differences in latency between layers could influence their windows for temporal integration. Thus PV interneurons in different cortical layers of BC show differences in response properties with potential roles in cortical computations.

Aberrant hippocampal transmission and behavior in mice with a stargazin mutation linked to intellectual disability

Mutations linked to neurodevelopmental disorders, such as intellectual disability (ID), are frequently found in genes that encode for proteins of the excitatory synapse. Transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory proteins (TARPs) are AMPA receptor auxiliary proteins that regulate crucial aspects of receptor function. Here, we investigate a mutant form of the TARP family member stargazin, described in an ID patient. Molecular dynamics analyses predicted that the ID-associated stargazin variant, V143L, weakens the overall interface of the AMPAR:stargazin complex and impairs the stability of the complex. Knock-in mice harboring the V143L stargazin mutation manifest cognitive and social deficits and hippocampal synaptic transmission defects, resembling phenotypes displayed by ID patients. In the hippocampus of stargazin V143L mice, CA1 neurons show impaired spine maturation, abnormal synaptic transmission and long-term potentiation specifically in basal dendrites, and synaptic ultrastructural alterations. These data suggest a causal role for mutated stargazin in the pathogenesis of ID and unveil a new role for stargazin in the development and function of hippocampal synapses.

Bioorthogonal labeling of transmembrane proteins with non-canonical amino acids unveils masked epitopes in live neurons

Progress in biological imaging is intrinsically linked to advances in labeling methods. The explosion in the development of high-resolution and super-resolution imaging calls for new approaches to label targets with small probes. These should allow to faithfully report the localization of the target within the imaging resolution - typically nowadays a few nanometers - and allow access to any epitope of the target, in the native cellular and tissue environment. We report here the development of a complete labeling and imaging pipeline using genetic code expansion and non-canonical amino acids in neurons that allows to fluorescently label masked epitopes in target transmembrane proteins in live neurons, both in dissociated culture and organotypic brain slices. This allows us to image the differential localization of two AMPA receptor (AMPAR) auxiliary subunits of the transmembrane AMPAR regulatory protein family in complex with their partner with a variety of methods including widefield, confocal, and dSTORM super-resolution microscopy.

Structure, Function, and Pharmacology of Glutamate Receptor Ion Channels

Many physiologic effects of l-glutamate, the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system, are mediated via signaling by ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs). These ligand-gated ion channels are critical to brain function and are centrally implicated in numerous psychiatric and neurologic disorders. There are different classes of iGluRs with a variety of receptor subtypes in each class that play distinct roles in neuronal functions. The diversity in iGluR subtypes, with their unique functional properties and physiologic roles, has motivated a large number of studies. Our understanding of receptor subtypes has advanced considerably since the first iGluR subunit gene was cloned in 1989, and the research focus has expanded to encompass facets of biology that have been recently discovered and to exploit experimental paradigms made possible by technological advances. Here, we review insights from more than 3 decades of iGluR studies with an emphasis on the progress that has occurred in the past decade. We cover structure, function, pharmacology, roles in neurophysiology, and therapeutic implications for all classes of receptors assembled from the subunits encoded by the 18 ionotropic glutamate receptor genes. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Glutamate receptors play important roles in virtually all aspects of brain function and are either involved in mediating some clinical features of neurological disease or represent a therapeutic target for treatment. Therefore, understanding the structure, function, and pharmacology of this class of receptors will advance our understanding of many aspects of brain function at molecular, cellular, and system levels and provide new opportunities to treat patients.

Slow AMPA receptors in hippocampal principal cells

Glutamate receptor ion channels, including α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors, mediate fast excitatory neurotransmission in the CNS. Previous work suggested that AMPA receptors produce a synaptic current with a millisecond duration. However, we find that about two-thirds of principal cells in the hippocampal CA1 region also express AMPA receptors with reduced desensitization that can stay active for half a second after repetitive stimuli. These slow AMPA receptors are expressed at about half of the synapses, with a flat spatial distribution. The increased charge transfer from slow AMPA receptors allows short-term potentiation from a postsynaptic locus and reliable triggering of action potentials. Biophysical and pharmacological observations imply slow AMPA receptors incorporate auxiliary proteins, and their activation lengthens miniature synaptic currents. These data indicate that AMPA receptors are a major source of synaptic diversity. Synapses harboring slow AMPA receptors could have unique roles in hippocampal function.

Subunit-dependent and subunit-independent rules of AMPA receptor trafficking during chemical long-term depression in hippocampal neurons

Long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) of excitatory neurotransmission are believed to be the neuronal basis of learning and memory. Both processes are primarily mediated by neuronal activity-induced transport of postsynaptic AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs). While AMPAR subunits and their specific phosphorylation sites mediate differential AMPAR trafficking, LTP and LTD could also occur in a subunit-independent manner. Thus, it remains unclear whether and how certain AMPAR subunits with phosphorylation sites are preferentially recruited to or removed from synapses during LTP and LTD. Using immunoblot and immunocytochemical analysis, we show that phosphomimetic mutations of the membrane-proximal region (MPR) in GluA1 AMPAR subunits affect the subunit-dependent endosomal transport of AMPARs during chemical LTD. AP-2 and AP-3, adaptor protein complexes necessary for clathrin-mediated endocytosis and late endosomal/lysosomal trafficking, respectively, are reported to be recruited to AMPARs by binding to the AMPAR auxiliary subunit, stargazin (STG), in an AMPAR subunit-independent manner. However, the association of AP-3, but not AP-2, with STG was indirectly inhibited by the phosphomimetic mutation in the MPR of GluA1. Thus, although AMPARs containing the phosphomimetic mutation at the MPR of GluA1 were endocytosed by a chemical LTD-inducing stimulus, they were quickly recycled back to the cell surface in hippocampal neurons. These results could explain how the phosphorylation status of GluA1-MPR plays a dominant role in subunit-independent STG-mediated AMPAR trafficking during LTD.

Specific Neuroligin3-αNeurexin1 signaling regulates GABAergic synaptic function in mouse hippocampus

Synapse formation and regulation require signaling interactions between pre- and postsynaptic proteins, notably cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). It has been proposed that the functions of neuroligins (Nlgns), postsynaptic CAMs, rely on the formation of trans-synaptic complexes with neurexins (Nrxns), presynaptic CAMs. Nlgn3 is a unique Nlgn isoform that localizes at both excitatory and inhibitory synapses. However, Nlgn3 function mediated via Nrxn interactions is unknown. Here we demonstrate that Nlgn3 localizes at postsynaptic sites apposing vesicular glutamate transporter 3-expressing (VGT3+) inhibitory terminals and regulates VGT3+ inhibitory interneuron-mediated synaptic transmission in mouse organotypic slice cultures. Gene expression analysis of interneurons revealed that the αNrxn1+AS4 splice isoform is highly expressed in VGT3+ interneurons as compared with other interneurons. Most importantly, postsynaptic Nlgn3 requires presynaptic αNrxn1+AS4 expressed in VGT3+ interneurons to regulate inhibitory synaptic transmission. Our results indicate that specific Nlgn-Nrxn signaling generates distinct functional properties at synapses.

Estimation of the number of synapses in the hippocampus and brain-wide by volume electron microscopy and genetic labeling

Determining the number of synapses that are present in different brain regions is crucial to understand brain connectivity as a whole. Membrane-associated guanylate kinases (MAGUKs) are a family of scaffolding proteins that are expressed in excitatory glutamatergic synapses. We used genetic labeling of two of these proteins (PSD95 and SAP102), and Spinning Disc confocal Microscopy (SDM), to estimate the number of fluorescent puncta in the CA1 area of the hippocampus. We also used FIB-SEM, a three-dimensional electron microscopy technique, to calculate the actual numbers of synapses in the same area. We then estimated the ratio between the three-dimensional densities obtained with FIB-SEM (synapses/µm³) and the bi-dimensional densities obtained with SDM (puncta/100 µm²). Given that it is impractical to use FIB-SEM brain-wide, we used previously available SDM data from other brain regions and we applied this ratio as a conversion factor to estimate the minimum density of synapses in those regions. We found the highest densities of synapses in the isocortex, olfactory areas, hippocampal formation and cortical subplate. Low densities were found in the pallidum, hypothalamus, brainstem and cerebellum. Finally, the striatum and thalamus showed a wide range of synapse densities.

Structural synaptic plasticity across sleep and wake

Sleep-dependent synaptic plasticity is crucial for optimal cognition. However, establishing the direction of synaptic plasticity during sleep has been particularly challenging since data in support of both synaptic potentiation and depotentiation have been reported. This review focuses on structural synaptic plasticity across sleep and wake and summarizes recent developments in the use of 3-dimensional electron microscopy as applied to this field.

AMPA receptor deletion in developing MGE-derived hippocampal interneurons causes a redistribution of excitatory synapses and attenuates postnatal network oscillatory activity

Inhibitory interneurons derived from the medial ganglionic eminence represent the largest cohort of GABAergic neurons in the hippocampus. In the CA1 hippocampus excitatory synapses onto these cells comprise GluA2-lacking, calcium-permeable AMPARs. Although synaptic transmission is not established until early in their postnatal life, AMPARs are expressed early in development, however their role is enigmatic. Using the Nkx2.1-cre mouse line we genetically deleted GluA1, GluA2, GluA3 selectively from MGE derived interneurons early in development. We observed that the number of MGE-derived interneurons was preserved in mature hippocampus despite early elimination of AMPARs, which resulted in >90% decrease in spontaneous excitatory synaptic activity. Of particular interest, excitatory synaptic sites were shifted from dendritic to somatic locations while maintaining a normal NMDAR content. The developmental switch of NMDARs from GluN2B-containing early in development to GluN2A-containing on maturation was similarly unperturbed despite the loss of AMPARs. Early network giant depolarizing potential oscillatory activity was compromised in early postnatal days as was both feedforward and feedback inhibition onto pyramidal neurons underscoring the importance of glutamatergic drive onto MGE-derived interneurons for hippocampal circuit function.

GluA4-Targeted AAV Vectors Deliver Genes Selectively to Interneurons while Relying on the AAV Receptor for Entry

Selective gene delivery into subtypes of interneurons remains an important challenge in vector development. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector particles are especially promising for intracerebral injections. For cell entry, AAV2 particles are supposed to attach to heparan-sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) followed by endocytosis via the AAV receptor (AAVR). Here, we assessed engineered AAV particles deficient in HSPG attachment but competent in recognizing the glutamate receptor 4 (GluA4, also known as GluRD or GRIA4) through a displayed GluA4-specific DARPin (designed ankyrin repeat protein). When injected into the mouse brain, histological evaluation revealed that in various regions, more than 90% of the transduced cells were interneurons, mainly of the parvalbumin-positive subtype. Although part of the selectivity was mediated by the DARPin, the chosen spleen focus-forming virus (SFFV) promoter had contributed as well. Further analysis revealed that the DARPin mediated selective attachment to GluA4-positive cells, whereas gene delivery required expression of AAVR. Our data suggest that cell selectivity of AAV particles can be modified rationally and efficiently through DARPins, but expression of the AAV entry receptor remains essential.

AMPA receptors and their minions: auxiliary proteins in AMPA receptor trafficking

To correctly transfer information, neuronal networks need to continuously adjust their synaptic strength to extrinsic stimuli. This ability, termed synaptic plasticity, is at the heart of their function and is, thus, tightly regulated. In glutamatergic neurons, synaptic strength is controlled by the number and function of AMPA receptors at the postsynapse, which mediate most of the fast excitatory transmission in the central nervous system. Their trafficking to, at, and from the synapse, is, therefore, a key mechanism underlying synaptic plasticity. Intensive research over the last 20 years has revealed the increasing importance of interacting proteins, which accompany AMPA receptors throughout their lifetime and help to refine the temporal and spatial modulation of their trafficking and function. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge about the roles of key partners in regulating AMPA receptor trafficking and focus especially on the movement between the intracellular, extrasynaptic, and synaptic pools. We examine their involvement not only in basal synaptic function, but also in Hebbian and homeostatic plasticity. Included in our review are well-established AMPA receptor interactants such as GRIP1 and PICK1, the classical auxiliary subunits TARP and CNIH, and the newest additions to AMPA receptor native complexes.

Regulatory Architecture of the Neuronal Cacng2/Tarpγ2 Gene Promoter: Multiple Repressive Domains, a Polymorphic Regulatory Short Tandem Repeat, and Bidirectional Organization with Co-regulated lncRNAs

CACNG2 (TARPγ2, Stargazin) is a multi-functional regulator of excitatory neurotransmission and has been implicated in the pathological processes of several brain diseases. Cacng2 function is dependent upon expression level, but currently, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that control expression of this gene. To address this deficit and investigate disease-related gene variants, we have cloned and characterized the rat Cacng2 promoter and have defined three major features: (i) multiple repressive domains that include an array of RE-1 silencing transcription factor (REST) elements, and a calcium regulatory element-binding factor (CaRF) element, (ii) a (poly-GA) short tandem repeat (STR), and (iii) bidirectional organization with expressed lncRNAs. Functional activity of the promoter was demonstrated in transfected neuronal cell lines (HT22 and PC12), but although selective removal of REST and CaRF domains was shown to enhance promoter-driven transcription, the enhanced Cacng2 promoter constructs were still about fivefold weaker than a comparable rat Synapsin-1 promoter sequence. Direct evidence of REST activity at the Cacng2 promoter was obtained through co-transfection with an established dominant-negative REST (DNR) construct. Investigation of the GA-repeat STR revealed polymorphism across both animal strains and species, and size variation was also observed in absence epilepsy disease model cohorts (Genetic Absence Epilepsy Rats, Strasbourg [GAERS] and non-epileptic control [NEC] rats). These data provide evidence of a genotype (STR)-phenotype correlation that may be unique with respect to proximal gene regulatory sequence in the demonstrated absence of other promoter, or 3' UTR variants in GAERS rats. However, although transcriptional regulatory activity of the STR was demonstrated in further transfection studies, we did not find a GAERS vs. NEC difference, indicating that this specific STR length variation may only be relevant in the context of other (Cacna1h and Kcnk9) gene variants in this disease model. Additional studies revealed further (bidirectional) complexity at the Cacng2 promoter, and we identified novel, co-regulated, antisense rat lncRNAs that are paired with Cacng2 mRNA. These studies have provided novel insights into the organization of a synaptic protein gene promoter, describing multiple repressive and modulatory domains that can mediate diverse regulatory inputs.

Synthesis, pharmacology and preclinical evaluation of 11C-labeled 1,3-dihydro-2H-benzo[d]imidazole-2-ones for imaging γ8-dependent transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory protein

a-Amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors are implicated in the pathology of neurological diseases such as epilepsy and schizophrenia. As pan antagonists for this target are often accompanied with undesired effects at high doses, one of the recent drug discovery approaches has shifted to subtype-selective AMPA receptor (AMPAR) antagonists, specifically, via modulating transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs). The quantification of AMPARs by positron emission tomography (PET) would help obtain insights into disease conditions in the living brain and advance the translational development of AMPAR antagonists. Herein we report the design, synthesis and preclinical evaluation of a series of TARP γ-8 antagonists, amenable for radiolabeling, for the development of subtype-selective AMPAR PET imaging agents. Based on the pharmacology evaluation, molecular docking studies and physiochemical properties, we have identified several promising lead compounds 3, 17-19 and 21 for in vivo PET studies. All candidate compounds were labeled with [¹¹C]COCl₂ in high radiochemical yields (13-31% RCY) and high molar activities (35-196 GBq/μmol). While tracers 30 ([¹¹C]17) &32 ([¹¹C]21) crossed the blood-brain barrier and showed heterogeneous distribution in PET studies, consistent with TARP γ-8 expression, high nonspecific binding prevented further evaluation. To our delight, tracer 31 ([¹¹C]3) showed good in vitro specific binding and characteristic high uptake in the hippocampus in rat brain tissues, which provides the guideline for further development of a new generation subtype selective TARP γ-8 dependent AMPAR tracers.

Synaptic Changes in AMPA Receptor Subunit Expression in Cortical Parvalbumin Interneurons in the Stargazer Model of Absence Epilepsy

Feedforward inhibition is essential to prevent run away excitation within the brain. Recent evidence suggests that a loss of feed-forward inhibition in the corticothalamocortical circuitry may underlie some absence seizures. However, it is unclear if this aberration is specifically linked to loss of synaptic excitation onto local fast-spiking parvalbumin-containing (PV⁺) inhibitory interneurons, which are responsible for mediating feedforward inhibition within cortical networks. We recently reported a global tissue loss of AMPA receptors (AMPARs), and a specific mistrafficking of these AMPARs in PV⁺ interneurons in the stargazer somatosensory cortex. The current study was aimed at investigating if cellular changes in AMPAR expression were translated into deficits in receptors at specific synapses in the feedforward inhibitory microcircuit. Using western blot immunolabeling on biochemically isolated synaptic fractions, we demonstrate a loss of AMPAR GluA1–4 subunits in the somatosensory cortex of stargazers compared to non-epileptic control mice. Furthermore, using double post-embedding immunogold-cytochemistry, we show a loss of GluA1–4-AMPARs at excitatory synapses onto cortical PV⁺ interneurons. Altogether, these data indicate a loss of synaptic AMPAR-mediated excitation of cortical PV⁺ inhibitory neurons. As the cortex is considered the site of initiation of spike wave discharges (SWDs) within the corticothalamocortical circuitry, loss of AMPARs at cortical PV⁺ interneurons likely impairs feed-forward inhibitory output, and contributes to the generation of SWDs and absence seizures in stargazers.

Amyloid Accumulation Drives Proteome-wide Alterations in Mouse Models of Alzheimer's Disease-like Pathology

Amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides impair multiple cellular pathways and play a causative role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology, but how the brain proteome is remodeled by this process is unknown. To identify protein networks associated with AD-like pathology, we performed global quantitative proteomic analysis in three mouse models at young and old ages. Our analysis revealed a robust increase in Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) levels in nearly all brain regions with increased Aβ levels. Taken together with prior findings on ApoE driving Aβ accumulation, this analysis points to a pathological dysregulation of the ApoE-Aβ axis. We also found dysregulation of protein networks involved in excitatory synaptic transmission. Analysis of the AMPA receptor (AMPAR) complex revealed specific loss of TARPγ-2, a key AMPAR-trafficking protein. Expression of TARPγ-2 in hAPP transgenic mice restored AMPA currents. This proteomic database represents a resource for the identification of protein alterations responsible for AD.

Hippocampal GABAergic Inhibitory Interneurons

In the hippocampus GABAergic local circuit inhibitory interneurons represent only ~10-15% of the total neuronal population; however, their remarkable anatomical and physiological diversity allows them to regulate virtually all aspects of cellular and circuit function. Here we provide an overview of the current state of the field of interneuron research, focusing largely on the hippocampus. We discuss recent advances related to the various cell types, including their development and maturation, expression of subtype-specific voltage- and ligand-gated channels, and their roles in network oscillations. We also discuss recent technological advances and approaches that have permitted high-resolution, subtype-specific examination of their roles in numerous neural circuit disorders and the emerging therapeutic strategies to ameliorate such pathophysiological conditions. The ultimate goal of this review is not only to provide a touchstone for the current state of the field, but to help pave the way for future research by highlighting where gaps in our knowledge exist and how a complete appreciation of their roles will aid in future therapeutic strategies.

Auxiliary subunits of AMPA receptors: The discovery of a forebrain-selective antagonist, LY3130481/CERC-611

Drugs originate from the discovery of compounds, natural or synthetic, that bind to proteins (receptors, enzymes, transporters, etc.), the interaction of which modulates biological cascades that have potential therapeutic benefit. Rational strategies for identifying novel drug therapies are typically based on knowledge of the structure of the target proteins and the design of new chemical entities that modulate these proteins in a beneficial manner. The present review discusses a novel approach to drug discovery based on the identification and characterization of auxiliary proteins, the transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory proteins (TARPs) that are associated with AMPA receptors. Utilizing these auxiliary proteins in compound screening led to the discovery of the TARP-dependent-AMPA forebrain selective receptor antagonist (TDAA), LY3130481/CERC-611 that is currently in clinical development for epilepsy.

Correlation profiling of brain sub-cellular proteomes reveals co-assembly of synaptic proteins and subcellular distribution

Protein correlation profiling might assist in defining co-assembled proteins and subcellular distribution. Here, we quantified the proteomes of five biochemically isolated mouse brain cellular sub-fractions, with emphasis on synaptic compartments, from three brain regions, hippocampus, cortex and cerebellum. We demonstrated the expected co-fractionation of canonical synaptic proteins belonging to the same functional groups. The enrichment profiles also suggested the presence of many novel pre- and post-synaptic proteins. Using super-resolution microscopy on primary neuronal culture we confirmed the postsynaptic localization of PLEKHA5 and ADGRA1. We further detected profound brain region specific differences in the extent of enrichment for some functionally associated proteins. This is exemplified by different AMPA receptor subunits and substantial differences in sub-fraction distribution of their potential interactors, which implicated the differences of AMPA receptor complex compositions. This resource aids the identification of proteins partners and subcellular distribution of synaptic proteins.

Subunit-specific synaptic delivery of AMPA receptors by auxiliary chaperone proteins TARPγ8 and GSG1L in classical conditioning

AMPA receptor (AMPAR) trafficking has emerged as a fundamental concept for understanding mechanisms of learning and memory as well as many neurological disorders. Classical conditioning is a simple and highly conserved form of associative learning. Our studies use an ex vivo brainstem preparation in which to study cellular mechanisms underlying learning during a neural correlate of eyeblink conditioning. Two stages of AMPAR synaptic delivery underlie conditioning utilizing sequential trafficking of GluA1-containing AMPARs early in conditioning followed by replacement with GluA4 subunits later. Subunit-selective trafficking of AMPARs is poorly understood. Here, we focused on identification of auxiliary chaperone proteins that traffic AMPARs. The results show that auxiliary proteins TARPγ8 and GSG1L are colocalized with AMPARs on abducens motor neurons that generate the conditioning. Significantly, TARPγ8 was observed to chaperone GluA1-containing AMPARs during synaptic delivery early in conditioning while GSG1L chaperones GluA4 subunits later in conditioning. Interestingly, TARPγ8 remains at the membrane surface as GluA1 subunits are withdrawn and associates with GluA4 when they are delivered to synapses. These data indicate that GluA1- and GluA4-containing AMPARs are selectively chaperoned by TARPγ8 and GSG1L, respectively. Therefore, sequential subunit-selective trafficking of AMPARs during conditioning is achieved through the timing of their interactions with specific auxiliary proteins.