S-GRAS score for prognostic classification of adrenocortical carcinoma: an international, multicenter ENSAT study

Differences in life expectancy of adrenocortical carcinoma patients vs. age‑ and sex-matched population controls

PURPOSE

To quantify to what extent the 5-year overall survival (OS) of adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) patients differs from age- and sex-matched population-based controls, especially when stage is considered.

METHODS

We relied on the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database (2004-2020) to identify newly diagnosed (2004-2014) ACC patients. Subsequently, we compared OS between ACC patients relative to simulated age- and sex-matched controls (Monte Carlo simulation), according to Social Security Administration Life Tables (2004-2020).

RESULTS

Of all 742 ACC patients, 301 (41%) harbored localized stage, 173 (23%) locally advanced stage, and 268 (36%) metastatic stage. At 5-years follow-up, ACC patients' OS was 33%. After stratification for stage, the 5-years OS was 55 vs. 31 vs. 8% in localized, locally advanced, and metastatic stages, respectively. Conversely, after Monte Carlo simulation of age- and sex-matched controls, OS at five-years was 93% in the entire simulated cohort vs. 94% in the simulated localized cohort vs. 92 and 92% in locally advanced and metastatic stage, respectively. The resulting differences in OS between ACC patients and age- and sex-matched population-based controls were 60 vs. 39 vs. 61 vs. 84% respectively in the overall cohort vs. localized vs. locally advanced vs. metastatic stage.

CONCLUSION

The most pronounced life expectancy detriment (84%) was recorded in metastatic ACC followed by locally advanced ACC patients (61%). Unfortunately, even in patients with localized ACC, life expectancy was 39% lower than that of the general population. Therefore, regardless of stage, ACC diagnosis results in a very pronounced detriment in life expectancy relative to the general population.

Transformation of a Benign Adrenocortical Adenoma to a Metastatic Adrenocortical Carcinoma Is Rare But It Happens

The transformation of an adrenocortical adenoma (ACA) to an adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is extremely rare. Current guidelines suggest against further imaging studies and follow-up in patients with nonfunctional adrenal incidentalomas (NFAIs) with benign imaging characteristics. Herein, we present a 64-year-old male patient diagnosed initially with a NFAI of 3 cm in size with imaging characteristics consistent with an ACA. However, 13 years after initial diagnosis, this apparent ACA developed into a high-grade cortisol and androgen-secreting ACC with synchronous metastases. The literature review revealed a further 9 case reports of adrenal incidentalomas initially characterized as ACA that subsequently developed into ACC within a period ranging from 1 to 10 years. The pathogenesis of transformation of an initially denoted ACA to ACC is not fully delineated, although the existing literature focuses on the preexisting or changing genetic background of these lesions, highlighting the need to develop robust prognostic markers to identify patients at risk and individualize the follow-up of these unique cases.

Assessment of prognostic factors in pediatric adrenocortical tumors: the modified pediatric S-GRAS score in an international multicenter cohort-a work from the ENSAT-PACT working group

OBJECTIVE

Pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma (pACC) is rare, and prognostic stratification remains challenging. We aimed to confirm the prognostic value of the previously published pediatric scoring system (pS-GRAS) in an international multicenter cohort.

DESIGN

Analysis of pS-GRAS items of pACC from 6 countries in collaboration of ENSAT-PACT, GPOH-MET, and IC-PACT.

METHODS

We received patient data of the pS-GRAS items including survival information from 9 centers. PS-GRAS score was calculated as a sum of tumor stage (1 = 0; 2-3 = 1; 4 = 2 points), grade (Ki67 index: 0%-9% = 0; 10%-19% = 1; ≥20% = 2 points), resection status (R0 = 0; RX/R1/R2 = 1 point), age (<4 years = 0; ≥4 years = 1 point), and hormone production (androgen production = 0; glucocorticoid-/mixed-/no-hormone production = 1 point) generating 8 scores and 4 groups (1: 0-2, 2: 3-4, 3: 5, 4: 6-7). Primary endpoint was overall survival (OS).

RESULTS

We included 268 patients with median age of 4 years. The analysis of the pS-GRAS score showed a significantly favorable prognosis in patients with a lower scoring compared to higher scoring groups (5-year OS: Group 1 98%; group 2 87% [hazard ratio {HR} of death 3.6, 95% CI of HR 1.6-8.2]; group 3 43% [HR of death 2.8, 95% CI 1.9-4.4]; group 4: OS 18% [HR of death 2.1, 95% CI 1.7-2.7]). In the multivariable analysis, age (HR of death 3.5, 95% CI 1.8-7.0), resection status (HR of death 5.5, 95% CI 2.7-11.1), tumor stage (HR of death 1.9, 95% CI of HR 1.2-3.0), and Ki67 index (HR of death 1.7, 95% CI 1.2-2.4) remained strong independent outcome predictors. Especially infants < 4 years showed more often low-risk constellations with a better OS for all tumor stages.

CONCLUSION

In an international multicenter study, we confirmed that the pS-GRAS score is strongly associated with overall survival among patients with pACC. Age, resection status, stage, and Ki67 index are important parameters for risk stratification.

Targeted Next Generation Sequencing molecular profiling and its clinical application in adrenocortical cancer

OBJECTIVE

Adrenal cortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare malignancy with a generally poor but heterogeneous prognosis, especially depending on the tumour stage at diagnosis. Identification of somatic gene alterations combined with clinical/histopathological evaluation of the tumour can help improve prognostication. We applied a simplified targeted-Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) panel to characterise the mutational profiles of ACCs, providing potentially relevant information for better patient management.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Thirty frozen tumour specimens from a local ACC series were retrospectively analysed by a custom-NGS panel (CDKN2A, CTNNB1, DAXX, MED12, NF1, PRKAR1A, RB1, TERT, TP53, ZNRF3) to detect somatic prioritised single-nucleotide variants. This cohort was integrated with 86 patients from the ACC-TCGA series bearing point-mutations in the same genes and their combinations identified by our panel. Primary endpoints of the analysis on the total cohort (113 patients) were overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS), and hazard ratio (HR) for the different alterations grouped by the signalling pathways/combinations affected.

RESULTS

Different PFS, OS, and HR were associated to the different pathways/combinations, being NF1 + TP53 and Wnt/β-catenin + Rb/p53 combined mutations the most deleterious, with a statistical significance for progression HR which is retained only in low-(I/II) stages-NF1 + TP53 combination: HR = 2.96[1.01-8.69] and HR = 13.23[3.15-55.61], all and low stages, respectively; Wnt/β-catenin + Rb/p53 combined pathways: HR = 6.47[2.54-16.49] and HR = 16.24[3.87-68.00], all and low-stages, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

A simplified targeted-NGS approach seems the best routinely applicable first step towards somatic genetic characterisation of ACC for prognostic assessment. This approach proved to be particularly promising in low-stage cases, suggesting the need for more stringent surveillance and personalised treatment.

Predictive value of C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 4-directed molecular imaging in patients with advanced adrenocortical carcinoma

BACKGROUND

In patients affected with adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC), C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) is highly expressed in sites of disease in an ex-vivo setting. We aimed to determine the predictive value of CXCR4-targeting [68Ga]Ga-PentixaFor PET/CT for outcome when compared to clinical parameters.

METHODS

We identified 41 metastasized ACC patients imaged with [68Ga]Ga-PentixaFor PET/CT. Scans were assessed visually and on a quantitative level by manually segmenting the tumor burden (providing tumor volume [TV], peak/mean/maximum standardized uptake values [SUV] and tumor chemokine receptor binding on the cell surface [TRB], defined as SUVmean multiplied by tumor volume). Clinical parameters included sex, previous therapies, age, Weiss-Score, and Ki67 index. Following imaging, overall survival (OS) was recorded.

RESULTS

After [68Ga]Ga-PentixaFor PET/CT, median OS was 9 months (range, 1-96 months). On univariable analysis, only higher TRB (per 10 ml, HR 1.004, 95%CI: 1.0001-1.007, P = 0.005) and presence of CXCR4-positive peritoneal metastases (PM) were associated with shorter OS (HR 2.03, 95%CI: 1.03-4.02, P = 0.04). Presence of CXCR4-positive liver metastases (LM) trended towards significance (HR 1.85, 0.9-4.1, P = 0.11), while all other parameters failed to predict survival. On multivariable analysis, only TRB was an independent predictor for OS (HR 1.0, 95%CI: 1.00-1.001, P = 0.02). On Kaplan-Meier analysis, TRB above median (13.3 months vs. below median, 6.4 months) and presence of CXCR4-positive PM (6.4 months, vs. no PM, 11.4 months) were associated with shorter survival (P < 0.05, respectively). Presence of LM, however, was also linked to less favorable outcome (8.5 months vs. no LM, 18.1 months), without reaching significance (P = 0.07).

CONCLUSIONS

In advanced ACC, elevated tumor chemokine receptor binding on the tumor cell surface detected through [68Ga]Ga-PentixaFor PET/CT is an independent predictor for OS, while other imaging and clinical parameters failed to provide relevant prognostic information.

Prognostic role of quantitative [18F]FDG PET/CT parameters in adrenocortical carcinoma

PURPOSE

We aimed to evaluate the prognostic potential of baseline [18F]FDG PET/CT for overall survival (OS) in patients with adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC).

METHODS

We performed a retrospective analysis of 67 treatment-naïve ACC patients with available [18F]FDG PET/CT at time of initial diagnosis. Pretherapeutic PETs of primary tumors were manually segmented and quantitative parameters (maximum/mean/peak standardized uptake value (SUVmax/mean/peak), metabolic tumor volume (MTV) and tumor lesion glycolysis (TLG, defined as TV*SUVmean) were derived. Based on a visual read, absence (M0) or presence of metastatic disease (M1) were evaluated. Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression analyses were used to determine the prognostic value of the above mentioned markers on overall survival adjusted for established prognostic markers.

RESULTS

24/67 patients (36%) presented with M0 based on PET/CT, while the remaining 43/67 (64%) had M1-status. 32/67 patients died during follow-up and median OS was 48 months. In 12% of patients FDG-PET detected additional metastatic lesion not clearly visible by CT only. In univariable analysis, all quantitatively derived PET parameters failed to reach significance (P ≥ 0.1), and only PET/CT-based M1-status and Ki-67 were associated with increased mortality (M1: HR 13.89, 95% CI 4.15-86.32, P < 0.001; Ki-67 HR 1.29, 95% CI 1.16-1.42; P < 0.0001). Using multivariable Cox regression analyses, M1-status (HR 9.69, 95% CI 2.82-60.99) and Ki-67 index (HR 1.29, 95% CI 1.13-1.04; P < 0.05) remained significant associated with OS.

CONCLUSION

In treatment-naïve ACC patients, the quantitative PET parameter failed to predict OS, but presence of metastases detected by [18F]FDG PET/CT and Ki-67 index were independently associated with shorter OS. Therefore, a simple visual PET-based read-out is of prognostic value at initial diagnosis, while time-consuming PET-based quantification can be omitted.

Current Status and Future Direction in the Treatment of Advanced Adrenocortical Carcinoma

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To provide a comprehensive overview of the current understanding and developments in the treatment options for adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC), focusing on the strategies utilized for advanced disease.

RECENT FINDINGS

Research has delved into the genomic landscape of ACC, revealing potential targets for therapy. Despite the failure of inhibitors aimed at the insulin like growth factor 1(IGF-1) receptor, other approaches, including vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEFGR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors, are being investigated. There are also ongoing trials of combination treatments such as lenvatinib with pembrolizumab and cabozantinib with atezolizumab. ACC remains a challenging malignancy with limited effective treatment options. Although EDP-M stands as the frontline treatment, the search for effective second-line therapies is ongoing. Targeted therapies and immunotherapies, especially in combination regimens, are demonstrating potential and are the subject of continued research. The evolving genomic landscape emphasizes the significance of targeted therapies and the need for further in-depth studies to solidify effective treatment regimens for ACC.

International consensus on mitotane treatment in pediatric patients with adrenal cortical tumors: indications, therapy, and management of adverse effects

OBJECTIVE

Mitotane is an important cornerstone in the treatment of pediatric adrenal cortical tumors (pACC), but experience with the drug in the pediatric age group is still limited and current practice is not guided by robust evidence. Therefore, we have compiled international consensus statements from pACC experts on mitotane indications, therapy, and management of adverse effects.

METHODS

A Delphi method with 3 rounds of questionnaires within the pACC expert consortium of the international network groups European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumors pediatric working group (ENSAT-PACT) and International Consortium of pediatric adrenocortical tumors (ICPACT) was used to create 21 final consensus statements.

RESULTS

We divided the statements into 4 groups: environment, indications, therapy, and adverse effects. We reached a clear consensus for mitotane treatment for advanced pACC with stages III and IV and with incomplete resection/tumor spillage. For stage II patients, mitotane is not generally indicated. The timing of initiating mitotane therapy depends on the clinical condition of the patient and the setting of the planned therapy. We recommend a starting dose of 50 mg/kg/d (1500 mg/m²/d) which can be increased up to 4000 mg/m2/d. Blood levels should range between 14 and 20 mg/L. Duration of mitotane treatment depends on the clinical risk profile and tolerability. Mitotane treatment causes adrenal insufficiency in virtually all patients requiring glucocorticoid replacement shortly after beginning. As the spectrum of adverse effects of mitotane is wide-ranging and can be life-threatening, frequent clinical and neurological examinations (every 2-4 weeks), along with evaluation and assessment of laboratory values, are required.

CONCLUSIONS

The Delphi method enabled us to propose an expert consensus statement, which may guide clinicians, further adapted by local norms and the individual patient setting. In order to generate evidence, well-constructed studies should be the focus of future efforts.

Circulating cell-free DNA-based biomarkers for prognostication and disease monitoring in adrenocortical carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare aggressive cancer with heterogeneous behaviour. Disease surveillance relies on frequent imaging, which comes with significant radiation exposure. The aim of the study was to investigate the role of circulating cell-free DNA (ccfDNA)-related biomarkers (BMs) for prognostication and monitoring of ACC.

DESIGN AND METHODS

We investigated 34 patients with ACC and 23 healthy subjects (HSs) as controls. Circulating cell-free DNA was extracted by commercial kits and ccfDNA concentrations were quantified by fluorimeter (BM1). Targeted sequencing was performed using a customized panel of 27 ACC-specific genes. Leucocyte DNA was used to discriminate somatic variants (BM2), while tumour DNA was sequenced in 22/34 cases for comparison. Serial ccfDNA samples were collected during follow-up in 19 ACC patients (median period 9 months) and analysed in relationship with standard radiological imaging.

RESULTS

Circulating cell-free DNA concentrations were higher in ACC than HS (mean ± SD, 1.15 ± 1.56 vs 0.05 ± 0.05 ng/µL, P < .0001), 96% of them being above the cut-off of 0.146 ng/µL (mean HS + 2 SD, positive BM1). At ccfDNA sequencing, 47% of ACC showed at least 1 somatic mutation (positive BM2). A combined ccfDNA-BM score was strongly associated with both progression-free and overall survival (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.63; 95% CI, 1.13-6.13; P = .010, and HR = 5.98; 95% CI, 2.29-15.6; P = .0001, respectively). During disease monitoring, positive BM2 showed the best specificity (100%) and sensitivity (67%) to detect ACC recurrence or progress compared with BM1.

CONCLUSION

ccfDNA-related BMs are frequently detected in ACC patients and represent a promising, minimally invasive tool to predict clinical outcome and complement surveillance imaging. Our findings will be validated in a larger cohort of ACCs with long-term follow-up.

Validated predictive model for treatment and prognosis of adrenocortical carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Adrenocortical carcinoma has a poor prognosis and multiple clinical, pathological, and treatment variables. Currently, we lack a prognostic and treatment calculator to determine the survival and efficacy of adjuvant chemoradiation. We aimed to validate a calculator to assess prognosis and treatment.

METHODS

We searched the National Cancer Database to identify patients with adrenocortical carcinoma surgically treated from 2004 to 2020 and randomly allocated them into a training (80%) or validation set (20%). We analyzed the variables of age; sex; Charlson Comorbidity Index; insurance status; tumor size; pathologic tumor, node, and metastasis categories; surgical margins; and use of chemotherapy and radiation therapy. We used Cox regression prediction models and bootstrap coefficients to generate a mathematical model to predict 5- and 10-year overall survival. After using the area under the curve analysis to assess the model's performance, we compared overall survival in the training and validation sets.

RESULTS

Multivariable analysis of the 3,480 patients included in the study revealed that all variables were significant except sex (P < .05) and incorporated into a mathematical model. The area under the curve for 5- and 10-year overall survival was 0.68 and 0.70, respectively, for the training set and 0.70 and 0.72, respectively, for the validation set. For the bootstrap coefficients, the 5- and 10-year overall survival was 6.4% and 4.1%, respectively, above the observed mean.

CONCLUSION

Our model predicts the overall survival of patients with adrenocortical carcinoma based on clinical, pathologic, and treatment variables and can assist in individualizing treatment.

Contrast CT radiomic features add value to prediction of prognosis in adrenal cortical carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare and aggressive malignancy with poor prognosis due to high postoperative recurrence rates. The aim of this study is to develop a contrast CT radiomic feature-based prognosis prediction model for ACC and evaluate its performance by comparison with ENSAT staging system and S-GRAS score.

METHODS

Included in this study were 39 ACC patients, from which we extracted 1411 radiomic features. Using cross-validated least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression (cv-LASSO regression), we generated a radiomic index. Additionally, we further validated the radiomic index using both univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses. We constructed a radiomic nomogram that incorporated the radiomic signature and compared it with ENSAT stage and S-GRAS score in terms of calibration, discrimination and clinical usefulnes.

RESULTS

In this study, the average progression free survival (PFS) of 39 patients was 20.4 (IQR 9.1-60.1) months and the average overall survival (OS) was 57.8 (IQR 32.4-NA). The generated radiomic features were significantly associated with PFS, OS, independent of clinical-pathologic risk factors (HR 0.16, 95%CI 0.02-0.99, p = 0.05; HR 0.20, 95%CI 0.04-1.07, p = 0.06, respectively). The radiomic index, ENSAT stage, resection status, and Ki67% index incorporated nomogram exhibited better performance for both PFS and OS prediction as compared with the S-GRAS and ENSAT nomogram (C-index: 0.75 vs. C-index: 0.68, p = 0.030 and 0.67, p = 0.025; C-index: 0.78 vs. C-index: 0.72, p = 0.003 and 0.73, p = 0.006). Calibration curve analysis showed that the radiomics-based model performs best in predicting the two-year PFS and the three-year OS. Decision curve analysis demonstrated that the radiomic index nomogram outperformed the S-GRAS and ENSAT nomogram in predicting the two-year PFS and the three-year OS.

CONCLUSION

The contrast CT radiomic-based nomogram performed better than S-GRAS or ENSAT in predicting PFS and OS in ACC patients.

The Value of Local Therapies in Advanced Adrenocortical Carcinoma

International guidelines recommend local therapies (LTs) such as local thermal ablation (LTA; radiofrequency, microwave, cryoablation), transarterial (chemo)embolisation (TA(C)E), and transarterial radioembolisation (TARE) as therapeutic options for advanced adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). However, the evidence for these recommendations is scarce. We retrospectively analysed patients receiving LTs for advanced ACC. Time to progression of the treated lesion (tTTP) was the primary endpoint. The secondary endpoints were best objective response, overall progression-free survival, overall survival, adverse events, and the establishment of predictive factors by multivariate Cox analyses. A total of 132 tumoural lesions in 66 patients were treated with LTA (n = 84), TA(C)E (n = 40), and TARE (n = 8). Complete response was achieved in 27 lesions (20.5%; all of them achieved by LTA), partial response in 27 (20.5%), and stable disease in 38 (28.8%). For the LTA group, the median tTTP was not reached, whereas it was reached 8.3 months after TA(C)E and 8.2 months after TARE (p < 0.001). The median time interval from primary diagnosis to LT was >47 months. Fewer than four prior therapies and mitotane plasma levels of >14 mg/L positively influenced the tTTP. In summary, this is one of the largest studies on LTs in advanced ACC, and it demonstrates a very high local disease control rate. Thus, it clearly supports the guideline recommendations for LTs in these patients.

Incidence, Treatment, and Survival of Adrenocortical Carcinoma in Denmark 2003-2019

Objectives

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a malignant tumor originating from the adrenal cortex. The aim of the study was to report the incidence of ACC and survival of ACC in Denmark. The secondary objective was to describe the impact of treatment with mitotane on survival.

Design

Retrospective population study of patients diagnosed with ACC between 2003 and 2019 in Denmark.

Methods

Individuals at risk for ACC were identified in the national Danish Health registries, and diagnosis of ACC was confirmed by review of the health records. Data on demographics, presentation, treatment, recurrence, and death was evaluated.

Results

138 patients were included in the study with more females (59.4%) than males (40.6%). Incidence rate was 1.4 per million per year. The incidence rate ratio significantly increased only in females by 1.06 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02-1.12] per year. Overall median survival was 1.93 (95% CI: 1.24-3.00) years with no differences between males and females. The proportion of patients treated with mitotane (either as adjuvant treatment or as part of a chemotherapeutic regime) was 72.3%. Survival was significantly decreased in women not treated with mitotane compared to women treated with mitotane (either as adjuvant or as part of a chemotherapeutic regime) hazards ratio .30 (95% CI: .10-.89), adjusted for European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumours score, age at diagnosis, and year of diagnosis, but survival was unaffected by mitotane treatment in men.

Conclusion

Incidence of ACC in Denmark was 1.4 per million per year and increased in women but not in males during the study period 2003-2019.

Outcome of brain metastases from adrenocortical carcinoma: a pooled analysis

PURPOSE

Brain metastases rarely complicate the natural history of patients with adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). No information is available regarding the life expectancy and efficacy of treatments in ACC patients with brain involvement.

METHODS

A pooled analysis was performed by searching on PubMed and using the keywords: "brain metastases in adrenocortical carcinoma", and "leptomeningeal metastases in adrenocortical carcinoma". Four patients diagnosed at Spedali Civili Hospital in Brescia were added to the analysis. Data concerning demographic, disease characteristics, adopted treatments and patient prognosis were collected.

RESULTS

A total of 27 patients (18 adults and 9 children) were included in this study, 22 of them had an adequate follow-up. Brain metastases occurred late in the natural history of adult patients but not in that of children. Surgery plus/minus radiation therapy was the treatment of choice. Adult patients with brain metastases had a poor prognosis with a median progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) of 2 and 7 months, respectively. Median PFS and OS were not attained in children.

CONCLUSION

Brain metastases in ACC patients are rare and are associated with poor prognosis, particularly in adults. Surgery plus/minus radiotherapy is the only therapeutic approach that can offer patients a chance to obtain durable local disease control.

Current Evidence on Local Therapies in Advanced Adrenocortical Carcinoma

International guidelines emphasise the role of local therapies (LT) for the treatment of advanced adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). However, large studies are lacking in this field. Therefore, we performed a review of the literature to synthesise current evidence and develop clinical guidance. PubMed database was searched for systematic literature. We identified 119 potentially relevant articles, of which 21 could be included in our final analysis. All were retrospective and reported on 374 patients treated with LT for advanced ACC (12 studies on radiotherapy, 3 on transarterial chemoembolisation and radioembolisation, 4 on image-guided thermal ablation [radiofrequency, microwave ablation, and cryoablation, and two studies reporting treatment with several different LT]). Radiotherapy was frequently performed with palliative intention. However, in most patients, disease control and with higher dosage also partial responses could be achieved. Data for other LT were more limited, but also point towards local disease control in a significant percentage of patients. Very few studies tried to identify factors that are predictive on response. Patients with a disease-free interval after primary surgery of more than 9 months and lesions<5 cm might benefit most. Underreporting of toxicities may be prevalent, but LT appear to be relatively safe overall. Available evidence on LT for ACC is limited. LT appears to be safe and effective in cases with limited disease and should be considered depending on local expertise in a multidisciplinary team discussion.

Impact of EDP-M on survival of patients with metastatic adrenocortical carcinoma: A population-based study

INTRODUCTION

Historically, stage IV adrenocortical carcinoma (mACC) has a poor prognosis with a median overall survival (OS) of only 5 months. Based on the FIRM-ACT trial published in 2012, guidelines now advise first line systemic treatment with etoposide, cisplatin, doxorubicin and mitotane (EDP-M). The effect of EDP-M on patient survival in clinical practice in the Netherlands is unknown.

METHODS

The data of all patients with mACC (2005-2020) were obtained from the Netherlands comprehensive cancer organization (IKNL). The effect of EDP-M on patient survival was assessed using Kaplan-Meier analysis and multivariate Cox regression analysis including clinical, therapy and tumor characteristics.

RESULTS

In total 167 patients with mACC were included. For patients diagnosed from 2014 onwards, EDP-M (in 22 patients (22%)) lead to a numerically but not statistically significant improved OS compared to those not receiving EDP-M (11.8 vs 5.6 months, p = 0.525). For systemic treatments, patients treated with mitotane only had the best 5-year OS (11.4%, p = 0.006) regardless of year of diagnosis. In multivariate Cox regression analysis EPD-M was not associated with OS; palliative adrenalectomy (HR: 0.26, p = <.001) and local treatment of metastases (HR: 0.35, p = 0.001) were associated with a better OS and a primary tumor Ki-67 index > 20% (HR: 2.67, p = 0.003) with a worse OS from 2014 onwards. Patients diagnosed before 2014 had a significantly poorer OS compared to from 2014 onwards (5-yr: 4.5 vs 8.4%, OS: 6.8 vs 8.3 months, p = 0.032).

CONCLUSION

OS for mACC in the Netherlands has improved in the last decade. Receiving EDP-M did not significantly improve OS for patients with mACC. The use of multimodality treatment including palliative adrenalectomy, mitotane and local treatment of (oligo-)metastases in appropriately selected patients has improved the OS for mACC patients since 2014.

Radiopharmaceuticals for Treatment of Adrenocortical Carcinoma

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) represents a rare tumor entity with limited treatment options and usually rapid tumor progression in case of metastatic disease. As further treatment options are needed and ACC metastases are sensitive to external beam radiation, novel theranostic approaches could complement established therapeutic concepts. Recent developments focus on targeting adrenal cortex-specific enzymes like the theranostic twin [123/131I]IMAZA that shows a good image quality and a promising therapeutic effect in selected patients. But other established molecular targets in nuclear medicine such as the C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) could possibly enhance the therapeutic regimen as well in a subgroup of patients. The aims of this review are to give an overview of innovative radiopharmaceuticals for the treatment of ACC and to present the different molecular targets, as well as to show future perspectives for further developments since a radiopharmaceutical with a broad application range is still warranted.

Advances in translational research of the rare cancer type adrenocortical carcinoma

Adrenocortical carcinoma is a rare malignancy with an annual worldwide incidence of 1-2 cases per 1 million and a 5-year survival rate of <60%. Although adrenocortical carcinoma is rare, such rare cancers account for approximately one third of patients diagnosed with cancer annually. In the past decade, there have been considerable advances in understanding the molecular basis of adrenocortical carcinoma. The genetic events associated with adrenocortical carcinoma in adults are distinct from those of paediatric cases, which are often associated with germline or somatic TP53 mutations and have a better prognosis. In adult primary adrenocortical carcinoma, the main somatic genetic alterations occur in genes that encode proteins involved in the WNT-β-catenin pathway, cell cycle and p53 apoptosis pathway, chromatin remodelling and telomere maintenance pathway, cAMP-protein kinase A (PKA) pathway or DNA transcription and RNA translation pathways. Recently, integrated molecular studies of adrenocortical carcinomas, which have characterized somatic mutations and the methylome as well as gene and microRNA expression profiles, have led to a molecular classification of these tumours that can predict prognosis and have helped to identify new therapeutic targets. In this Review, we summarize these recent translational research advances in adrenocortical carcinoma, which it is hoped could lead to improved patient diagnosis, treatment and outcome.

High Filamin a Expression in Adrenocortical Carcinomas Is Associated with a Favourable Tumour Behaviour: A European Multicentric Study

The insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) promotes cell growth by overactivating the IGF system in an autocrine loop in adrenocortical carcinomas (ACCs). The cytoskeleton protein filamin A (FLNA) acts as a repressor of IGF2 mitogenic signalling in ACC cells. The aims of this study were to test FLNA expression by immunohistochemistry in 119 ACCs and 26 adrenocortical adenomas (ACAs) and to evaluate its relationship with clinicopathological features and outcome in ACCs. We found that 71.4% of ACCs did not express FLNA, whereas FLNA absence was a rare event in ACAs (15.4%, p < 0.001 vs. ACCs). In addition, the expression of FLNA was associated with a less aggressive tumour behaviour in ACCs. Indeed, the subgroup of ACCs with high FLNA showed a lower ENSAT stage, Weiss score, and S-GRAS score compared to ACCs with low FLNA expression (p < 0.05). Moreover, patients with high FLNA had a longer overall survival than those with low FLNA (p < 0.05). In conclusion, our data suggest that FLNA may represent a "protective" factor in ACCs, and the integration of FLNA immunohistochemical expression in ACC tissues along with other clinical and molecular markers could be helpful to improve diagnostic accuracy and prognosis prediction in ACCs.

Adjuvant mitotane versus surveillance in low-grade, localised adrenocortical carcinoma (ADIUVO): an international, multicentre, open-label, randomised, phase 3 trial and observational study

BACKGROUND

Adjuvant treatment with mitotane is commonly used after resection of adrenocortical carcinoma; however, treatment remains controversial, particularly if risk of recurrence is not high. We aimed to assess the efficacy and safety of adjuvant mitotane compared with surveillance alone following complete tumour resection in patients with adrenocortical carcinoma considered to be at low to intermediate risk of recurrence.

METHODS

ADIUVO was a multicentre, open-label, parallel, randomised, phase 3 trial done in 23 centres across seven countries. Patients aged 18 years or older with adrenocortical carcinoma and low to intermediate risk of recurrence (R0, stage I-III, and Ki67 ≤10%) were randomly assigned to adjuvant oral mitotane two or three times daily (the dose was adjusted by the local investigator with the target of reaching and maintaining plasma mitotane concentrations of 14-20 mg/L) for 2 years or surveillance alone. All consecutive patients at 14 study centres fulfilling the eligibility criteria of the ADIUVO trial who refused randomisation and agreed on data collection via the European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumors adrenocortical carcinoma registry were included prospectively in the ADIUVO Observational study. The primary endpoint was recurrence-free survival, defined as the time from randomisation to the first radiological evidence of recurrence or death from any cause (whichever occurred first), assessed in all randomly assigned patients by intention to treat. Overall survival, defined as time from the date of randomisation to the date of death from any cause, was a secondary endpoint analysed by intention to treat in all randomly assigned patients. Safety was assessed in all patients who adhered to the assigned regimen, which was defined by taking at least one tablet of mitotane in the mitotane group and no mitotane at all in the surveillance group. The ADIUVO trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT00777244, and is now complete.

FINDINGS

Between Oct 23, 2008, and Dec 27, 2018, 45 patients were randomly assigned to mitotane and 46 to surveillance alone. Because the study was discontinued prematurely, 5-year recurrence-free and overall survival are reported instead of recurrence-free and overall survival as defined in the protocol. 5-year recurrence-free survival was 79% (95% CI 67-94) in the mitotane group and 75% (63-90) in the surveillance group (hazard ratio 0·74 [95% CI 0·30-1·85]). Two people in the mitotane group and five people in the surveillance group died, and 5-year overall survival was not significantly different (95% [95% CI 89-100] in the mitotane group and 86% [74-100] in the surveillance group). All 42 patients who received mitotane had adverse events, and eight (19%) discontinued treatment. There were no grade 4 adverse events or treatment-related deaths.

INTERPRETATION

Adjuvant mitotane might not be indicated in patients with low-grade, localised adrenocortical carcinoma considering the relatively good prognosis of these patients, and no significant improvement in recurrence-free survival and treatment-associated toxicity in the mitotane group. However, the study was discontinued prematurely due to slow recruitment and cannot rule out an efficacy of treatment.

FUNDING

AIFA, ENSAT Cancer Health F2-2010-259735 programme, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Cancer Research UK, and the French Ministry of Health.

New Findings on Presentation and Outcome of Patients With Adrenocortical Cancer: Results From a National Cohort Study

CONTEXT

Because of the rarity of adrenocortical cancer (ACC), only a few population-based studies are available, and they reported limited details in the characterization of patients and their treatment.

OBJECTIVE

To describe in a nationwide cohort the presentation of patients with ACC, treatment strategies, and potential prognostic factors.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of 512 patients with ACC, diagnosed in 12 referral centers in Italy from January 1990 to June 2018.

RESULTS

ACC diagnosed as incidentalomas accounted for overall 38.1% of cases, with a frequency that increases with age and with less aggressive pathological features than symptomatic tumors. Women (60.2%) were younger than men and had smaller tumors, which more frequently secreted hormones. Surgery was mainly done with an open approach (72%), and after surgical resection, 62.7% of patients started adjuvant mitotane therapy. Recurrence after tumor resection occurred in 56.2% of patients. In patients with localized disease, cortisol secretion, ENSAT stage III, Ki67%, and Weiss score were associated with an increased risk of recurrence, whereas margin-free resection, open surgery, and adjuvant mitotane treatment were associated with reduced risk. Death occurred in 38.1% of patients and recurrence-free survival (RFS) predicted overall survival (OS). In localized disease, age, cortisol secretion, Ki67%, ENSAT stage III, and recurrence were associated with increased risk of mortality. ACCs presenting as adrenal incidentalomas showed prolonged RFS and OS.

CONCLUSION

Our study shows that ACC is a sex-related disease and demonstrates that an incidental presentation is associated with a better outcome. Given the correlation between RFS and OS, RFS may be used as a surrogate endpoint in clinical studies.

Feasibility and Activity of Megestrol Acetate in Addition to Etoposide, Doxorubicin, Cisplatin, and Mitotane as First-Line Therapy in Patients with Metastatic/Unresectable Adrenocortical Carcinoma with Low Performance Status

(1) Background: The standard first-line therapy for advanced adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is represented by EDP-M (etoposide, doxorubicin, cisplatin + mitotane). Progestins have shown cytotoxic activity both in vitro and in vivo on ACC; better EDP-M tolerability and efficacy have been hypnotized due to the association with progestins. (2) Methods: The feasibility and tolerability of EDP-M combined with oral megestrol acetate (EDP-MM) were tested in 24 patients (pts) affected by metastatic ACC with a low performance status (PS); the case group was compared with a 48 pts control group according to the propensity score. The secondary objectives were clinical benefit rate (CBR), progression-free survival (PFS), and overall survival (OS). (3) Results: Thirteen pts (54.2%) in the EDP-MM population experienced progestin-related toxicities; in particular, five pts experienced vaginal bleeding (20.8%); four pts experienced weight gain (16.7%); and thromboembolic events, worsening of hypertension, skin rashes, and hyperglycemia were registered in one patient each (4.2%). This led to the discontinuation of megestrol acetate in four pts (16.7%). EDP-M-related toxicities were similar in both groups. No differences in PFS and OS curves were observed; the CBR was 75.0% and 60.4%, respectively. (4) Conclusions: The association of EDP-M + megestrol acetate in ACC pts with a low PS is feasible and well tolerated; its efficacy appeared to be non-inferior to EDP-M administered to pts with a good PS.

Adrenocortical carcinoma: Diagnosis, prognostic classification and treatment of localized and advanced disease

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare cancer with an estimated incidence of 0.7 to 2.0 cases per 1 million population per year in the United States. It is an aggressive cancer originating in the cortex of the adrenal gland with a poor prognosis. The 5-year survival rate is less than 15% among patients with metastatic disease. In this article, we review the epidemiology and pathogenesis of ACC, the diagnostic procedures, the prognostic classification of ACC, and the treatment options from localized and resectable forms to advanced disease detailing recent therapeutic developments such as immunotherapy and molecularly targeted therapy.

ESMO/ASCO Recommendations for a Global Curriculum in Medical Oncology Edition 2023

The European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO) and ASCO are publishing a new edition of the ESMO/ASCO Global Curriculum (GC) with contributions from more than 150 authors. The purpose of the GC is to provide recommendations for the training of physicians in medical oncology and to establish a set of educational standards for trainees to qualify as medical oncologists. This edition builds on prior ones in 2004, 2010, and 2016 and incorporates scientific advances and input from an ESMO ASCO survey on GC adoption conducted in 2019, which revealed that GC has been adopted or adapted in as many as two thirds of the countries surveyed. To make GC even more useful and applicable, certain subchapters were rearranged into stand-alone chapters, that is, cancer epidemiology, diagnostics, and research. In line with recent progress in the field of multidisciplinary cancer care new (sub)chapters, such as image-guided therapy, cell-based therapy, and nutritional support, were added. Moreover, this edition includes an entirely new chapter dedicated to cancer control principles, aiming to ensure that medical oncologists are able to identify and implement sustainable and equitable cancer care, tailored to local needs and resources. Besides content renewal, modern didactic principles were introduced. GC content is presented using two chapter templates (cancer-specific and non-cancer-specific), with three didactic points (objectives, key concepts, and skills). The next step is promoting GC as a contemporary and comprehensive document applicable all over the world, particularly due to its capacity to harmonize education in medical oncology and, in so doing, help to reduce global disparities in cancer care.

Locally Advanced Adrenocortical Carcinoma in Children and Adolescents-Enigmatic and Challenging Cases

BACKGROUND

Locally advanced tumors account for approximately 50% of children and adolescents with adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC), and of these, up to 50% relapse. We explored the five-item microscopic score and the pS-GRAS score for guiding management.

METHODS

Data from children and adolescents with COG stage II and III ACC registered in the MET studies were included. The five-item and pS-GRAS score were retrospectively calculated.

RESULTS

By December 2021, 55 patients with stage II and III (stage II n = 18, stage III n = 37) had been reported. Median age was 4.3 years [0.1-17.8], median duration of follow-up 6.0 years [0-16.7]. 3-year event-free survival (EFS) rate was 76.5% and 49.8% (p = 0.088), respectively. In stage II tumors, neither the five-item score (p = 0.872) nor pS-GRAS grouping (p = 0.218) had any effect as prognostic factors. In stage III patients, EFS was impaired in tumors with unfavorable histology according to the five-item score (100% vs. 30.8%, p = 0.018). No difference was observed for pS-GRAS groups (p = 0.798).

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with COG stage III, but not stage II, the five-item score affected EFS. Further studies are needed to identify patients at risk in COG stage II.

Metabolic heterogeneity in adrenocortical carcinoma impacts patient outcomes

Spatially resolved metabolomics enables the investigation of tumoral metabolites in situ. Inter- and intratumor heterogeneity are key factors associated with patient outcomes. Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is an exceedingly rare tumor associated with poor survival. Its clinical prognosis is highly variable, but the contributions of tumor metabolic heterogeneity have not been investigated thus far to our knowledge. An in-depth understanding of tumor heterogeneity requires molecular feature-based identification of tumor subpopulations associated with tumor aggressiveness. Here, using spatial metabolomics by high-mass resolution MALDI Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry imaging, we assessed metabolic heterogeneity by de novo discovery of metabolic subpopulations and Simpson's diversity index. After identification of tumor subpopulations in 72 patients with ACC, we additionally performed a comparison with 25 tissue sections of normal adrenal cortex to identify their common and unique metabolic subpopulations. We observed variability of ACC tumor heterogeneity and correlation of high metabolic heterogeneity with worse clinical outcome. Moreover, we identified tumor subpopulations that served as independent prognostic factors and, furthermore, discovered 4 associated anticancer drug action pathways. Our research may facilitate comprehensive understanding of the biological implications of tumor subpopulations in ACC and showed that metabolic heterogeneity might impact chemotherapy.

Performance of DNA-based biomarkers for classification of adrenocortical carcinoma: a prognostic study

OBJECTIVE

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare aggressive malignancy with heterogeneous clinical outcomes. Recent studies proposed a combination of clinical/histopathological parameters (S-GRAS score) or molecular biomarkers (BMs) to improve prognostication. We performed a comparative analysis of DNA-based BMs by evaluating their added prognostic value to the S-GRAS score.

DESIGN AND METHODS

A total of 194 formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) ACC samples were analysed, including a retrospective training cohort (n = 107) and a prospective validation cohort (n = 87). Targeted DNA sequencing and pyrosequencing were used to detect somatic single-nucleotide variations in ACC-specific genes and methylation in the promoter region of paired box 5 (PAX5). The European Network for the Study of Adrenocortical Tumors (ENSAT) tumour stage, age, symptoms at presentation, resection status, and Ki-67 were combined to calculate S-GRAS. Endpoints were overall (OS), progression-free (PFS), and disease-free survival (DFS). Prognostic role was evaluated by multivariable survival analysis and their performance compared by Harrell's concordance index (C index).

RESULTS

In training cohort, an independent prognostic role was confirmed at multivariate analysis for two DNA-based BMs: alterations in Wnt/β-catenin and Rb/p53 pathways and hypermethylated PAX5 (both P< .05 for PFS and DFS, hazard ratio [HR] 1.47-2.33). These were combined to S-GRAS to obtain a combined (COMBI) score. At comparative analysis, the best discriminative prognostic model was COMBI score in both cohorts for all endpoints, followed by S-GRAS score (C index for OS 0.724 and 0.765, PFS 0.717 and 0.670, and DFS 0.699 and 0.644, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Targeted DNA-based BM evaluated on routinely available FFPE samples improves prognostication of ACC beyond routinely available clinical and histopathological parameters. This approach may help to better individualise patient's management.

miRNAs orchestration of adrenocortical carcinoma - Particular emphasis on diagnosis, progression and drug resistance

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is an uncommon aggressive endocrine malignancy that is nonetheless associated with significant mortality and morbidity rates because of endocrine and oncological consequences. Recent genome-wide investigations of ACC have advanced our understanding of the disease, but substantial obstacles remain to overcome regarding diagnosis and prognosis. MicroRNAs (miRNAs, miRs) play a crucial role in the development and metastasis of a wide range of carcinomas by regulating the expression of their target genes through various mechanisms causing translational repression or messenger RNA (mRNA) degradation. Along with miRNAs in the adrenocortical cancerous tissue, circulating miRNAs are considered barely invasive diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers of ACC. miRNAs may serve as treatment targets that expand the rather-limited therapeutic repertoire in the field of ACC. Patients with advanced ACC still have a poor prognosis when using the available treatments, despite a substantial improvement in understanding of the illness over the previous few decades. Accordingly, in this review, we provide a crucial overview of the recent studies in ACC-associated miRNAs regarding their diagnostic, prognostic, and potential therapeutic relevance.

[Guidelines of the French National ENDOCAN-COMETE, Association of Endocrine Surgery, Society of Urology for the management of adrenocortical carcinoma]

The adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a primary malignant tumor developed from the adrenal cortex, defined by a Weiss score≥3. Its prognosis is poor and depends mainly on the stage of the disease at diagnosis. Care is organized in France by the multidisciplinary expert centers of the national ENDOCAN-COMETE "Adrenal Cancers" network, certified by the National Cancer Institute. This document updates the guidelines for the management of ACC in adults based on the most robust data in the literature. It's divided into 11 chapters: (1) circumstances of discovery; (2) pre-therapeutic assessment; (3) diagnosis of ACC; (4) oncogenetics; (5) prognostic classifications; (6) treatment of hormonal hypersecretion; (7) treatment of localized forms; (8) treatment of relapses; (9) treatment of advanced forms; (10) follow-up; (11) the particular case of ACC and pregnancy. R0 resection of all localized ACC remains an unmet need and it must be performed in expert centers. Flow-charts for the therapeutic management of localized ACC, relapse or advanced ACC are provided. It was written by the experts from the national ENDOCAN-COMETE network and validated by all French Societies involved in the management of these patients (endocrinology, medical oncology, endocrine surgery, urology, pathology, genetics, nuclear medicine, radiology, interventional radiology).

A Revised Version of the TNM Classification Leads to Optimized Predictive Performance in Patients with Adrenocortical Carcinoma

The prognostic stratification of the current AJCC/UICC TNM classification for adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) has been validated in only a few studies. In this study, it was hypothesized that redefining the T category cut-off would result in a significant improvement in estimated stage-related survival. In 935 patients with ACC from the SEER database, optimal cut-off values based on tumor size were first determined to redefine T1 and T2 categories. Cox proportional hazards regression analysis and receiver operating characteristics (ROC) were then used to determine the prognostic value of the revised version. A new cut-off value of 9.5 cm tumor size was established to differentiate between T1 and T2 tumors, leading to a revised TNM classification. As a result, a more homogeneous distribution of patients with ACC across all stages was observed. Notably, the predictive value of the newly proposed TNM classification in the ROC analysis exceeded that of the 7th and 8th editions of the AJCC/UICC classification system. Finally, the prognostic superiority of the revised TNM classification was confirmed in a multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression model. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that updating the current staging system with revised T1 and T2 categories significantly improves the prediction of cancer-specific survival (CSS) in patients with ACC.

Efficacy and safety of radiation therapy in advanced adrenocortical carcinoma

BACKGROUND

International guidelines emphasise the role of radiotherapy (RT) for the management of advanced adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). However, the evidence for this recommendation is very low.

METHODS

We retrospectively analysed all patients who received RT for advanced ACC in five European centres since 2000.

PRIMARY ENDPOINT

time to progression of the treated lesion (tTTP). Secondary endpoints: best objective response, progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), adverse events, and the establishment of predictive factors by Cox analyses.

RESULTS

In total, 132 tumoural lesions of 80 patients were treated with conventional RT (cRT) of 50-60 Gy (n = 20) or 20-49 Gy (n = 69), stereotactic body RT of 35-50 Gy (SBRT) (n = 36), or brachytherapy of 12-25 Gy (BT) (n = 7). Best objective lesional response was complete (n = 6), partial (n = 52), stable disease (n = 60), progressive disease (n = 14). Median tTTP was 7.6 months (1.0-148.6). In comparison to cRT20-49Gy, tTTP was significantly longer for cRT50-60Gy (multivariate adjusted HR 0.10; 95% CI 0.03-0.33; p < 0.001) and SBRT (HR 0.31; 95% CI 0.12-0.80; p = 0.016), but not for BT (HR 0.66; 95% CI 0.22-1.99; p = 0.46). Toxicity was generally mild and moderate with three grade 3 events. No convincing predictive factors could be established.

CONCLUSIONS

This largest published study on RT in advanced ACC provides clear evidence that RT is effective in ACC.

The management of postoperative disease recurrence in patients with adrenocortical carcinoma: a retrospective study in 106 patients

OBJECTIVE

The management of adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) recurrences remains controversial, and we present herein our experience with postoperative ACC recurrences.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Retrospective analysis in a single reference center of 106 patients with ACC recurrence.

RESULTS

The median follow-up was 45 months, the median recurrence-free survival (RFS) 12 months (IQR 6-23), and the median overall survival (OS) 45 months (IQR 29-75). ACC recurrences occurred as a unique lesion (group A) in 35.8%, multiple lesions in a single organ (group B) in 20.8%, and affecting multiple organs (group C) in 43.4% of patients. Baseline characteristics of patients stratified by the type of recurrence did not differ between them, except RFS, which was significantly longer in group A. Locoregional treatments were used in 100% of patients of group A, 68.2% in group B, and 26.1% in group C. After treatment of recurrence, 60.4% of patients became free of disease attaining a second RFS of 15 months (IQR 6-64). Margin status RX and R1, percent increase in Ki67, and recurrence in multiple organs were associated with an increased risk of mortality, while adjuvant mitotane treatment and longer time to first recurrence were associated with reduced risk. Recurrence in multiple organs and systemic treatment of recurrence had a negative impact on survival from the treatment of recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that patients with ACC have a better prognosis when the disease recurs as a single lesion and supports the use of locoregional treatments to treat disease recurrence.

Approach to Fine Needle Aspiration of Adrenal Gland Lesions

Adrenal gland lesions are present in 1% to 5% of patients and are most commonly identified incidentally on abdominal imaging. Fine needle aspiration (FNA) cytology plays an important role in the initial workup of adrenal gland nodules, especially in patients with a known history of malignancy. The most common reason for adrenal gland FNA is to differentiate benign adrenal lesions, such as adrenal cortical adenoma, from metastatic malignancy. However, there is a significant cytomorphologic overlap between primary and metastatic adrenal neoplasms. This review focuses on the current state of adrenal gland FNA cytology, with an emphasis on distinguishing adrenocortical adenoma from carcinoma and adrenal cortical neoplasms from metastatic malignancies. The role of immunohistochemistry in specifically diagnosing adrenal neoplasms is discussed. Proposed diagnostic classification systems for adrenal gland FNA cytology are also described.

Prognostic Role of Targeted Methylation Analysis in Paraffin-embedded Samples of Adrenocortical Carcinoma

CONTEXT

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare aggressive disease with heterogeneous prognoses. Previous studies identified hypermethylation in the promoter region of specific genes to be associated with poor clinical outcome.

OBJECTIVE

Comparative analysis of promising hypermethylated genes as prognostic markers and evaluation of their added value to established clinical prognostic tools.

DESIGN

We included 237 patients with ACCs. Tumor DNA was isolated from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) samples. Targeted pyrosequencing was used to detect promoter region methylation in 5 preselected genes (PAX5, GSTP1, PYCARD, PAX6, G0S2). The prognostic role of hypermethylation pattern was compared with the Stage, Grade, Resection status, Age, Symptoms (S-GRAS) score. Primary endpoints were progression-free (PFS) and overall survival (OS), with disease-free (DFS) as secondary endpoint.

RESULTS

A total of 27.9%, 13.9%, 49%, 49%, and 25.3% of cases showed hypermethylation in PAX5, GSTP1, PYCARD, PAX6, and G0S2, respectively. Hypermethylation in all individual genes-except GSTP1-was significantly associated with both PFS and OS-with hazard ratios (HR) between 1.4 and 2.3. However, only hypermethylation of PAX5 remained significantly associated with OS (P = 0.013; HR = 1.95, 95% CI, 1.2-3.3) in multivariable analysis. A model for risk stratification was developed, combining PAX5 methylation status and S-GRAS groups, showing improved prognostic performance compared to S-GRAS alone (Harrell's C index: OS = 0.751, PFS = 0.711, DFS = 0.688).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that hypermethylation in PAX5 is associated with worst clinical outcome in ACC, even after accounting for S-GRAS score. Assessing methylation in FFPE material is straightforward in the clinical setting and could be used to improve accuracy of prognostic classification, enabling the direction of personalized management.

New endpoints in adrenocortical carcinoma studies: a mini review

PURPOSE

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a very rare and aggressive malignant disease. Therefore, overall survival (OS) has long been considered as the best endpoint. Yet, a unique endpoint is not optimal to take into account the heterogeneity in tumor profile and the diversification of therapeutic option. The purpose of this mini review was to describe endpoints used in the past, present and future in the field of ACC.

METHODS

Pubmed and Clinicaltrial.gov were used to identify relevant studies.

RESULTS

Before year 2000 only three endpoints were regularly used: OS, recurrence-free survival (RFS) and response rate. These endpoints were used because ACC was seen as a homogeneous diseases with a high recurrence rate and low rate of long-term survival. Since 2000; along with the apparition of new class of drug, progression-free survival (PFS) has been more and more used. Other endpoints as "time to chemotherapy" or "Progression-free survival 2" were used to evaluate multimodal therapies or treatment with a delayed action. Finally, there is a hope that in the near future, quality of life along with other patient-reported outcomes may be used more frequently.

CONCLUSION

While OS and PFS are currently the most used endpoints in ACC, new endpoints are needed to better take into account the challenges offered by different situations and treatment strategies.

MicroRNAs and Long Non-Coding RNAs in Adrenocortical Carcinoma

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are a type of genetic material that do not encode proteins but regulate the gene expression at an epigenetic level, such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). The role played by ncRNAs in many physiological and pathological processes has gained attention during the last few decades, as they might be useful in the diagnosis, treatment and management of several human disorders, including endocrine and oncological diseases. Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare and aggressive endocrine cancer, still characterized by high mortality and morbidity due to both endocrine and oncological complications. Despite the rarity of this disease, recently, the role of ncRNA has been quite extensively evaluated in ACC. In order to better explore the role of the ncRNA in human ACC, this review summarizes the current knowledge on ncRNA dysregulation in ACC and its potential role in the diagnosis, treatment, and management of this tumor.

Phase II study of cabazitaxel as second-third line treatment in patients with metastatic adrenocortical carcinoma

Background

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare and aggressive malignancy with a poor prognosis. No efficacious treatment options are currently available for patients with advanced metastatic disease with disease progression to standard etoposide, doxorubicin, cisplatin and mitotane (EDP-M) therapy. We assessed the activity and tolerability of cabazitaxel as a second/third-line approach in metastatic ACC.

Patients and methods

Patients included in this single-center, phase II study (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT03257891) had disease progression to a cisplatin-containing regimen (such as EDP) plus mitotane, plus/minus a further chemotherapy line. Cabazitaxel was administered intravenously at 25 mg/m² on day 1 of a 21-day cycle, for a maximum of six cycles. The primary endpoint was a disease control rate after 4 months.

Results

From March 2018 to September 2019, 25 eligible patients were enrolled. A disease control rate after 4 months was obtained in six patients (24%). No patients attained a disease response according to RECIST 1.1, 9 patients (36%) had stable disease and 16 patients (64%) progressive disease. Median progression-free survival and overall survival were 1.5 months (range 0.3-7 months) and 6 months (range 1-22.2 months), respectively. Cabazitaxel therapy was well tolerated and only three (12%) patients developed grade 3 toxicity which were nausea in one patient (4%) and anemia in two patients (8%).

Conclusions

Cabazitaxel has a manageable toxicity profile but is poorly active as second/third-line treatment in advanced ACC patients. These results do not support further evaluation of cabazitaxel in this setting.

•

Cabazitaxel is well tolerated but poorly active as second/third-line treatment in patients with advanced ACC.

•

Combining RECIST and Choi criteria could be of value in the assessment of disease response to chemotherapy in ACC patients.

•

Older age, elevated cortisol and LDH blood level correlate with a greater risk of death in multivariate analysis.

Overview of the 2022 WHO Classification of Adrenal Cortical Tumors

The new WHO classification of adrenal cortical proliferations reflects translational advances in the fields of endocrine pathology, oncology and molecular biology. By adopting a question-answer framework, this review highlights advances in knowledge of histological features, ancillary studies, and associated genetic findings that increase the understanding of the adrenal cortex pathologies that are now reflected in the 2022 WHO classification. The pathological correlates of adrenal cortical proliferations include diffuse adrenal cortical hyperplasia, adrenal cortical nodular disease, adrenal cortical adenomas and adrenal cortical carcinomas. Understanding germline susceptibility and the clonal-neoplastic nature of individual adrenal cortical nodules in primary bilateral macronodular adrenal cortical disease, and recognition of the clonal-neoplastic nature of incidentally discovered non-functional subcentimeter benign adrenal cortical nodules has led to redefining the spectrum of adrenal cortical nodular disease. As a consequence, the most significant nomenclature change in the field of adrenal cortical pathology involves the refined classification of adrenal cortical nodular disease which now includes (a) sporadic nodular adrenocortical disease, (b) bilateral micronodular adrenal cortical disease, and (c) bilateral macronodular adrenal cortical disease (formerly known primary bilateral macronodular adrenal cortical hyperplasia). This group of clinicopathological entities are reflected in functional adrenal cortical pathologies. Aldosterone producing cortical lesions can be unifocal or multifocal, and may be bilateral with no imaging-detected nodule(s). Furthermore, not all grossly or radiologically identified adrenal cortical lesions may be the source of aldosterone excess. For this reason, the new WHO classification endorses the nomenclature of the HISTALDO classification which uses CYP11B2 immunohistochemistry to identify functional sites of aldosterone production to help predict the risk of bilateral disease in primary aldosteronism. Adrenal cortical carcinomas are subtyped based on their morphological features to include conventional, oncocytic, myxoid, and sarcomatoid subtypes. Although the classic histopathologic criteria for diagnosing adrenal cortical carcinomas have not changed, the 2022 WHO classification underscores the diagnostic and prognostic impact of angioinvasion (vascular invasion) in these tumors. Microscopic angioinvasion is defined as tumor cells invading through a vessel wall and forming a thrombus/fibrin-tumor complex or intravascular tumor cells admixed with platelet thrombus/fibrin. In addition to well-established Weiss and modified Weiss scoring systems, the new WHO classification also expands on the use of other multiparameter diagnostic algorithms (reticulin algorithm, Lin-Weiss-Bisceglia system, and Helsinki scoring system) to assist the workup of adrenal cortical neoplasms in adults. Accordingly, conventional carcinomas can be assessed using all multiparameter diagnostic schemes, whereas oncocytic neoplasms can be assessed using the Lin-Weiss-Bisceglia system, reticulin algorithm and Helsinki scoring system. Pediatric adrenal cortical neoplasms are assessed using the Wieneke system. Most adult adrenal cortical carcinomas show > 5 mitoses per 10 mm² and > 5% Ki67. The 2022 WHO classification places an emphasis on an accurate assessment of tumor proliferation rate using both the mitotic count (mitoses per 10 mm²) and Ki67 labeling index which play an essential role in the dynamic risk stratification of affected patients. Low grade carcinomas have mitotic rate of ≤ 20 mitoses per 10 mm², whereas high-grade carcinomas show > 20 mitoses per 10 mm². Ki67-based tumor grading has not been endorsed in the new WHO classification, since the proliferation indices are continuous variables rather than being static thresholds in tumor biology. This new WHO classification emphasizes the role of diagnostic and predictive biomarkers in the workup of adrenal cortical neoplasms. Confirmation of the adrenal cortical origin of a tumor remains a critical requirement when dealing with non-functional lesions in the adrenal gland which may be mistaken for a primary adrenal cortical neoplasm. While SF1 is the most reliable biomarker in the confirmation of adrenal cortical origin, paranuclear IGF2 expression is a useful biomarker in the distinction of malignancy in adrenal cortical neoplasms. In addition to adrenal myelolipoma, the new classification of adrenal cortical tumors has introduced new sections including adrenal ectopia, based on the potential role of such ectopic tissue as a possible source of neoplastic proliferations as well as a potential mimicker of metastatic disease. Adrenal cysts are also discussed in the new classification as they may simulate primary cystic adrenal neoplasms or even adrenal cortical carcinomas in the setting of an adrenal pseudocyst.

Mitotane treatment in adrenocortical carcinoma: mechanisms of action and predictive markers of response to therapy

INTRODUCTION

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare malignancy with a high risk of recurrence even in cases with complete surgical tumor resection. Mitotane represents the cornerstone of the adjuvant therapy as well as the first line of medical treatment in advanced cases. However, evidence on mitotane efficacy is mostly based on retrospective studies and the use of mitotane continues to represent a clinical challenge.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

Mitotane causes selective damage to adrenocortical cells, causing an increase of cell apoptosis through a disruption of mitochondria and the induction of the endoplasmic reticulum stress. Different clinical and molecular markers predicting response to mitotane have been proposed with uncertain results. Attainment of mitotane plasma levels within the target range of 14 to 20 mg/L represent the strongest predictor of mitotane effectiveness both in adjuvant and advanced tumor setting. The occurrence of late recurrence after primary ACC diagnosis and changes in metabolic activity on FDG-PET are only weakly associated with mitotane response. Among the proposed molecular markers associated with mitotane efficacy, the investigation of the CYP2W1*6 and CYP2B6*6 single nucleotide polymorphisms appears to be currently the most promising predictive molecular markers of mitotane therapy. However, none of the evaluated markers has been validated for clinical use.

CONCLUSIONS

In the era of precision medicine, a better insight into mitotane molecular mechanisms as well as the potential use in the daily clinical practice of clinical parameters and molecular markers predicting the individual response to mitotane are urgently needed.