The role of GSK3 and its reversal with GSK3 antagonism in everolimus resistance

Mechanisms of Resistance in Gastroenteropancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors

Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (GEP-NETs), although curable when localized, frequently metastasize and require management with systemic therapies, including somatostatin analogues, peptide receptor radiotherapy, small-molecule targeted therapies, and chemotherapy. Although effective for disease control, these therapies eventually fail as a result of primary or secondary resistance. For small-molecule targeted therapies, the feedback activation of the targeted signaling pathways and activation of alternative pathways are prominent mechanisms, whereas the acquisition of additional genetic alterations only rarely occurs. For somatostatin receptor (SSTR)-targeted therapy, the heterogeneity of tumor SSTR expression and dedifferentiation with a downregulated expression of SSTR likely predominate. Hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment and stromal constituents contribute to resistance to all modalities. Current studies on mechanisms underlying therapeutic resistance and options for management in human GEP-NETs are scant; however, preclinical and early-phase human studies have suggested that combination therapy targeting multiple pathways or novel tyrosine kinase inhibitors with broader kinase inhibition may be promising.

Metastatic medullary thyroid carcinoma: a new way forward

Medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) is a rare malignancy comprising 1-2% of all thyroid cancers in the United States. Approximately 20% of cases are familial, secondary to a germline RET mutation, while the remaining 80% are sporadic and also harbour a somatic RET mutation in more than half of all cases. Up to 15-20% of patients will present with distant metastatic disease, and retrospective series report a 10-year survival of 10-40% from time of first metastasis. Historically, systemic therapies for metastatic MTC have been limited, and cytotoxic chemotherapy has demonstrated poor objective response rates. However, in the last decade, targeted therapies, particularly multitargeted tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), have demonstrated prolonged progression-free survival in advanced and progressive MTC. Both cabozantinib and vandetanib have been approved as first-line treatment options in many countries; nevertheless, their use is limited by high toxicity rates and dose reductions are often necessary. New generation TKIs, such as selpercatinib or pralsetinib, that exhibit selective activity against RET, have recently been approved as a second-line treatment option, and they exhibit a more favourable side-effect profile. Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy or immune checkpoint inhibitors may also constitute potential therapeutic options in specific clinical settings. In this review, we aim to present all current therapeutic options available for patients with progressive MTC, as well as new or as yet experimental treatments.

Biomarkers of everolimus efficacy in breast cancer therapy

OBJECTIVE

Everolimus is an inhibitor of serine/ threonine kinase mTOR. The drug is approved for the treatment of metastatic ER positive, HER2 negative breast cancers and benefits a subset of patients with these breast cancers in combination with hormonal therapies. Despite extensive efforts, no additional predictive biomarkers to guide therapeutic decisions for everolimus have been introduced in clinical practice.

DATA SOURCES

This paper discusses predictive biomarkers for everolimus efficacy in breast cancer. A search of the medline and web of science databases was performed using the words "everolimus" and "biomarkers". References of retrieved articles were manually scanned for additional relevant articles.

DATA SUMMARY

Everolimus benefits a subset of patients with metastatic ER positive, HER2 negative breast cancers in combination with hormonal therapies. Despite extensive efforts no additional predictive biomarkers to guide therapeutic decisions for everolimus therapy have been confirmed for use in clinical practice. However, promising biomarker leads for everolimus efficacy in breast cancer have been suggested and include expression of proteins in the mTOR pathway in ER positive, HER2 negative breast cancers. In HER2 positive cancers PIK3CA mutations, and PTEN expression loss are prognostic. Other clinical predictive biomarkers with more limited data include characteristics derived from whole genome sequencing, subsets of circulating leukocytes and changes in Standardized Uptake Values (SUV) of Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans.

CONCLUSIONS

Putative predictive biomarkers for everolimus efficacy in breast cancer patients, both genomic and clinical, deserve further study and could lead to a better selection of responsive patients.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3β participates in acquired resistance to gemcitabine in pancreatic cancer

Acquisition of resistance to gemcitabine is a challenging clinical and biological hallmark property of refractory pancreatic cancer. Here, we investigated whether glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β, an emerging therapeutic target in various cancer types, is mechanistically involved in acquired resistance to gemcitabine in human pancreatic cancer. This study included 3 gemcitabine-sensitive BxPC-3 cell-derived clones (BxG30, BxG140, BxG400) that acquired stepwise resistance to gemcitabine and overexpressed ribonucleotide reductase (RR)M1. Treatment with GSK3β-specific inhibitor alone attenuated the viability and proliferation of the gemcitabine-resistant clones, while synergistically enhancing the efficacy of gemcitabine against these clones and their xenograft tumors in rodents. The gemcitabine-resensitizing effect of GSK3β inhibition was associated with decreased expression of RRM1, reduced phosphorylation of Rb protein, and restored binding of Rb to the E2 transcription factor (E2F)1. This was followed by decreased E2F1 transcriptional activity, which ultimately suppressed the expression of E2F1 transcriptional targets including RRM1, CCND1 encoding cyclin D1, thymidylate synthase, and thymidine kinase 1. These results suggested that GSK3β participates in the acquisition of gemcitabine resistance by pancreatic cancer cells via impairment of the functional interaction between Rb tumor suppressor protein and E2F1 pro-oncogenic transcription factor, thereby highlighting GSK3β as a promising target in refractory pancreatic cancer. By providing insight into the molecular mechanism of gemcitabine resistance, this study identified a potentially novel strategy for pancreatic cancer chemotherapy.

Does the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib sensitize to DNA-damaging therapy in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms? - A preclinical assessment in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Well-differentiated gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms are rare tumors with a slow proliferation. They are virtually resistant to many DNA-damaging therapeutic approaches, such as chemo- and external beam therapy, which might be overcome by DNA damage inhibition induced by proteasome inhibitors such as bortezomib.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, we assessed several combined treatment modalities in vitro and in vivo. By cell-based functional analyses, in a 3D in ovo and an orthotopic mouse model, we demonstrated sensitizing effects of bortezomib combined with cisplatin, radiation and peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT). By gene expression profiling and western blot, we explored the underlying mechanisms, which resulted in an impaired DNA damage repair. Therapy-induced DNA damage triggered extrinsic proapoptotic signaling as well as the induction of cell cycle arrest, leading to a decreased vital tumor volume and altered tissue composition shown by magnetic resonance imaging and F-18-FDG-PET in vivo, however with no significant additional benefit related to PRRT alone.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated that bortezomib has short-term sensitizing effects when combined with DNA damaging therapy by interfering with DNA repair in vitro and in ovo. Nevertheless, due to high tumor heterogeneity after PRRT in long-term observations, we were not able to prove a therapeutic advantage of bortezomib-combined PRRT in an in vivo mouse model.

Metformin and Everolimus: A Promising Combination for Neuroendocrine Tumors Treatment

Introduction: Treatment options for neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) are rarely curative, as NETs frequently show resistance to medical therapy. The use of everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, is limited by the development of resistance, probably due to the activation of Akt signaling. In this context, the antidiabetic drug metformin is able to inhibit mTOR, providing a rationale for the use of metformin and everolimus in combination. Methods: We investigated the effects of the metformin and everolimus combination on NET cell proliferation, apoptosis, colony formation, cell viability, NET spheroids growth and the involvement of the Akt and mTOR pathways, and also developed everolimus-resistant NET cells to further study this combination. Results: Metformin and everolimus in combination are more effective than monotherapy in inhibiting pancreatic NET (PAN-NET) cell proliferation (−71% ± 13%, p < 0.0001 vs. basal), whereas no additive effects were observed on pulmonary neuroendocrine tumor (PNT) cell proliferation. The combinatorial treatment is more effective than monotherapy in inhibiting colony formation, cell viability, NET spheroids growth rate and mTOR phosphorylation in both NET cell lines. In a PAN-NET cell line, metformin did not affect Akt phosphorylation; conversely, it significantly decreased Akt phosphorylation in a PNT cell line. Using everolimus-resistant NET cells, we confirmed that metformin maintained its effects, acting by two different pathways: Akt-dependent or independent, depending on the cell type, with both leading to mTOR suppression. Conclusions: Considering the promising effects of the everolimus and metformin combination in NET cells, our results provide a rationale for its use in NET patients.

Potential therapeutic effect of targeting glycogen synthase kinase 3β in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is a common gastrointestinal cancer and is often refractory to current therapies. Development of efficient therapeutic strategies against ESCC presents a major challenge. Glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)3β has emerged as a multipotent therapeutic target in various diseases including cancer. Here we investigated the biology and pathological role of GSK3β in ESCC and explored the therapeutic effects of its inhibition. The expression of GSK3β and tyrosine (Y)216 phosphorylation-dependent activity was higher in human ESCC cell lines and primary tumors than untransformed esophageal squamous TYNEK-3 cells from an ESCC patient and tumor-adjacent normal esophageal mucosa. GSK3β-specific inhibitors and small interfering (si)RNA-mediated knockdown of GSK3β attenuated tumor cell survival and proliferation, while inducing apoptosis in ESCC cells and their xenograft tumors in mice. GSK3β inhibition spared TYNEK-3 cells and the vital organs of mice. The therapeutic effect of GSK3β inhibition in tumor cells was associated with G0/G1- and G2/M-phase cell cycle arrest, decreased expression of cyclin D1 and cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)4 and increased expression of cyclin B1. These results suggest the tumor-promoting role of GSK3β is via cyclin D1/CDK4-mediated cell cycle progression. Consequently, our study provides a biological rationale for GSK3β as a potential therapeutic target in ESCC.

Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β in Cancer Biology and Treatment

Glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)3β is a multifunctional serine/threonine protein kinase with more than 100 substrates and interacting molecules. GSK3β is normally active in cells and negative regulation of GSK3β activity via phosphorylation of its serine 9 residue is required for most normal cells to maintain homeostasis. Aberrant expression and activity of GSK3β contributes to the pathogenesis and progression of common recalcitrant diseases such as glucose intolerance, neurodegenerative disorders and cancer. Despite recognized roles against several proto-oncoproteins and mediators of the epithelial–mesenchymal transition, deregulated GSK3β also participates in tumor cell survival, evasion of apoptosis, proliferation and invasion, as well as sustaining cancer stemness and inducing therapy resistance. A therapeutic effect from GSK3β inhibition has been demonstrated in 25 different cancer types. Moreover, there is increasing evidence that GSK3β inhibition protects normal cells and tissues from the harmful effects associated with conventional cancer therapies. Here, we review the evidence supporting aberrant GSK3β as a hallmark property of cancer and highlight the beneficial effects of GSK3β inhibition on normal cells and tissues during cancer therapy. The biological rationale for targeting GSK3β in the treatment of cancer is also discussed at length.

Increased autophagy/mitophagy levels in primary tumours of patients with pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms

BACKGROUND/AIMS

We assessed the levels of autophagy and mitophagy, that are linked to cancer development and drug resistance, in well differentiated pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (PanNENs) and correlated them with clinico-pathological parameters.

METHODS

Fluorescent immunostaining for the autophagy markers LC3Β and p62/or LAMP1 was performed on 22 PanNENs and 11 controls of normal pancreatic tissues and validated through Western blotting. Autophagy quantitative scoring was generated for LC3B-positive puncta and analysed in relation to clinico-pathological parameters. TOMM20/LC3B qualitative assessment of mitophagy levels was undertaken by fluorescent immunostaining. The presence of autophagy/mitophagy was validated by transmission electron microscopy.

RESULTS

Autophagy levels (LC3B-positive puncta/cell) were discriminative for normal vs. NEN pancreatic tissue (p = 0.007). A significant association was observed between autophagy levels and tumour grade (Ki67 < 3% vs. Ki67 ≥ 3%; p = 0.021), but not functionality (p = 0.266) size (cut-off of 20 mm; p = 0.808), local invasion (p = 0.481), lymph node- (p = 0.849) and distant metastases (p = 0.699). Qualitative assessment of TOMM20/LC3B demonstrated strong mitophagy levels in PanNENs by fluorescent immunostaining as compared with normal tissue. Transmission electron microscopy revealed enhanced autophagy and mitophagy in PanNEN tissue. Response to molecular targeted therapies in metastatic cases (n = 4) did not reveal any patterns of association to autophagy levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased autophagy levels are present in primary tumours of patients with PanNENs and are partially attributed to upregulated mitophagy. Grade was the only clinico-pathological parameter associated with autophagy scores.

The Altered Metabolic Molecular Signatures Contribute to the RAD001 Resistance in Gastric Neuroendocrine Tumor

Although the inhibition of mTOR is a promising treatment for neuroendocrine tumors, several questions are still open for cell specificity and resistance. With the newly characterized gastric neuroendocrine tumor mouse model (CEA424-SV40 T antigen transgenic mice), the anti-tumor efficiency of RAD001 (Everolimus) was tested both in vitro and in vivo. Tumor samples were analyzed for the expression of RNA by cDNA microarrays and also signaling pathways to get more details on the local surviving or selected cells. RAD001 treatment dramatically slowed down tumor growth and prolonged the animals' survival. This inhibitory effect has a preference for tumor cells since gastrointestinal hormone and neuroendocrine tumor specific markers were more reduced than the epithelial ones. While phosphorylation of p70S6K was almost completely blocked both in vitro and in vivo, the phosphorylation of 4EBP1 was only partially inhibited in vitro and unaffected in vivo. RAD001 treatment induced feedback activation of metabolism related pathways like PI(3)K–Akt–mTOR and MEK/ERK signalings. An induction of senescence as well as differential expression of genes responsible for metabolism was also observed, which highlighted the contribution of metabolic molecular signatures to the escape of the tumor cells from the treatment. Together, our data revealed efficient anti-tumor ability of RAD001 in a new gastric neuroendocrine tumor mouse model system and offered new insights into the clinical aspects of the incomplete elimination of tumor cells in patients treated.

c-MET as a Potential Resistance Mechanism to Everolimus in Breast Cancer: From a Case Report to Patient Cohort Analysis

BACKGROUND

We describe in a patient with breast cancer the change in c-MET expression during everolimus treatment, opening a better understanding of the resistance to everolimus and a role for cabozantinib.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to evaluate c-MET as a potential predictive biomarker for everolimus efficacy in breast cancer.

METHODS

We first selected a patient with breast cancer with a long-lasting response to everolimus and retrospectively profiled biopsies that were taken before everolimus initiation (Biopsy 1) and at progression on everolimus (Biopsy 2) using amplicon sequencing and immunohistochemistry. We then retrospectively evaluated c-MET expression in a cohort of patients with breast cancer treated with everolimus.

RESULTS

While not expressed in Biopsy 1, c-MET was highly expressed in Biopsy 2, suggesting a role for c-MET in breast cancer progression. Cabozantinib resulted in a rapid radiological response in this patient. Twenty-nine patients were included (12 c-MET-positive and 17 c-MET-negative patients) in the second part of the study. Baseline c-MET expression was associated with higher tumor grade, higher frequency of visceral metastases, and lower endocrine sensitivity. The c-MET-positive patients presented with a shorter progression-free survival (6.1 vs 10.5 months, respectively; p = 0.002) and a lower response rate (0% vs 12%) to everolimus, compared with c-MET-negative patients.

CONCLUSIONS

c-MET could play a role in the resistance to everolimus and its inhibition should be evaluated in breast cancer.

Inhibition of Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling in Neuroendocrine Tumors in vitro: Antitumoral Effects

Background and aims: Inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling by specific inhibitors is currently being investigated as an antitumoral strategy for various cancers. The role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in neuroendocrine tumors still needs to be further investigated. Methods: This study investigated the antitumor activity of the porcupine (PORCN) inhibitor WNT974 and the β-catenin inhibitor PRI-724 in human neuroendocrine tumor (NET) cell lines BON1, QGP-1, and NCI-H727 in vitro. NET cells were treated with WNT974, PRI-724, or small interfering ribonucleic acids against β-catenin, and subsequent analyses included cell viability assays, flow cytometric cell cycle analysis, caspase3/7 assays and Western blot analysis. Results: Treatment of NET cells with WNT974 significantly reduced NET cell viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner by inducing NET cell cycle arrest at the G1 and G2/M phases without inducing apoptosis. WNT974 primarily blocked Wnt/β-catenin signaling by the dose- and time-dependent downregulation of low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6) phosphorylation and non-phosphorylated β-catenin and total β-catenin, as well as the genes targeting the latter (c-Myc and cyclinD1). Furthermore, the WNT974-induced reduction of NET cell viability occurred through the inhibition of GSK-3-dependent or independent signaling (including pAKT/mTOR, pEGFR and pIGFR signaling). Similarly, treatment of NET cells with the β-catenin inhibitor PRI-724 caused significant growth inhibition, while the knockdown of β-catenin expression by siRNA reduced NET tumor cell viability of BON1 cells but not of NCI-H727 cells. Conclusions: The PORCN inhibitor WNT974 possesses antitumor properties in NET cell lines by inhibiting Wnt and related signaling. In addition, the β-catenin inhibitor PRI-724 possesses antitumor properties in NET cell lines. Future studies are needed to determine the role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in NET as a potential therapeutic target.

mTOR Pathway in Gastroenteropancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumor (GEP-NETs)

Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (GEP-NENs) originate from neuroendocrine cells in the gastrointestinal tract. They are heterogeneous, and though initially considered rare tumors, the incidence of GEP-NENs has increased in the last few decades. Therapeutic approaches for the metastatic disease include surgery, radiological intervention by chemoembolisation, radiofrequency ablation, biological therapy in addition to somatostatin analogs, and PRRT therapy (177Lu-DOTATATE). The PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway is essential in the regulation of protein translation, cell growth, and metabolism. Evidence suggests that the mTOR pathway is involved in malignant progression and resistance to treatment through over-activation of several mechanisms. PI3K, one of the main downstream of the Akt-mTOR axis, is mainly involved in the neoplastic process. This pathway is frequently deregulated in human tumors, making it a central target in the development of new anti-cancer treatments. Recent molecular studies identify potential targets within the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in GEP-NENs. However, the use of target therapy has been known to lead to resistance due to several mechanisms such as feedback activation of alternative pathways, inactivation of protein kinases, and deregulation of the downstream mTOR components. Therefore, the specific role of targeted drugs for the management of GEP-NENs is yet to be well-defined. The variable clinical presentation of advanced neuroendocrine tumors is a significant challenge for designing studies. This review aims to highlight the role of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in the development of neuroendocrine tumors and further specify its potential as a therapeutic target in advanced stages.

Synergistic Highly Potent Targeted Drug Combinations in Different Pheochromocytoma Models Including Human Tumor Cultures

There are no officially approved therapies for metastatic pheochromocytomas apart from ultratrace 131I-metaiodbenzylguanidine therapy, which is approved only in the United States. We have, therefore, investigated the antitumor potential of molecular-targeted approaches in murine pheochromocytoma cell lines [monocyte chemoattractant protein (MPC)/monocyte chemoattractant protein/3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT)], immortalized mouse chromaffin Sdhb-/- cells, three-dimensional pheochromocytoma tumor models (MPC/MTT spheroids), and human pheochromocytoma primary cultures. We identified the specific phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase α inhibitor BYL719 and the mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor everolimus as the most effective combination in all models. Single treatment with clinically relevant doses of BYL719 and everolimus significantly decreased MPC/MTT and Sdhb-/- cell viability. A targeted combination of both inhibitors synergistically reduced MPC and Sdhb-/- cell viability and showed an additive effect on MTT cells. In MPC/MTT spheroids, treatment with clinically relevant doses of BYL719 alone or in combination with everolimus was highly effective, leading to a significant shrinkage or even a complete collapse of the spheroids. We confirmed the synergism of clinically relevant doses of BYL719 plus everolimus in human pheochromocytoma primary cultures of individual patient tumors with BYL719 attenuating everolimus-induced AKT activation. We have thus established a method to assess molecular-targeted therapies in human pheochromocytoma cultures and identified a highly effective combination therapy. Our data pave the way to customized combination therapy to target individual patient tumors.

Anti-tumour activity of everolimus and sunitinib in neuroendocrine neoplasms

Comparisons between everolimus and sunitinib regarding their efficacy and safety in neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are scarce. We retrospectively analysed the clinicopathological characteristics and outcomes in 92 patients with well-differentiated (WD) NEN of different origin (57 pancreatic NENs (PanNENs)), treated with molecular targeted therapy (MTT) with everolimus or sunitinib, first- (73:19) or second-line (sequential; 12:22) for progressive disease. Disease control rates (DCR: partial response or stable disease) at first-line were higher in all patients treated with everolimus than sunitinib (64/73 vs 12/19, P = 0.012). In PanNENs, DCR at first-line everolimus was 36/42 versus 9/15 with sunitinib (P = 0.062). Progression-free survival (PFS) at first-line everolimus was longer than sunitinib (31 months (95% CI: 23.1-38.9) vs 9 months (95% CI: 0-18.5); log-rank P < 0.0001) in the whole cohort and the subset of PanNENs (log-rank P < 0.0001). Median PFS at second-line MTT was 12 months with everolimus (95% CI: 4.1-19.9) vs 13 months with sunitinib (95% CI: 9.3-16.7; log-rank P = 0.951). Treatment with sunitinib (HR: 3.47; 95% CI: 1.5-8.3; P value: 0.005), KI67 >20% (HR: 6.38; 95% CI: 1.3-31.3; P = 0.022) and prior chemotherapy (HR: 2.71; 95% CI: 1.2-6.3; P = 0.021) were negative predictors for PFS at first line in multivariable and also confirmed at multi-state modelling analyses. Side effect (SE) analysis indicated events of serious toxicities (Grades 3 and 4: n = 13/85 for everolimus and n = 4/41 for sunitinib). Discontinuation rate due to SEs was 20/85 for everolimus versus 4/41 for sunitinib (P = 0.065). No additive toxicity of second-line MTT was confirmed. Based on these findings, and until reliable predictors of response become available, everolimus may be preferable to sunitinib when initiating MTT in progressive NENs.

Resistance to targeted treatment of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is part of the phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt)/mTOR signaling. The PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway has a pivotal role in the oncogenesis of neuroendocrine tumors (NETs). In addition, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) drive angiogenesis in NETs and therefore contributes to neuroendocrine tumor development. Hence, mTOR and angiogenesis inhibitors have been developed. Everolimus, a first-generation mTOR inhibitor, has shown significant survival benefit in advanced gastroenteropancreatic NETs. Sunitinib, a pan-tyrosine kinase inhibitor that targets the VEGF receptor, has proven to increase progression-free survival in advanced pancreatic NETs. Nevertheless, primary and acquired resistance to rapalogs and sunitinib has limited the clinical benefit for NET patients. Despite the identification of multiple molecular mechanisms of resistance, no predictive biomarker has made it to the clinic. This review is focused on the mTOR signaling and angiogenesis in NET, the molecular mechanisms of primary and acquired resistance to everolimus and sunitinib and how to overcome this resistance by alternative drug compounds.